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Chapter 01 – The Entrepreneurial Mind-Set
Chapter 01
THE ENTREPRENEURIAL MIND-SET
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
01: To introduce the concept of entrepreneurship and explain the process of entrepreneurial action.
02: To describe how structural similarities enable entrepreneurs to make creative mental leaps.
03: To highlight bricolage as a source of entrepreneurs’ resourcefulness.
04: To introduce effectuation as a way expert entrepreneurs sometimes think.
05: To develop the notion that entrepreneurs cognitively adapt
06: To introduce sustainable entrepreneurship as a means of sustaining the natural environment and
communities and developing gains for others.
1-2
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES
OPENING PROFILE— Ewing Marion Kauffman

I. THE NATURE OF Learning Objective 01
ENTREPRENEURSHIP To introduce the concept of
entrepreneurship and explain the
A. Entrepreneurial actions begin at the nexus of a process of entrepreneurial action.
lucrative opportunity and an enterprising
K EY
individual. T ER M
In the Press: A key question that all Entrepreneurial opportunities

. B. An entrepreneurial opportunity could stem
would-be entrepreneurs face is finding the Those situations in which new goods,
from introducing an existing technological business opportunity that is right for them. services, raw materials and organizing
product used in one market to create a new In this article, Raffi Amit, a professor of methods can be introduced and sold at
market or it could be creating a new management at Wharton, offers insights greater than their cost of production.
into how entrepreneurs can identify new
technological product for an existing market or business opportunities and evaluate their
creating a new product for a new market. potential risks. (Knowledge@Wharton
“How Entrepreneurs Identify New
1. Because opportunities exist in high Opportunities” Forbes.com, November 11,
uncertainty, entrepreneurs must use their 2009
http://www.forbes.com/2009/11/11/identify-
judgment about whether or not to act. K EY
new-opportunities-entrepreneurs- T ER M
2. The individual’s prior knowledge can wharton.html
Entrepreneurial action
decrease the amount of uncertainty.
Action through the creation of new
C. The McMullen-Shepherd model explains how products/ processes and/or the entry
into new markets, which may occur
knowledge and motivation influence two stages
through a newly created organization or
of entrepreneurial action. within an established organization
1. Signals of changes in the environment that
represent possible opportunities will be
Figure 1.1 “Entrepreneurial Action”
noticed by some individuals but not others. The McMullen-Shepherd model.
1-3
2. Individuals with knowledge of markets and AS SEEN IN BUSINESS NEWS: Do

Entrepreneurs Benefit From Paranoia?
technology are more capable of detecting
changes in the external environment, and if
motivated will allocate further attention to
processing this information.
3. The result of Stage 1 is an individual’s Entrepreneur in Action: Chaliyuan is a
K EY
Chinese firm that came up with the idea T ER M
realization that an opportunity exists for for “shouji jiayouzhan” or cell phone gas
someone. stations, a kiosk that can recharge your Entrepreneurial thinking
cell phone in 10 minutes. The firm began Individuals’ mental processes of
4. The result of Stage 2 is the individual then in 2000 and grew to 70 employees in just overcoming ignorance to decide
needs to determine whether it represents an 4 years. (Shi, Ting “A Gas Pump for 300 whether a signal represents an
Million Phones” Business 2.0 June 2005 opportunity for someone and/or
opportunity for him or her.
pg. 78, ) reducing doubt as to whether an
D. To be an entrepreneur is to act on the possibility opportunity for someone is also an
opportunity for them specifically, and/or
that one has identified an opportunity worth
processing feedback from action steps
pursuing and it involves entrepreneurial taken
thinking.
II. HOW ENTREPRENEURS THINK

A. Entrepreneurs think differently than
nonentrepreneurs.
B. They often make decisions in highly uncertain
environments, with high stakes and immense
time pressures.
C. Given this decision-making environment, he or
she needs to think structurally, engage in
bricolage, effectuate, and cognitively adapt.
1-4
D. Forming opportunity beliefs often requires

creative mental leaps launched from one’s Learning Objective 02
To describe how structural similarities
existing knowledge. enable entrepreneurs to make creative
1. The creative mental leap could be from mental leaps.
knowledge about a technology to a new

K EY
market that could benefit from its T ER M
introduction. Superficial similarities

Exist when the basic (relatively easy to
2. Making these connections between a new observe) elements of the technology
product and a new target market is aided by resemble (match) the basic (relatively
the superficial similarities and structural easy to observe) elements of the
market
similarities between the source (e.g., the K EY
The text uses the example of NASA’s flight T ER M
market) and the destination (e.g.,
simulator sensor system that helps shuttle
technology). pilots focus, pay attention, and Structural similarities
concentrate for extended periods. The Exist when the underlying mechanisms
3. The entrepreneurial challenge often lies in system shares high levels of structural of the technology resemble (or match)
making mental leaps based on structural similarities with the target market of the underlying mechanisms of the
similarities. parents seeking non-pharmaceutical market
alternatives to treat ADHD.
E. Bricolage
Learning Objective 03
1. Entrepreneurs often lack resources, so they To highlight bricolage as a source of
seek resources from others to provide the entrepreneurs’ resourcefulness
slack necessary to experiment and generate
entrepreneurial opportunities or engage in
bricolage. K EY
T ER M
2. Bricolage refers to taking existing resources Bricolage

and experimenting, tinkering, repackaging,
and/or reframing them so that they can be
1-5
used in a way for which they were not The text uses the example of the farmer Entrepreneurs making do by applying
whose land held abandoned coal mines combinations of the resources at hand
originally designed or conceived. full of methane gas. The farmer tapped to new problems and opportunities
3. From this process of “making do,” the methane for use and profit. He sold
the excess power to the local utility
entrepreneurs can create opportunities. company and used the methane to heat a
greenhouse for hydroponic tomatoes and Learning Objective 04
F. Effectuation later, tropical fish. To introduce effectuation as a way
1. A causal process involves thinking of a expert entrepreneurs sometimes think
desired outcome and then coming up with a K EY

T ER M
plan to achieve that outcome. Discussion point: It’s Friday night. Use
causal process to decide what to do this Causal process
2. The effectuation process looks at what a weekend: A student has $50 that is A process that starts with a desired
person has and then selects from several unallocated to any necessary expense. outcome and focuses on the means to
possible outcomes. He/she has access to a car with a full tank generate that outcome
of gas and a laptop with unlimited web
a. Entrepreneurs use the effectuation access. His/her roommate is away for the K EY
process. weekend. He/she has a term paper due on T ER M
Monday that is 75% done. There is a job

b. Causal and effectuation processes are fair on campus Tuesday where over 100 Effectuation process
A process that starts with what one has
illustrated with Sarasvathy’s “Curry in a employers will be seeking interns, and full
(who they are, what they know, and
time, permanent employees. Use
Hurry” example. effectuation process to determine possible whom they know) and selects among
weekend outcomes. possible outcomes
i. Causal process example uses
Kotler’s STP – segmentation
targeting and positioning – process.
ii. The effectuation process allows for
building several different sorts of
firms in disparate industries.
c. Effectuation allows entrepreneurs to
think in periods of high uncertainty.
1-6
d. Most managers of firms need to take an

entrepreneurial mind-set so their firms K EY
T ER M
can successfully adapt to changes.
e. To develop this mindset individuals must Entrepreneurial mind-set
In the Press: Jim Clark is a serial Involves the ability to rapidly sense, act,
attempt to make sense of opportunities, entrepreneur, having founded Silicon and mobilize, even under uncertain
constantly question “dominant logic,” Graphics, Netscape, and another six or so conditions
startups. In an interview, he was asked
and revisit what they think is true about what traits he thought an entrepreneur
markets and firms. should have. His answer: discontent and
anxiety. You have to not be happy with the
G. Cognitive Adaptability way things are and you have to be afraid
1. To be good at effectuation, individuals must that someone else will solve the problem Learning Objective 05
before you do. (Copeland, Michael V., To develop the notion that
develop a cognitive adaptability. Malik, Om, & Schonfeld, Erick “Do This, entrepreneurs cognitively adapt.
a. Cognitive adaptability describes the Get Rich” Business 2.0, May 2005, pg. 78)
extent to which entrepreneurs are K EY

