Braking Systems

AURETB001
DIAGNOSE AND REPAIR ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS

RESOURCE BOOK
THIS PRODUCT REMAINS THE PROPERTY OF MTA INSTITUTE
AURETB001 - Diagnose and Repair Electric Braking Systems - Resource
CONTENTS
COPYRIGHT ........................................................................................................................................................ 3
UNIT DESCRIPTOR .............................................................................................................................................. 4
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 5
LOCATING AND INTERPRETING POLICIES AND PROCEDURES RELATING TO DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING
ELECTRIC BRAKES ............................................................................................................................................... 7
WHS, RELATING TO DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS ........................................... 7
• USING SPECIALISED TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ...................................................................................... 8
• USING APPROPRIATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT ................................................................ 9
• WEARING JEWELLERY WHILE WORKING AROUND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS ........................................... 9
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES ................................................................................................................................... 10
• VOLTAGE, CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND POWER ................................................................................ 10
• SERIES CIRCUITS.................................................................................................................................. 12
• PARALLEL CIRCUITS............................................................................................................................. 12
• SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS ......................................................................................................... 12
• OHM’S LAW ........................................................................................................................................ 13
• FARADAY’S LAW.................................................................................................................................. 14
• KIRCHHOFF'S LAW .............................................................................................................................. 14
• ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND RADIATION ....................................................................... 15
BRAKING SYSTEM AND COMPONENT FUNDAMENTALS ................................................................................. 15
• ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKE SYSTEMS................................................................................................. 17
• ELECTRIC BRAKE CONTROLLERS ......................................................................................................... 18
• ELECTRIC OVER HYDRAULIC TRAILER BRAKES .................................................................................... 23
• CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES ........................................................................................................... 24
• SWITCHES, RELAYS AND GLOBES ........................................................................................................ 24
• CABLE TYPES AND SIZES AND CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY........................................................... 25
• SENSORS (TWO AND THREE-WIRE) .................................................................................................... 26
• ACTUATORS, INCLUDING PULSE WIDTH MODULATED ...................................................................... 28
• TECHNIQUES FOR READING AND INTERPRETING TECHNICAL INFORMATION................................... 29
DIAGNOSTIC TESTING PROCEDURES FOR ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS ........................................................ 29
• USING DIAGNOSTIC FLOW CHARTS .................................................................................................... 30
• ACCESSING ELECTRICAL TERMINALS .................................................................................................. 31
• RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE DROP ...................................................................................................... 31
• OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS ............................................................................................................... 32
• CHECKING SHORTS TO GROUND, POWER AND SIGNAL CIRCUITS ..................................................... 33
VISUAL, AUDITORY AND FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENTS .................................................................................... 34
• HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION.......................................................... 35
• FOUNDATION BRAKE COMPONENT INSPECTION............................................................................... 36
• COMPONENT DAMAGE AND WEAR ................................................................................................... 37
• COMPONENT OR CONNECTOR CORROSION ...................................................................................... 38
• COMPONENT WATER OR MOISTURE INGRESS................................................................................... 38
REPAIR PROCEDURES FOR ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEM CIRCUITS .................................................................. 39
• BRAKE CONTROLLERS ......................................................................................................................... 41
• ELECTRIC DRUM BRAKES .................................................................................................................... 41
• ELECTRIC DISC BRAKES ....................................................................................................................... 43
• ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEM CONNECTORS AND WIRING REPAIRS .................................................... 43
POST-REPAIR TESTING ..................................................................................................................................... 45
AUR16-V1 Apr 2019 2 of 45 © MTA Institute

COPYRIGHT
© MTA INSTITUTE
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may
be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from MTA Institute. Copyright does
not extend over any content drawn from publications listed in the acknowledgement.
Requests and enquiries should be addressed to the Managing Director, MTA Institute, 2728 Logan
Road, Eight Mile Plains Qld 4113 or phone enquiry to MTA Institute, Reception 3722 3000.
DISCLAIMER
MTA Institute has used its best endeavours to ensure that the material contained within is correct
and current at the time of publication, but does not give any warranty nor accept any liability in
relation to the contents. If any law prohibits the exclusion of such liability, MTA Institute limits its
liability to the extent permitted by law.
This resource has been developed for the sole purpose to provide information to learning for the
acquisition of knowledge and skills related to units of competency for the automotive industry. The
resource contains information relating to the knowledge evidence defined in the assessment
requirements for a unit of competency in the training package and is by no means all the information
for a particular subject matter. Learners are encouraged to seek further information by whatever
means are available to them to support their learning.