T ER M
dynamic, flexible, self-regulating, and

Cognitive adaptability
engaged in the process of generating Describes the extent to which
multiple decision frameworks focused on Entrepreneur in Action: Only a college entrepreneurs are dynamic, flexible,
sensing and processing changes in their student, Mark Zuckerberg created self-regulating, and engaged in the
Thefacebook.com. Although it has much process of generating multiple decision
environments and then acting on them. frameworks focused on sensing and
fewer members than comparable sites
b. It is reflected in an entrepreneur’s such as Myspace.com, college students processing changes in their
like the fact that the members are all their environments and then acting on them
metacognitive awareness, that is, the
peers and not just random people and that
ability to reflect upon, understand, and it offers ways to set up personal Table 1.1 Mike Haynie’s “Measure of
control one’s thinking and learning. interactions on their own campus. (Malik, Adaptive Cognition”
Om “Scoring a Hit with the Student Body” How cognitively adaptable are you? Try
c. Learn to be more cognitive by asking Business 2.0, June 2005, pg. 76) the survey in Table 1.1 and compare
questions in four areas: yourself to classmates or colleagues.
1-7
i. Comprehension questions are

General comprehension questions may
designed to increase entrepreneurs’
include: What is this market all about?
understanding of the nature of the What is this technology all about? What
K EY
environment before they begin to do we want to achieve by creating this T ER M
new firm? What are the key elements to
address an entrepreneurial challenge,
effectively pursue this opportunity? Comprehension questions
whether it be a change in the Questions designed to increase
environment or the assessment of a entrepreneurs’ understanding of the
nature of the environment
potential opportunity. K EY
Connection tasks questions may include: T ER M
ii. Connection tasks are designed to How is this new environment similar to
stimulate the entrepreneur to think others in which I have operated? How is it Connection tasks
different? How is this new organization Tasks designed to stimulate
about the current situation in terms of similar to the established organizations I entrepreneurs to think about the current
similarities to and differences from have managed? How is it different? situation in terms of similarities to and
situations previously faced and differences from situations previously
faced and solved
solved.
K EY
T ER M
iii. Strategic tasks prompt entrepreneurs The entrepreneur may ask strategic tasks
to think about which strategies are questions such as: What changes to Strategic tasks
strategic position, organizational structure, Tasks designed to stimulate
appropriate for solving the problem and culture will help us manage our entrepreneurs to think about which
(and why) or pursuing the newness? How can the implementation of strategies are appropriate for solving
opportunity (and how). this strategy be made feasible? the problem (and why) or pursing the
opportunity (and how)
iv. Reflection tasks stimulate
entrepreneurs to think about their Reflection tasks questions an K EY
T ER M
entrepreneur may ask include: What
understanding and feelings as they difficulties will we have in convincing our
progress through the process. They Reflection tasks
stakeholders? Is there a better way to
Tasks designed to stimulate
prompt entrepreneurs to generate implement our strategy? How will we
entrepreneurs to think about their
know success if we see it?
their own feedback (create a understanding and feelings as they
feedback loop in their solution
1-8
process) to provide the opportunity to progress through the entrepreneurial

process
change.
d. Entrepreneurs able to increase cognitive
adaptability are better able to adapt to
new situations, be creative, and
communicate their reasons behind a
particular response.
III. THE INTENTION TO ACT Discussion point: Ask how many in the
ENTREPRENEURIALLY classroom intend to be entrepreneurs at
some point in their life. Probably all will
A. Entrepreneurial action is most often intentional agree. Then ask how confident they are
that they will succeed – use a scale of 1 to
as they intend to pursue certain opportunities, 10. Why? For those with lower scores, ask
enter new markets, and offer new products. what they might do to be able to increase
their confidence.
B. Individuals have stronger intentions to act when K EY
T ER M
taking action is perceived to be feasible and
desirable. Entrepreneurial intentions can be Entrepreneur in Action: Paul Newman is Entrepreneurial intentions
certainly a man who could throw a lot of
explained the same way. The motivational factors that influence
money at whatever entrepreneurial
venture he chose to form. However, when individuals to pursue entrepreneurial
C. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy refers to the he finally got his Newman’s Own salad outcomes
dressings started, he outfitted his office
conviction that one can successfully execute the with furniture from his pool area, in storage K EY
behavior required. as the season was over. When the T ER M
business was still successful the following

1. People who believe they have the capacity to spring, he kept the pool furniture and Entrepreneurial self-efficacy
allowed his wife to buy new for their home. The conviction that one can
perform tend to do the task well (high self- (From the book Shameless Exploitation in successfully execute the
efficacy). Pursuit of the Common Good by Paul entrepreneurial process
Newman and A. E. Hotchner 2003 as
2. Self-efficacy affects the person’s choice of quoted in “Newman’s Own Story” Time
November 2003
action and the amount of effort exerted. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/
1-9
D. Perceived desirability refers to an individual’s article/0,9171,1006144,00.html) K EY

T ER M
For example, creative actions are not likely
attitude toward entrepreneurial action – the to emerge unless they produce personal Perceived desirability
degree to which she or he has a favorable or rewards perceived as more desirable than The degree to which an individual has a
unfavorable evaluation of the potential familiar behaviors. favorable or unfavorable evaluation of
entrepreneurial outcomes. the potential entrepreneurial outcomes
IV. ENTREPRENEUR BACKGROUND

AND CHARACTERISITCS
A. Education
1. Education is important in the upbringing of For example, entrepreneurs cite an
the entrepreneur. Its importance is reflected educational need in the areas of finance,
strategic planning, marketing (particularly
not only in the level of education obtained
distribution), and management. The ability
but also in the fact that it plays a major role to communicate clearly is also important.
in helping entrepreneurs to cope with the
problem they confront.
2. Even general education is valuable because
it facilitates the integration and accumulation
of new knowledge.
a. A broad base of knowledge allows for
the discovery or generation of potential
opportunities and assists adaptability.
b. It provides to the entrepreneur
knowledge, skills, and problem solving
abilities that are transferable across
many different situations.
1-10
B. Age
1. Entrepreneurial age refers to the age of the Discussion point: Ask students to rank
entrepreneur reflected in his or her themselves on the characteristics
mentioned in this section. Discuss in small
experience.
groups, the areas where they are weaker,
2. In terms of chronological age, most and their action plan to improve?
entrepreneurs initiate their entrepreneurial
careers between the age of 22 and 45.
C. Work History Entrepreneur in Action: Beth Cross took
on the established cowboy boot market
1. Work history can influence the decision to and in just more than 10 years has sales
launch a new entrepreneurial venture, but it of $80 million and owns nearly 17% of the
western wear market. How did she do it?
also plays a role in the growth and eventual Here’s her four rules for success: K EY
success of the new venture. 1. Find the market’s blind spot. The T ER M
boot market hadn’t really changed in
2. Experience in the areas of financing, product years and wasn’t taking advantage of Work history
the latest technologies.
and service development, manufacturing, 2. Make friends in high places. Cross
The past work experience of an
individual
development of distribution channels, and was able to get a high level Reebok
executive on her board.
preparation of a marketing plan, are 3. Pay less, charge more. Cross was
particularly important. able to outsource most of her labor
and was able to charge more for her
3. As the venture becomes established and patented technologies.
4. Create your own demand. As a
starts growing, managerial experience and startup she had no marketing budget
skills become increasingly important. and took the boots to horse shows
and rodeos in her car.
4. Most entrepreneurs indicate that their most (Copeland, Michael V. “These Boots
Really Were Made for Walking” Business
significant venture was not their first one. 2.0, October 2004 pg. 72
http://money.cnn.com/magazines/
5. Previous startup experience can provide business2/business2_archive/2004/
entrepreneurs with expertise in running an 10/01/8186646/index.htm)
1-11
independent business as well as benchmarks

for judging the relevance of information.
V. ROLE MODELS AND SUPPORT

SYSTEMS
Discussion point: Poll the class to see
A. One of the most important factors influencing how many have parents or other relatives
entrepreneurs in their career path is their choice that are role models. Are there other role
models they use as well?
of a role model.
1. Role models can be parents, relatives, or
successful entrepreneurs in the community.
2. Role models can also serve in a supportive K EY
T ER M
capacity as mentors during and after the new
venture is launched. Role models
a. This support system is most crucial Individuals whose example an
entrepreneur can aspire to and copy
during the startup phase.
b. It is important that an entrepreneur
establish connections and eventually
networks early in the venture formation
process.
3. As contacts expand, they form a network
with density (extensiveness of ties between
two individuals) and centrality (the total
distance of the entrepreneur to all other
individuals.)
a. The strength of ties between the
entrepreneur and any individual is
1-12
dependent on the frequency, level, and

reciprocity of the relationship.
b. An informal network for moral and
professional support benefits the
entrepreneur.
B. Moral-Support Network
1. It is important for the entrepreneur to
establish a moral-support network of family
K EY
and friends – a cheering squad. T ER M
2. Most entrepreneurs indicate that their Moral-support network

spouses are their biggest supporters. Individuals who give psychological
3. Friends can provide advice that is more support to an entrepreneur
honest than that received from others; they Discussion point: Have any students
also provide encouragement, understanding, begun their support networks? Who do
they now know that could be included in a
and assistance. support network?
4. Relatives can also be sources of moral
support, particularly if they are also
entrepreneurs.
C. Professional-Support Network
1. The entrepreneur also needs advice and
counsel which can be obtained from
members of a professional-support network.
K EY
T ER M
2. Most entrepreneurs indicate that they have
mentors. Professional-support network
a. The mentor is a coach, sounding board, Individuals who help the entrepreneur in
and advocate. business activities
1-13
b. The individual selected needs to be an

expert in the field.
c. An entrepreneur can initiate the “mentor-
finding process” by identifying and
contacting a number of experts.
d. The mentor should be periodically
apprised of the progress of the business
so that a relationship can gradually
develop.
3. Another source of advice is a network of
business associates.
a. Self-employed individuals who have
experience in starting a business are
good sources.
b. Clients and buyers are also important as
they provide word-of-mouth advertising.
4. Suppliers are good components of the
professional-support network—they provide
good information on trends in the industry.
5. Trade associations can help keep the new
venture competitive, as they keep up with
new developments and can provide overall
industry data.
6. Affiliations with individuals developed in
hobbies, sporting events, civic involvements,
and school alumni groups are excellent
sources of referrals, advice, and information.
1-14
D. Entrepreneurial activity is embedded in

networks of interpersonal relationships. These
networks offer:
1. Access to resources
2. Assistance in discovering and exploiting
new opportunities
3. Opportunities to exchange goods and
services
4. Perceived feasibility that strengthens
entrepreneurial intentions
VI. SUSTAINABLE
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Based on the McMullen-Shepherd model,
A. Entrepreneurial action can help us both sustain we know that entrepreneurial action is
and develop. driven by knowledge and motivation.
B. Sustainable entrepreneurship is focused on Learning Objective 06
preserving nature, life support and community in To introduce sustainable
the pursuit of perceived opportunities to bring entrepreneurship as a means of
sustaining the natural environment and
future products and services into existence for communities and developing gains for
gain. others
C. Those with greater knowledge of the natural
K EY
environment are more likely to notice changes in T ER M
that environment that form opportunity beliefs

than those with less knowledge. Sustainable entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship focused on preserving
D. It has long been accepted that entrepreneurs can nature, life support, and community
generate economic wealth for themselves, but (sustainability) in the pursuit of
perceived opportunities to bring future
their impact on development can be far greater. products, processes, and services into
existence for gain (entrepreneurial
1-15
1. Entrepreneurs can generate gains for others action) where gain is broadly construed
to include economic and noneconomic
that are economic, environmental, and benefits to individuals, the economy,
social, including employment opportunities, and society (development)
and revenues for the government.
2. The environmental gain generated for others
could be reduced air pollution, improved
drinking-water quality, and other enhanced
living conditions.
ETHICS
3. The social gains include improved child An Organization’s Code of
survival rates, longer life expectancy, Ethics
superior education, equal opportunity, and so
on.
4. It is not just the natural environment that can
be sustained, communities also need to be
preserved.
VII. IN REVIEW: SUMMARY

See “Learning Objectives Revisited” below.
1-16
LEARNING OBJECTIVES REVISITED
Learning Objective 01: To introduce the concept of entrepreneurship and explain the
process of entrepreneurial action.
• Entrepreneurial actions begin at the nexus of a lucrative opportunity and an
enterprising individual.
● An entrepreneurial opportunity could stem from introducing an existing product
in a new market or by creating a new product for an existing market.
● Since opportunities exist in high uncertainty, entrepreneurs must use their
judgment to decide whether to act or not.
● The McMullen-Shepherd model explains how knowledge and motivation
influence two stages of entrepreneurial action
● To be an entrepreneur is to act on the possibility that one has identified an
opportunity worth pursuing and it involves entrepreneurial thinking.
Learning Objective 02: To describe how structural similarities enable entrepreneurs to make
creative mental leaps.
• Forming opportunity beliefs often requires creative mental leaps, which are
launched from one’s existing knowledge.
• The creative mental leap could be from knowledge about a new technology to a
new market that could benefit from its introduction.
• The entrepreneurial challenge lies in making mental leaps based on structural
similarities.
Learning Objective 03: To highlight bricolage as a source of entrepreneurs’

resourcefulness.
• Entrepreneurs lacking resources seek them from others to provide the slack
necessary to experiment and generate entrepreneurial opportunities and engage
in bricolage.
Learning Objective 04: To introduce effectuation as a way expert entrepreneurs sometimes

think.
• Two major ways to think about tasks: causally and effectually.
1-17
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
• Causal thinking is starting with the desired outcome in mind and then focusing
on the means to achieving that outcome.
• More often, entrepreneurs think effectually, that is, by looking at what they have
– their means – and selecting among possible outcomes.
Learning Objective 05: To develop the notion that entrepreneurs cognitively adapt.
• Cognitive flexibility helps the entrepreneur when dealing with uncertainty and
can be measured and learned.
• By asking questions related to comprehension, connection, strategy, and
reflection, entrepreneurs can maintain awareness of their thought process and in
doing so develop greater cognitive adaptability.
Learning Objective 06: To introduce sustainable entrepreneurship as a means of sustaining

the natural environment and communities and developing gains for
others.
• Entrepreneurial action can help us both sustain and develop.

• Sustainable entrepreneurship is focused on preserving nature, life support and
community.
• Those with greater knowledge of the natural environment are more likely to
notice changes in the environment than form opportunity beliefs.
KEY TERMS
Bricolage: Entrepreneurs making do by applying combinations of the resources at hand to new