UNIT DESCRIPTOR
This unit describes the performance outcomes required to diagnose and repair faults in the electric
braking systems of vehicle or machinery. These systems are single wire (non CAN-bus) circuits and
include electric braking systems in light vehicles and machinery fitted with electric trailer braking
controllers or trailers fitted with electric brakes. The unit involves preparing for the task, selecting
the correct diagnostic procedure, carrying out the diagnosis and the repair, performing post-repair
testing, and completing workplace processes and documentation.
It applies to those working in an automotive service and repair industry. Electric braking systems
include those in agricultural machinery, heavy commercial vehicles, light vehicles or mobile plant
machinery.
NOTES TO USERS
As the competency, AURETB001 Diagnose and repair electric braking systems; is an electrical unit,
that is an elective unit applicable to the auto electrical stream and general elective unit for other
streams from the AUR training package, there are no prerequisite units which need to be completed,
however it is recommended that foundation and fundamental competencies applicable to the
qualification being undertaken be completed prior to starting this unit.
Assessment of AUR competencies can take place on-the-job or off-the-job and may involve the use
of a simulated work environment in cases where the workplace does not have conditions conducive
to meeting assessment requirements.
For a person to achieve competency in this unit, individuals must demonstrate they can meet the
assessment requirements of both the knowledge evidence; contained in the resource, and the
performance evidence; where they can perform the following:
• diagnose and repair a fault in the electrical non CAN-bus networked braking system of two
different vehicles or machinery.
As this Resource Book deals with a common technical competency within the automotive industry,
from traineeships to apprenticeships, it is designed to ensure the generic information and
knowledge evidence is included. For this reason, assessment will be tailored by the MIT Assessor to
meet the individual needs of each student and workplace, ensuring the integrity of the standards
and the assessment requirement are maintained.

INTRODUCTION
In December 1998, agreement was reached by all State’s Ministers of Transport to implement
national towing regulations. In essence, the national rules state that “A motor vehicle with a Gross
Vehicle Mass (G.M.V.) not exceeding 4.5 tonnes must not, without the approval of an authority, tow
a trailer with a mass (including any load) exceeding;
• The capacity of the towing apparatus fitted to the vehicle, or

• A relevant maximum trailer mass specified by the vehicle manufacturer.”
Put simply, the most you can tow is the amount specified by the vehicle manufacturer or the
capacity of the towbar - WHICH EVER IS LEAST.
If you want to know how much your vehicle can tow, firstly check the owner’s manual or vehicle
sales brochure for the manufacturer’s towing recommendations. Secondly make sure that the
towing capacity is as least as much, if not more, than the mass of the trailer, including its load. If you
are unsure how strong the towbar is, have a chat to a reputable towing equipment specialist.
In the case where a motor vehicle manufacturer has not specified a maximum towing mass, the limit
is stated to be:
• 1.5 times the unladen or kerb mass of the motor vehicle if the trailer is fitted with brakes; or
• The unloaded mass of the motor vehicle if the trailer is not fitted with brakes.
It should be noted, however, that the above will rarely apply as apart from using a truck, just about
every vehicle that is likely to be used for towing a caravan, boat trailer, horse float or similar has a
manufacturer’s towing recommendation.
Owners of 4WDs and light commercial vehicles should also be careful that they do not exceed the
Gross Combined Mass (G.C.M.) of the vehicle. The GCM refers to the maximum vehicle plus its load,
including a trailer, is permitted to weigh. It is possible that when a motor vehicle is loaded with, for
example, five adults, their luggage and camping gear that the maximum allowable trailer mass has
to be reduced so as to not exceed the GCM.
While this may sound a little confusing, it is important that this is considered so as to not void the
warranty or insurance.
All trailers with a Gross Trailer Mass (GTM) exceeding 750kg and first registered after 30 June 1990
are required to be fitted with an efficient braking system. For trailers with a GTM of up to 2 tonnes,
this braking system can be either an overrun system or one that is operated from the driver's seat.
For trailers with a GTM exceeding 2 tonnes, the braking system must be capable of being applied
from the driver’s seat - overrun brakes are not acceptable. In addition, the braking system must be
such that if the trailer accidentally breaks away (from the towing vehicle), the trailer brakes will
apply automatically and remain applied for at least 15 minutes.

It should be noted that the brakes must operate on ALL WHEELS (exceptions are trailers not over 2
tonnes Aggregate Trailer Mass (ATM) and trailers manufactured prior to ADR 38/--. Their service
brakes must operate on all wheels on at least one axle).
Installation of Equipment
To ensure the safe towing of trailers equipped with electric brakes, it is necessary that:
1. a breakaway switch is fitted to the trailer and its point of attachment is compatible with the
towing vehicle;
2. the trailer is equipped with its own battery (of sufficient capacity to maintain the brakes in
the applied position for at least 15 minutes);
3. the towing vehicle is equipped with an electrical circuit which will automatically maintain
the trailer battery in a fully charged condition and is capable of warning the driver if the
condition of the trailer battery is such that it may not be capable of meeting the above
requirements;
4. earthing or grounding systems for the trailer brake units is specifically and individually wired
(i.e. one earth wire to each brake unit) and not via the trailer suspension components, wheel
bearings or tow couplings;
5. the trailer is fitted with a readily visible label stating that the towing vehicle must be
equipped with a compatible control, charging and warning system.
NOTE:
If the towing vehicle is subject to Australian Design Rule 31/-- “Hydraulic Brake Systems for
Passenger Cars” or Australian Design Rule 35/-- “Commercial Vehicle Brake Systems”, it is important
to ensure that the towing vehicles' braking system will not be altered by the fitment of any control
unit for the electric brakes. In particular, all dual circuit brake functions must be preserved.