problems and opportunities
Causal process: A process that starts with a desired outcome and focuses on the means to
generate that outcome
Cognitive adaptability: Describes the extent to which entrepreneurs are dynamic, flexible,
self-regulating, and engaged in the process of generating multiple decision frameworks focused
on sensing and processing changes in their environments and then acting on them
Comprehension questions: Questions designed to increase entrepreneurs’ understanding of
the nature of the environment
Connection tasks: Tasks designed to stimulate entrepreneurs to think about the current
situation in terms of similarities to and differences from situations previously faced and solved
Effectuation process: A process that starts with what one has (who they are, what they know,
and whom they know) and selects among possible outcomes
1-18
Education.
Entrepreneurial action: Action through the creation of new products/ processes and/or the
entry into new markets, which may occur through a newly created organization or within an
established organization
Entrepreneurial intentions: The motivational factors that influence individuals to pursue
entrepreneurial outcomes
Entrepreneurial mind-set: Involves the ability to rapidly sense, act, and mobilize, even under
uncertain conditions
Entrepreneurial opportunities: Those situations in which new goods, services, raw materials,
and organizing methods can be introduced and sold at greater than their cost of production
Entrepreneurial self-efficacy: The conviction that one can successfully execute the
entrepreneurial process
Entrepreneurial thinking: Individuals’ mental processes of overcoming ignorance to decide
whether a signal represents an opportunity for someone and/or reducing doubt as to whether an
opportunity for someone is also an opportunity for them specifically, and/or processing
feedback from action steps taken
Moral-support network: Individuals who give psychological support to an entrepreneur
Perceived desirability: The degree to which an individual has a favorable or unfavorable
evaluation of the potential entrepreneurial outcomes
Professional-support network: Individuals who help the entrepreneur in business activities
Reflection tasks: Tasks designed to stimulate entrepreneurs to think about their understanding
and feelings as they progress through the entrepreneurial process
Role models: Individuals whose example an entrepreneur can aspire to and copy
Strategic tasks: Tasks designed to stimulate entrepreneurs to think about which strategies are
appropriate for solving the problem (and why) or pursuing the opportunity (and how)
Structural similarities: Exist when the underlying mechanisms of the technology resemble (or
match) the underlying mechanisms of the market
Superficial similarities: Exist when the basic (relatively easy to observe) elements of the
technology resemble (match) the basic (relatively easy to observe) elements of the market
Sustainable entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurship focused on preserving nature, life support,
and community (sustainability) in the pursuit of perceived opportunities to bring future
products, processes, and services into existence for gain (entrepreneurial action) where gain is
broadly construed to include economic and noneconomic benefits to individuals, the economy,
and society (development)
Work history: The past work experience of an individual
1-19
Education.
RESEARCH TASKS AND CLASS DISCUSSIONS
The text includes several topics for student research and class discussions. These questions are
open-ended, and the answers will be different for each student. There are no “correct” answers.
Research tasks:
1. Speak to people from five different countries and ask them what entrepreneurship
means to them and how their national culture helps and/or hinders entrepreneurship.
2. Ask an entrepreneur about his business today and ask him to describe the decisions
and series of events that led the business from startup to its current form. Would
you classify this process as causal, effectual, or both?
3. Ask two entrepreneurs and five students (not in this class) to fill out Mike Haynie’s
“Measure of Adaptive Cognition” (see Table 1.1). How do you rate relative to the
entrepreneurs? Relative to your fellow students?
4. When conducting a homework exercise for another class (especially a case
analysis), ask yourself compression questions, connection questions, strategy
questions, and reflection questions. What impact did this have on the outcome of
the task?
5. What impact does entrepreneurship have on your local, state (or province), and
national economies? Use data to back up your arguments.
Class Discussions
1. List the content that you believe is necessary for an entrepreneurship course. Be
prepared to justify your answer.
Answer:
The discussion should concentrate on the important entrepreneurial behavior like
initiative taking, the organizing and reorganizing of social and economic
mechanisms to bundle resources in innovative ways, and the acceptance of risk,
uncertainty and/or the potential for failure.
2. Do you really think that entrepreneurs think effectually? What about yourself—do
you sometimes think effectually? In what ways is it good? Then why are we taught
in business classes to always think causally? Are there particular problems or tasks
in which thinking causally is likely to be superior to effectuation? When might
effectuation be superior to causal thinking?
Answer:
1-20
Education.
Effectuation is a process that starts with what one has and selects among possible
outcomes. Causal process is a process that starts with a desired outcome and
focuses on the means to generate that outcome.
3. To be cognitively flexible seems to require that the entrepreneur continually

question himself or herself. Doesn’t that create a doubt that can be seen by
employees and financiers such that success actually becomes more difficult to
achieve? Besides, although flexibility is a good thing, if the firm keeps changing
based on minor changes in the environment, the buyers are going to become
confused about the nature of the firm. Is adaptation always a good thing?
Answer:
The discussion should concentrate on the advantages of being cognitively flexible
by asking oneself a series of questions that relate to (1) comprehension, (2)
connection, (3) strategy, and (4) reflection. The discussion should also focus on its
advantages in stable and uncertain business environments as well as the fact that
entrepreneurs with cognitive flexibility have the capability to learn from their
mistakes even if the venture fails.
4. Do you believe that sustainable development should be part of an entrepreneurship

course or did the textbook authors just include a section on it to be “politically
correct”?
Answer:
The discussion should focus on the concept of sustainable entrepreneurship. It
should also concentrate on the topics of sustainability, entrepreneurial action,
development and the role of entrepreneurial knowledge in turning opportunities for
sustainable development into reality.
5. Provide some examples of mental leaps that entrepreneurs have taken.
Answer:
Forming opportunity beliefs often requires creative mental leaps. These creative
mental leaps are launched from a source—one’s existing knowledge. In the case of
entrepreneurial opportunities, an example of creative mental leap is from
knowledge about existing markets to a new technology that could lead to products
or services that satisfy that market. Alternatively, a creative mental leap could be
from knowledge about a technology to a new market that could benefit from its
introduction.
1-21
Education.
6. What excites you about being an entrepreneur? What are your major concerns?
Answer:
The discussion should focus on the different kinds of entrepreneurial behavior
which includes initiative taking, the organizing and reorganizing of social and
economic mechanisms to bundle resources in innovative ways, and the acceptance
of risk, uncertainty and/or the potential for failure. Entrepreneurs must often make
decisions in highly uncertain environments where the stakes are high, time
pressures are immense, and there is considerable emotional investment. Given the
nature of an entrepreneur’s decision-making environment, the discussion should
also focus on the characteristics of entrepreneurs like being effectuate, cognitively
adaptable, and the ability to learn from failure. Lack of these characteristics can be
a major concern for entrepreneurs.
1-22
Education.
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danger in which Islam was continually placed from the risk of a
contested succession followed by renewed bloodshed. The various
objections then raised may thus be summarised: ‘We shall consent,’
the spokesmen said, ‘to any one of these three things. First, do as
the Prophet did, and leave the election absolutely to the citizens of
Medîna. Or, secondly, do as Abu Bekr did, and nominate a
successor from amongst the Coreish.[584] Or, thirdly, like Omar,
appoint Electors who shall, from amongst the same, choose a
candidate to succeed thee. Only, like Abu Bekr and Omar, thou must
exclude thine own sons and thy Father’s sons.’ ‘As for the first
course,’ replied the Caliph, ‘there is no one now left like unto Abu
Bekr, that the people might choose him. As for the rest, verily I fear
the contentions and war that would ensue were not the succession
fixed aforehand.’ Then, finding all his arguments wasted in the air, he
called out the body-guard, and at the point of the sword caused all
the city to take the oath.
The example of Syria, Irâc, and the
Holy Cities, was followed by the whole Muâvia’s action becomes
precedent for future
empire without reserve. And ever after, the successions; even among
precedent of Muâvia more or less Abassides.
prevailed; that is to say, succession to the
Caliphate was based partly on descent, partly on the choice of the
reigning Caliph, his nomination being confirmed by an oath of fealty
taken first by the inhabitants at the seat of government, and then
generally throughout the empire. The last condition, representing the
fiction that the elective power was vested in the body of the Faithful,
became almost nominal, and the oath of allegiance was
consequently enforced by force of arms against recusants. The
practice thus was for the Commander of the Faithful to proclaim as
his successor the fittest, the noblest born, or the most favoured, of
his sons, or (in default of immediate issue) the best qualified
amongst his kinsmen. To him, as Heir Apparent, a provisional and
anticipatory oath of fealty was taken during his father’s lifetime; and
the succession, as a rule, was guided by that choice. Sometimes
even two successions were thus anticipated, the reigning prince
making a double nomination; but such attempt to forestall the distant
future was calculated to breed, rather than prevent, dissension.[585]
The practice thus begun by the Omeyyads, was followed equally
by the Abbassides; and proved a precedent even for later times.
CHAPTER XLIX.
YEZID AND THE TRAGEDY AT KERBALA.
A.H. LXI. A.D. 680.
After a reign of unusual length and

prosperity, Muâvia came to die at nearly Death of Muâvia. Rajab, a.h.
eighty years of age. As he felt the end LX. April, a.d. 680.
approaching, he brought forth a casket with parings in it of the
Prophet’s nails. Of these ground fine, he bade them sprinkle the
powder in his eyes and mouth when dead; and then bury him, for a
winding-sheet, in a garment which Mahomet gave him. Fortune had
favoured his rule. For twenty years he was Governor of Syria, and
nearly as many more the acknowledged Caliph of all Islam. Since
the abdication of Hasan, there had been, for the most part, profound
peace throughout the empire. Wise, courageous, and forbearing, he
held the dangerous and discordant elements that surrounded him in
check;[586] consolidated, and even extended, the already vast area
of Islam; and nursed commerce and the arts of peace, so that they
greatly flourished in his time.
But he looked to the future with anxiety.
The experiment of nominating Yezîd his His dying advice to Yezîd.
successor was sure to meet with
opposition when he was gone. So from his death-bed he sent a
message to Yezîd, who was absent at his huntingquarters, warning
him of those against whom he must be on his guard. There were
only four, he said, of whom, as former recusants, he need specially
beware; Abdallah son of Omar, Hosein son of Aly, Abdallah son of
Zobeir, and Abd al Rahmân son of Abu Bekr. The first, a pious
devotee, would surely succumb. The last might be persuaded by his
fellows to set up his claim; but he was too much engrossed with the
pleasures of the harem to be the cause of much anxiety.[587] ‘As for
Hosein,’ he continued, ‘the factious people of Irâc will not leave him
alone till he shall attempt the empire; when thou hast gotten the
victory, then deal gently with him, for verily the Prophet’s blood
runneth in his veins. It is the Son of Zobeir that I fear the most for
thee. Fierce as the lion, and crafty as the fox;—when within thy
grasp, destroy him root and branch, leaving not a vestige behind.’
The first care of Yezîd on ascending the
throne was to require the recusants who Hosein and the Son of Zobeir
had objected to his nomination as Heir escape to Mecca.
Apparent, to swear allegiance to him now as Caliph. These resided
at Medîna, and on the summons of the governor, two of them, the
sons of Omar and Abbâs (the latter, progenitor of the Abbassides), at
once complied with the command. But Abdallah son of Zobeir, and
Hosein son of Aly, hesitated; and, under cover of delay for
considering the matter, both of them escaped to Mecca.
Since its capture by Mahomet, fifty
years before, no enemy dared to go up Ibn Zobeir dissembles.
against the Holy City; and there, in like
security with the doves fluttering around the temple, whom no man
might molest, conspirators, abusing the privilege of asylum, were
able to hatch their plots against the empire. The ambition of Abdallah
ibn Zobeir, as Muâvia foresaw, aimed at the Caliphate; but so long
as Hosein remained at Mecca, he dissembled his intentions, and
professed to yield to the superior claims of the Prophet’s grandson.
The house of Aly was still, after a fashion, popular at Kûfa. The
fond and fickle populace of that factious
city now turned their eyes in the direction Hosein invited to Kûfa.
of Aly’s second son, Hosein. Invitations
began to pour in upon him from thence, with promises of support, if
he would but appear at Kûfa and claim his regal rights. Within a short
space after reaching Mecca, he received one hundred and fifty
missives of the kind. His friends pointed faithfully to the slippery
ways of the men of Kûfa, and earnestly besought him that he would
not trust himself amongst them there. But Ibn Zobeir, longing to be
rid of his rival, fostered the ambitious design. The unfortunate prince
in an evil hour was thus tempted to accept
the call. He sent, however, his cousin Muslim, sent in advance, put
to death at Kûfa.
Muslim first, to feel the way, and promote
his cause in Kûfa. Yezîd, hearing of the plot, deputed Obeidallah son
of Ziâd, his most capable lieutenant, from Bussorah, to take the
command at Kûfa. Muslim was discovered, soon after his arrival,
lurking in the house of Hâni, a friend to the lineage of Aly. The
populace, taking an unexpected turn in his favour, rose upon
Obeidallah, and besieging him in his castle, went near to turning the
tables against him. The ebullition, however, subsided almost as
quickly as it arose. Obeidallah regained the lead, and Muslim, with
his protector Hâni, was put to death.[588]
Meanwhile, Hosein, heedless of the
remonstrances of Ibn Abbâs and other Hosein sets out for Kûfa.
faithful friends, started from Mecca, with Dzul 680.
Hijj, a.h. LX. Sept. a.d.
his whole family and household, escorted

by a small but devoted band of his adherents. He had already
passed the great desert, and was well advanced on the road to Kûfa,
when tidings reached him of the fate of Muslim and Hâni. He was
staggered by the intelligence. It might well have seemed the height
of madness, encumbered as he was with the ladies of his household,
to venture himself into a hostile city; and it was yet possible for him
to have retraced his steps. But the brothers of Muslim were
clamorous with him to avenge his blood; and there was still the hope,
a forlorn hope indeed, that the numerous professing friends who had
drawn Hosein thither by specious promises, would, when he
appeared in person, arise and rally round him, as, before the Battle
of the Camel, they had rallied round his brother Hasan. But each
messenger and traveller whom they met brought worse and worse
reports. Farazdac, the poet, passed by; all the comfort he could give
Hosein was—‘The heart of Kûfa is with thee, but its sword against
thee.’ The Arab tribes, ever ready for a fray, had been swelling
Hosein’s band by the way, till it had become a considerable force;
but now perceiving how matters stood, and that the cause was
hopeless, they drew off, so that he was left with nothing besides his
original small following of some thirty horse and forty foot.[589] An
Arab chieftain of the Beni Tay besought him even now to divert his
course south-west, towards the hills of Aja and Selma—‘where,’ said
he, ‘in ten days time, twenty thousand swords and lances of my tribe
will gather round thee.’ Hosein would gladly have followed the
advice; ‘but,’ he replied, ‘I am surrounded, as thou seest, by women
and children; I cannot turn aside with them into the desert; I must
needs go forward.’ They had not proceeded far, when a body of
Kûfan horse appeared in sight. They were
under the command of Horr, an Arab Is met by Horr near Kûfa. 1
leader of the Beni Temîm, who courteously, Moharram,
680.
a.h. LXI. Oct. a.d.
but firmly, refused to let him pass. ‘My

orders,’ he said, ‘are to carry thee to Obeidallah, the son of Ziâd; but
if thou wilt not go with me, then turn to the right hand, or turn to the
left, as thou choosest, saving only the way back again to Mecca or
Medîna, for that thou mayest not take.’[590] So the little band turned
aside to the left; and, skirting Kûfa on the margin of the desert,
marched forward, for a day or two, along the banks of the Western
Euphrates. In taking this direction, Hosein had apparently no
immediate object beyond avoiding an attack from Kûfa. Horr kept
close by him, and courteous communications still passed between
them.
But it was dangerous to leave a
pretender to the Caliphate thus hovering Hosein stopped by Amr’s
around such a city as Kûfa, already excited cavalry at Kerbala.
by the affair of Muslim. So Obeidallah sent Amr son of Sád at the
head of four thousand horse with a second summons.[591] Thus
arrested, Hosein encamped his little band on the plain of Kerbala,
close by the western branch of the Euphrates, five-and-twenty miles
north-west of Kûfa. At repeated interviews, Hosein disclaimed
hostilities; which, indeed, with his slender following, and no prospect
of a rising in the city, were out of thought. He would submit, he said,
but only on one of these conditions: ‘Suffer me to return to the place
from whence I came; if not, then lead me to Yezîd, the Caliph, at
Damascus, and place my hand in his that I may speak with him face
to face; or, if thou wilt do neither of these things, send me far away to
the wars, where I shall fight, the Caliph’s faithful soldier, against the
enemies of Islam.’ But Obeidallah insisted upon an unconditional
submission; and to effect this without resort to arms, he ordered Amr
to cut off all access to the river, hoping that thirst might thus force
him to surrender. Hosein, who feared worse than death the cruel
name of Obeidallah son of Ziâd, stood firm to his conditions; and he
even prevailed on Amr himself to press them upon Obeidallah, and
beg that he might be sent to the Caliph’s court. It had been well for
the Omeyyad dynasty, if the request had
been complied with. Instead, Obeidallah, Shamir sent to bring in
impatient at the delay, jealous of his own Hosein, dead or alive. 8
Moharram. Oct. 8.
prestige, or fearing the fickleness of the
Kûfans, sent a creature of his own, an Arab called Shamir[592] (name
never uttered by good Moslem but with a shudder and a curse) with
orders that Amr should dally with Hosein no longer, but, dead or
alive, bring him into Kûfa; and with power to supersede Amr in
command should he fail in prompt obedience. Amr thus compelled,
or fearing to lose the government of Rei to which he had just been
promoted, forthwith surrounded the little camp more closely. Hosein,
securing now the position as best he could, declared that he would
not surrender, but would fight the battle to the last. The scene which
followed is still fresh as yesterday in the mind of every Believer, and
is commemorated with wild grief and frenzy as often as the fatal day,
the Tenth of the first month of the year, comes round. It has been
encircled by tradition with such harrowing recitals as never fail to
rouse the horror and indignation of the listener to the highest pitch.
The fond and pious Moslem forgets that Hosein, the leader of the
band, having broken his allegiance, and yielded himself to a
treasonable, though impotent, design upon the throne, was
committing an offence that endangered society, and demanded swift
suppression. He can see but the cruel and ruthless hand that
exterminated, with few exceptions, everyone in whose veins flowed
the sacred blood of the Prophet. And, in truth, the simple story needs
no adventitious colouring to touch the heart.
Hosein obtained a day’s respite to send
away his relatives from the fated camp. Hosein’s preparations for
But, one and all, they refused to listen to defence. 9 Moharram. Oct. 9.
his entreaty that they would leave him. During the night, his sister
Zeinab overheard what was going forward, for his servant was
furbishing her brother’s sword, and singing the while snatches of
martial verse on the impending combat. Hastily drawing her mantle
around her, she stole in the dark to her brother’s tent, and flinging
herself upon him in wild grief, beat her breast and face, and fell into
a swoon. Hosein poured water on her temples; but it was little that
he could do to comfort her. The tents were rudely staked together,
and some petty barricades of wood and reeds—the burning of which
might briefly check the onset—piled around; a poor defence against
the overwhelming foe. Aly, Hosein’s little son, lay sick of a fever, but
there was no drop of water to slake his parched lips. The women and
children passed the night in fear and crying.
On the morning of the fatal tenth of
Moharram, Hosein drew out his little band Hosein attacked, and, with all
for battle. There was a parley; and again his company, slain. 10
Moharram, a.h. LXI. Oct. 10,
he offered to retire, or be led to the a.d. 680.
presence of the Caliph. Finding that it was
all in vain, he alighted from his camel; and, surrounded by his
kinsmen, who stood with firm front for his defence, resolved to sell
life dear. At length, one shot an arrow from the Kûfic side, and, amid
the wailing of the women and little ones, the unequal fight began.
Arrows flew thick, and the forlorn company had its numbers
gradually thinned. Hosein’s nephew, Câsim by name, a lad of about
ten years of age, betrothed to his daughter Fâtima, was early struck
by an arrow, and died in the arms of his uncle. One after another, the
grown-up sons of Hosein, his brothers, nephews, and cousins, fell
before the shafts of the enemy. Some fled for shelter behind the
camp. The reeds were set on fire, and the flames, spreading to the
tents, added new horror to the scene. For long, none dared to attack
Hosein, and to the last it was hoped that he might yet surrender.
Towards the close of the conflict, driven by thirst, he sought to gain
the river-bank. The troops closed in behind, and he was cut off from
his family. The ‘cursed’ Shamir then led the attack. Struck by an
arrow, Hosein fell to the ground, and the Kûfic cavalry rode ruthlessly
across the corpse.
Not one of the fighting men of this
forlorn band escaped alive. But they fought Trunkless heads cast before
the Governor of Kûfa.
bravely; and left of their foes, more than
their own number dead upon the field. Two sons of Hosein, Aly
Akbar[593] and Abdallah, perished early in the day; and, at its close,
there were amongst the dead no less than six brothers of Hosein,
the sons of Aly; two nephews, sons of his brother Hasan; and six
others, descendants of Abu Tâlib, the father of Aly and uncle of
Mahomet.[594] The camp was plundered; but no further indignity was
offered to the inmates, mostly women and children, who were
carried, together with the ghastly load of seventy trunkless heads, to
Obeidallah’s palace. A shock of horror, such as never since has
ceased to thrill the Moslem world, seized the crowd, when the gory
head of the Prophet’s grandson was cast at Obeidallah’s feet. Hard
hearts were melted. As the governor turned the head roughly over
with his staff (though we must be slow to accept the tales of
heartless insult multiplied by Shîya hate), an aged voice from
amongst the courtiers was heard to cry: ‘Gently! for it is the
Prophet’s grandson. By the Lord! I have seen these very lips kissed
by the blessed mouth of Mahomet.’[595]
The sister of Hosein, his two little sons,
Aly Asghar[596] and Amr, and two The ladies and children sent
to Medîna.
daughters, sole survivors of the family,
were treated by Obeidallah with respect; and were sent along with
the head of the Pretender to the Caliph at Damascus. Whether
sincerely, or to escape the execrations which began already to be
heaped upon the actors in the tragedy, Yezîd disowned all
responsibility for the death of Hosein, and bitterly reproached
Obeidallah for the deed. The ladies and children were honourably
received into the Caliph’s household, and sent eventually, with every
comfort and consideration, back to their Medîna home. This
destination, meant in kindness by Yezîd, turned out badly for the
Omeyyad Caliphate. At Medîna, there
ensued a wild scene of grief and Reaction in favour of Aly’s
lamentation. Everything tended there to descendants.
intensify the sense of the catastrophe. The deserted dwellings
inhabited heretofore by the family and kinsmen of the Prophet, the
widowed ladies, the orphaned little ones, all added pathos to the
cruel tale. That tale, eagerly heard by groups of weeping listeners at
the lips of the women and children who alone survived to tell it—and
coloured, as oft repeated by them, with fresh and growing horrors—
was spread by the pilgrims flocking yearly to Medîna, over the whole
empire. The tragic story was taken up in every household. It soon
was seen that the Governor of Kûfa, in his zeal to suppress the
imperial claim of the house of Aly, had overshot the mark. The claim
of this line, heretofore unknown, or treated with indifference, struck
deep now into the hearts of multitudes; and a cloud of indignation
and wrath began to gather, which ere long burst upon the dynasty
accused of perpetrating the sacrilegious massacre. The tragedy of
Kerbala decided not only the fate of the Caliphate, but of Mahometan
kingdoms long after the Caliphate had waned and disappeared.
None who has witnessed the wild and
passionate grief with which, as the The ‘Moharram’.
anniversary each year comes round,
Moslems of every land beat their breasts, in vast crowds, the live-
long night, vociferating unweariedly the frantic cry, Hasan, Hosein!
Hasan, Hosein! in wailing cadence, can fail to recognise the fatal
weapon, sharp and double-edged, which the Omeyyad dynasty
allowed thus to fall into the hands of the house of Aly and the house
of Abbâs.[597]
CHAPTER L.
THE OMEYYAD AND ABBASSIDE DYNASTIES, AND
CONCLUSION.
It remains but very briefly to follow the

fortunes of the Omeyyad dynasty; to show Omeyyad and Abbasside
how it came to be supplanted by the dynasties.
Abbasside; to trace the history of the more potent tribal and spiritual
influences, which sprang up with the Faith; and to explain how some
of these, having served their time, have disappeared; while others
still survive, as powerful agencies in the rise and fall of nations, and
the destinies of Islam.
Yezîd soon felt the injury accruing to
the Caliphate from the revulsion of feeling, Yezîd. a.h. 60–64.
in favour of the family of Aly and against
the throne, which followed upon the tragedy of Kerbala. Kûfa, with its
proverbial inconstancy, was ever ready to espouse the cause of a
house the progenitors of which—Aly and his sons—it had cast aside,
and as readily again to let drop that cause. Bussorah, on the other
hand, was more inclined to the Khârejite heresy. But it was from a
very different quarter that the gravest peril first assailed Yezîd and
his successors. The danger, as Muâvia had foreshadowed, arose
from Abdallah ibn Zobeir. It was he who, to be rid of Hosein, had
encouraged that unfortunate prince in his desperate venture. No
sooner was the catastrophe of Kerbala announced at Mecca, than
Abdallah ibn Zobeir set up a claim in his own person. At first he
assumed the pious and modest title,
‘Protector of the Holy House.’ But he soon Ibn Zobeir affects the
went beyond this, and proclaimed himself Caliphate. a.h. 61.
a rival of the Caliph. Though closely connected with the Prophet’s
family, it was not to noble birth he trusted. He was a military
adventurer, as his father and Talha had been before him, trying
conclusions, but more successfully at the first, against the ruling
power. Yezîd swore that his adversary should be brought a prisoner,
chained by the neck, to Damascus. Shortly after, regretting the oath
and yet wishing to fulfil it in the letter, he sent the rebel a silver chain
to be thrown as an ornament about his neck, if he would present
himself at court. But Ibn Zobeir, scorning the offer, committed the
messengers to prison, and soon roused all Arabia against the
Caliph. The Governor of Medîna sent a deputation of its chief men to
Damascus, hoping that they might be won over by the gifts and
kindness of Yezîd. They returned
munificently rewarded, but with such an Medîna rebels, and is sacked.
account of the dissipation and disregard of a.h. 63. a.d. 683.
the obligations of Islam prevailing at the court, that the leaders of
Medîna were scandalised and forswore allegiance to the godless
Caliph. Thereupon an army was sent to chastise the rebellious city.
A battle was fought in its neighbourhood, and the vanquished
inhabitants were subjected for three days to the licence and rapine of
the Syrian troops. But in the end the cause of Ibn Zobeir gained
ground both in Arabia and the East. Aided by his brother Musáb, and
other able generals, he gained hold at one time of a great portion of
the empire. It is not, indeed, impossible that he might have defeated
the Omeyyads altogether, if he had consented to make common
cause with the Khârejite theocrats. But this he could not do; because
these demanded, as a first condition, that the memory of Othmân
should be denounced as that of a tyrant justly put to death; whereas,
in company with his father, the son of Zobeir had waged war with Aly
for the avowed purpose of avenging the blood of Othmân. His arms
were, therefore, turned against these heretics; and in everywhere
defeating them, he effectually served the cause of the Caliphs of
Damascus. For many years he maintained a rival court at Mecca;
and his rule is memorable for the rebuilding of the Holy House.[598]
Meanwhile another rebel against the
Omeyyads had appeared at Kûfa in the Rebellion of Mukhtâr. a.h.
65–67.
person of Mukhtâr, son of Abu Obeid.[599]
This adventurer first dallied with the Khârejites. Afterwards, changing
front, he professed himself the agent of the house of Aly, and the
lieutenant of Aly’s grandson then living at Medîna. As such for a time
Mukhtâr ruled at Kûfa, and took summary vengeance on all who had
been concerned in the massacre at Kerbala. Shamir and Amr were
both executed, and their heads sent to his pretended master. Over
Obeidallah, Mukhtâr gained a great victory on the Zab; and the
trunkless head of that unfortunate governor, who fell in the battle,
was carried to the palace at Kûfa, and cast upon the same spot
where just six years before he had gloated over the bloody head of
Hosein. Thus early was the tragedy of Kerbala avenged in the death
of its chief actors. But the success of Mukhtâr was not long-lived. He
was attacked by the generals of Ibn Zobeir, defeated and slain.
By these successful campaigns against
the Khârejites and against Mukhtâr, both Sequel of Ibn Zobeir, and
rebuilding the Káaba. a.h.
enemies of the empire, Ibn Zobeir was, in 63.
effect, clearing the way for the Court of
Damascus to strike a final blow against himself. His brother Musáb
was defeated and killed. The famous
Hajjâj, at this period the right arm of the Musáb killed. a.h. 71.
Omeyyad Caliphs, was now able to
concentrate his forces against the Pretender, who still held his court
at Mecca, and with an overpowering army to invest the sacred city.
Finding that his game was nearly played
out, Ibn Zobeir lost heart, and had thoughts Hajjâj besieges Mecca. Ibn
of surrendering. But his aged mother Zobeir slain. a.h. 73.
Asma, daughter of Abu Bekr, with the ancient spirit of the Arab
matron, exhorted her son to die as a hero should. And so, putting on
his armour, he rushed into the unequal combat, and fell. His mother,
now a centenarian, is the same who, at the Hegira, seventy-three
years before, tore off her girdle to bind the Prophet’s wallet to his
camel as he took his flight from the cave of Mount Thaur, and thus
earned the name of ‘the Woman of the shreds.’[600] It is almost the
last personal link we have connecting the Prophet’s life with the
Omeyyad Caliphate. What a world of events had transpired within
the lifetime of this lady!
On the death of Ibn Zobeir, who had
thus bravely held his ground as the rival of Omeyyad dynasty again
several successive Caliphs for thirteen supreme. a.h. 73.
years, the Omeyyad rule was anew recognised, without dispute, over
the whole Moslem realm, and the name of the reigning Caliph was
recited in the public prayers of every Mosque from the East to the
farthest West.
During the troublous times of which
mention has been made, several Death of Yezîd. a.h. 64.
successions had taken place in the
Caliphate. After a short and anxious reign, Yezîd died, leaving the
kingdom to a weak son, who survived but a few months. Amidst the
disturbances which followed, Merwân
made his way to the throne, and, dying in Merwân, a.h. 65.
the following year, left the empire to his
son Abd al Malik. This prince wielded the
sceptre for one-and-twenty years. The Abd al Malik. a.h. 65–86.
greater part of his reign was a struggle with
foes such as Ibn Zobeir, Mukhtâr, and other leaders of the Alyite
faction, besides the chronic outbursts of Khârejite fanaticism. At one
time the Caliph was so beset by these opponents, that for three
years he submitted to the humiliation of paying tribute to the
Byzantine Court. In the end he triumphed over all his enemies, and
transmitted a magnificent and still expanding kingdom to his son
Welîd.[601] Notwithstanding the storms that so long surrounded his
throne, Abd al Malik cultivated letters, and was mild and beneficent
in his sway. During the reign of his son,
which lasted ten years, the glory Welîd a.h. 86–96.
culminated of the Omeyyad race. Elements
of disorder still remained, but under the wise and firm sceptre of
Welîd they were held in check. The arts of peace prevailed; schools
were founded, learning cultivated, and poets royally rewarded; public
works of every useful kind were promoted, and even hospitals
established for the aged, lame, and blind. Such, indeed, at this era,
was the glory of the Court of Damascus, that Weil, of all the Caliphs
both before and after, gives the precedence to Welîd. It is the fashion
for the Arabian historians to abuse the Omeyyads as a dissolute,
intemperate, and godless race; but we must not forget that these all
wrote more or less under Abbasside inspiration. And Welîd
especially suffers at their hands; for it was under him that Hajjâj[602]
made the assault upon the Holy City—a ‘sacrilege’ which still rankles
in the Believer’s soul; and, moreover, during whose twenty years’
splendid vice-royalty in the East, Kûfa and Bussorah were both
bathed in blood; and hence some part of the hatred against the
tyrant has come to be reflected upon the name of his Master also. It
is too true, indeed, that at Damascus, as in other great cities of the
empire, there was now rapidly supervening a shameless laxity of
manners; but neither in the Caliphs themselves, nor in their
surroundings, did the looseness of morality at the Syrian Court
surpass that which, under the Abbassides, not long after prevailed
within the royal precincts of Baghdad.[603]
After Welîd, the Omeyyad dynasty
lasted six-and-thirty years. But it began to Omeyyad Caliphs. a.h. 96–
132.
rest on a precarious basis. For now the
agents of the house of Hâshim, descendants of the Prophet and of
his uncle Abbâs, commenced to ply secretly, but with vigour and
persistency, their task of canvass and intrigue in distant cities, and
especially in the provinces of the East.
For a long time, the endeavour of these
agitators was directed to the advocacy of The Shîya faction canvass
the Shîya right; that is to say, it was based for Alyite pretenders.
upon the Divine claim of Aly, and his descendants in the Prophet’s
line, to the Imâmate or leadership over the empire of Islam.[604]
Risings everywhere from time to time took place in favour of some
one or other in whose veins flowed the blood of Aly. Everywhere the
attempts were suppressed, the pretenders slain or cast into prison,
and their armies defeated in the field. But a
new and more fatal danger soon arose. Canvass in favour of house of
The discomfiture of the Shîyas paved the Abbâs.
way for the designing advocates of the other Hâshimite branch,
namely, that of the house of Abbâs, the uncle of the Prophet. These
had all along been plotting in the background, and watching their
opportunity. They now vaunted the claims of this line, and were
barefaced enough to urge that, being descended from the uncle of
Mahomet through male representatives, they took precedence over
the direct descendants of the Prophet himself, because these came
through Fâtima in the female line. About
the year 130 of the Hegira, Abul Abbâs, of Abul Abbâs supported by Abu
Abbasside descent, was put forward in Muslim in Persia. a.h. 130.
Persia, as the candidate of this party, and his claim was supported
by the famous general Abu Muslim. Successful in the East, Abu
Muslim turned his arms to the West. A
great battle, one of those which decide the Battle of the Zab. a.h. 132.
fate of empires, was fought on the banks of a.d. 750.
the Zab; and, through the defection of certain Khârejite and Yemen
levies, was lost by the Omeyyad army. Merwân II., the last of his
dynasty, was driven to Egypt, and there killed in the church of Bussir,
whither he had fled for refuge. At the close
of the year 132,[605] the black flag, emblem Abul Abbâs succeeds to the
Caliphate.
of the Abbassides, floated over the
battlements of Damascus. The Omeyyad dynasty, after ruling the
vast Moslem empire for a century, now disappeared in cruelty and
bloodshed. Alyite, Omeyyad, and Khârejite, were equally the victims
of the exterminating sword of the first Abbasside Caliph, who thereby
earned for himself the unenviable name of Al Saffâh, ‘The
Bloody.’[606]
So perished the royal house of the
Omeyyads. But one escaped. He fled to Omeyyad dynasty in Spain.
Spain, which had never favoured the a.h. 138. a.d. 756.
overweening pretensions of the Prophet’s family, whether in the line
of Aly or Abbâs. Accepted by the Arab tribes, whose influence in the
West was paramount, Abd al Rahmân now laid the foundation of a
new Dynasty, and perpetuated the Omeyyad name at the
magnificent court of Cordova. Some years
previously, the flood of Moslem victory Moslem defeat at Tours. a.d.
sweeping northwards had been stemmed 732.
and rolled back by Charles Martel at Tours; but a grand career yet
remained within the peninsula of Spain to illustrate this remnant of
the Omeyyad race.
Thus with the rise of the Abbassides,
the unity of the Caliphate came to an end. Other Moslem kingdoms.
Never after, either in theory or in fact, was
there a successor to the Prophet, acknowledged as such over all
Islam. Other provinces followed in the wake of Spain. The Aghlabite
dynasty in the east of Africa and west of it, the Edrisites in Fez, both
of Alyite descent; Egypt and Sicily under independent rulers; the
Tâhirite kings in Persia, their native soil; these and others, breaking
away from the central government, established kingdoms of their
own. The name of Caliph, however it might
survive in the Abbasside lineage, or be The Caliphate in its original
assumed by less legitimate pretenders, significance
end.
comes to an
had now altogether lost its virtue and

significance.
Yet a splendid empire remained for the
Abbassides. They carried their court from The Abbassides transfer seat
Damascus, where the memory of the late of government to Baghdad.
a.h. 145.
dynasty inconveniently survived its fall, to
the banks of the Euphrates. There, Kûfa, too prone to be inflamed by
Alyite intrigue against the new line of Caliphs, was finally abandoned
as the seat of royalty. Another capital was founded by Abu Jáfar, the
second of the Abbassides, at Baghdad, fifteen miles above Medâin,
on the western bank of the Tigris. For many years, Alyites,
Omeyyads, and Khârejites continued to be punished with equal
rigour by the new dynasty, and much insecurity and bloodshed
prevailed. But misrule and rebellion in the end gave place to rest and
peace, and a century followed of unparalleled grandeur and
prosperity. Baghdad, answering to its
proud name of Dâr al Salâm, ‘The City of Splendour of Baghdad, the
Peace,’ became for a time the capital of City of Peace.
the world, the centre of luxury, the emporium of commerce, and the
seat of learning.
At the close of the second century of
the Hegira, Al Mâmûn succeeded to the Al Mâmûn. a.h. 198–218.
throne. His mother was a Persian lady; and
he had imbibed from her, and the society in which he was reared at
Merve, the principles of the Motázilites.
This strange system, which had recently Motázilite creed.
sprung up in the East, was grafted by the
sectarians of Aly (Shîyites) on the transcendental philosophy of the
Persians. It was, in fact, a new and altogether unlooked-for
development, or rather perversion, of Islam. Heretofore, the sole
ground of faith had been the Corân, and the Sunnat or deliverances
preserved by tradition from the lips of Mahomet. Now, under the
Divine Imâmate, or spiritual leadership vested in some member of
the house of Aly, there might be other infallible sources of guidance
from above. There arose, in fact, a new school of interpretation, one
might almost say, a new dispensation. The Corân was treated
allegorically; and such difficulties as beset the Orthodox, offended
reason, or cramped the growth of society, were thus easily evaded.
[607] In the system so evolved, the Prophet, had he revisited the
earth, would hardly have recognised his own religion. This elastic
development of the Faith, sublimated by the mysticism of Persia, and
refined by the subtleties of Indian philosophy, was eagerly embraced
by the natives of the Eastern provinces. And Al Mâmûn, who on his
accession remained still for a time at Merve, fell deeply under its
influence. So inclined was he to the house
of Aly, that he gave a daughter of his own Embraced by Al Mâmûn.
in marriage to one of that lineage, and he
even adopted their green ensign;—hoping thus to unite the lines of
Aly and Abbâs in one new dynasty. Although, on transferring his
court to Baghdad, he abandoned the design,[608] Mâmûn still
remained faithful to the rationalistic creed. He surrounded himself at
the capital with the learned of all persuasions; and in company with
them was used to hold discussions, at which such grave questions
as those affecting man’s relations with the Deity, and the nature of
the Godhead itself, were freely handled. In opposition to the
Orthodox, he believed in the doctrine of Free-will. From the received
teaching that the Corân is uncreated and eternal, he recoiled, as at
variance with the unity of the Godhead; and, in the end, he
proclaimed, with pains and penalties for dissent, that it was created.
Thus, though a Free-thinker himself, Al Mâmûn, as often happens,
denied the free right of judgment to others; and he persecuted
cruelly, and on one or two occasions even to the death, those who
ventured to differ with him. Still freedom of opinion and open
discussion were, beyond comparison, more tolerated under the

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Solution Manual for Entrepreneurship,

11th Edition, Robert Hisrich, Michael

Test Bank for Entrepreneurship, 11th Edition, Robert

Test Bank for Entrepreneurship 9th Edition : Hisrich

Test Bank for Entrepreneurship 9th Edition by Hisrich

Solution Manual for College Algebra, 11th Edition,

Solution Manual for Business Forecasting, 9/E 9th

Solution Manual for Economic Development, 11/E 11th

Solution Manual for Managing Hospitality Organizations

Test Bank for Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases:

03: To highlight bricolage as a source of entrepreneurs’ resourcefulness.

04: To introduce effectuation as a way expert entrepreneurs sometimes think.

05: To develop the notion that entrepreneurs cognitively adapt

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

OPENING PROFILE— Ewing Marion Kauffman

In the Press: A key question that all Entrepreneurial opportunities

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

2. Individuals with knowledge of markets and AS SEEN IN BUSINESS NEWS: Do

II. HOW ENTREPRENEURS THINK

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

D. Forming opportunity beliefs often requires

knowledge about a technology to a new

introduction. Superficial similarities

2. Bricolage refers to taking existing resources Bricolage

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

desired outcome and then coming up with a K EY

Monday that is 75% done. There is a job

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

d. Most managers of firms need to take an

extent to which entrepreneurs are K EY

dynamic, flexible, self-regulating, and

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

i. Comprehension questions are

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

process) to provide the opportunity to progress through the entrepreneurial

business was still successful the following

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

D. Perceived desirability refers to an individual’s article/0,9171,1006144,00.html) K EY

IV. ENTREPRENEUR BACKGROUND

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

independent business as well as benchmarks

V. ROLE MODELS AND SUPPORT

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

dependent on the frequency, level, and

2. Most entrepreneurs indicate that their Moral-support network

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

b. The individual selected needs to be an

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

D. Entrepreneurial activity is embedded in

that environment that form opportunity beliefs

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

VII. IN REVIEW: SUMMARY

LEARNING OBJECTIVES REVISITED

Learning Objective 03: To highlight bricolage as a source of entrepreneurs’

Learning Objective 04: To introduce effectuation as a way expert entrepreneurs sometimes

• Two major ways to think about tasks: causally and effectually.

Learning Objective 06: To introduce sustainable entrepreneurship as a means of sustaining

• Entrepreneurial action can help us both sustain and develop.

Bricolage: Entrepreneurs making do by applying combinations of the resources at hand to new

RESEARCH TASKS AND CLASS DISCUSSIONS

3. To be cognitively flexible seems to require that the entrepreneur continually

4. Do you believe that sustainable development should be part of an entrepreneurship