LOCATING AND INTERPRETING POLICIES AND PROCEDURES RELATING TO

DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING ELECTRIC BRAKES
Workshop policies and procedures are a set of documents that outline how tasks and activities in
the workshop are to be conducted and managed. They also ensure that the workshop operates
according to WHS and EPA laws and any regulations relating to the vehicle electric brake system,
are maintained. Electric brake systems are a vehicle control system and are covered by the
Australian design rules, Commonwealth transport regulations and state roadworthy requirements.
A policy is a guiding principle that sets the workshop direction, whereas a procedure is a list of the
steps required to get the same result each time a task or activity is undertaken. An example;
• A policy relating to diagnosing and repairing electric braking systems would be a document
for the workshop that describes how the workshop complies with repair standards and
legislation applicable to vehicle braking systems.
• A procedure would be a document often located in a workshop manual or similar that
describes the steps required to perform a diagnostic or repair process. Following a set step-
by-step procedure, ensures a contestant diagnostic and/or repair standard is achieved.
Each workshop will have its own set of policies and procedures and a system in place to make sure
the policies and procedures are regularly reviewed and updated. Regular reviews ensure that new
policies and procedures are developed, and old ones are modified in case something has changed.
For example, if the workshop moves to a new building, then a review of policies and procedures will
ensure that they relate to the new workshop, its layout, and equipment.
In general, the policies and procedures are written to guide workshop practice; help ensure
compliance with laws, statutes, and regulations; and reduce the risk of injury and rework.
Locate the general workshop rules and procedures for your workplace. Look through the contents
or index pages to familiarise yourself with the contents. Discuss the policy and the workshop rules
and procedures with your supervisor. Ask questions to ensure that you understand how the rules
and procedures should be applied and your role in making sure they are followed.
WHS, RELATING TO DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS

Automotive workshop safety is everyone’s responsibility, and a workshop is generally only as safe
as the least safe person in it. All technicians and workshop personnel must include safety as part of
their daily routine. This begins with a positive attitude toward ensuring that all precautions are taken
to provide a safe working environment. It includes the correct handling and use of hand tools and
equipment, proper eye protection, personal attire, hazardous material safety and containment,
location and type of fire extinguishers, first aid kits and preventing electrical shock hazards.

Personal safety begins with the clothes you wear. Attire should reflect a professional image and be
appropriate for the specific job environment. Loose fitting clothes with the shirt-tail or long sleeves
dangling are accidents waiting to happen. Long hair should be tucked under a hat or tied back to
prevent being caught in rotating machinery, a fan belt, or pullies.
Shoes or boots should be intended for a professional working environment with slip-resistant soles,
hardened leather or steel toe, and a grease/oil-resistant material where necessary. Joggers, street
shoes, or sandals are a safety hazard and not welcome in a workshop environment.
Also, be aware of any particular risks or hazards associated with the work tasks being undertaken.
For example; risks and hazards likely to be encounter while diagnosing and repairing electric braking
systems usually include:
• handling solder, hot irons and the vapours produced by the soldering process
• exposure to toxic dust that may contain fine particles such as asbestos that could be harmful
to humans or the environment
• exposure to lubricant grease and brake fluid
• heavy lifting equipment, working with trolley jacks and jack stands
By following regulations and safety procedures, you can make your workplace safer. Learn and
follow all of the correct safety procedures for your workplace. Always wear the right PPE and stay
alert and aware of what is happening around you. Think about what you are doing, how you are
doing it, and its effect on others. Finally, document and report all accidents and injuries whenever
they happen and take the proper steps to make sure they never happen again.
USING SPECIALISED TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
For diagnosing today’s automotive electrical and electronic systems, the

digital multimeter (DMM) has become a necessary tool. Another name for
a digital multimeter is a digital volt-ohm meter (DVOM). A quality digital
meter has a 10-megaohm internal impedance and uses electronic circuitry
and a liquid crystal display to provide more precise readings than
analogue meters. The display face of a quality digital meter is large and
easy to read. The various symbols on the display tell the technician which
mode the meter has activated and other specific performance features.
The cost and quality of the digital multimeters available on the market range widely. The most
popular DMM types used by technicians have an auto-ranging feature for the mode select switch,
which automatically adjusts to the best range for the circuit being measured. A high-quality DMM
also has current jacks that are circuit protected by a fuse if overloaded. Overloading the DMM’s
current measurement capacity is a common error made by even the most experienced technician
when the circuit amperage is unknown.

USING APPROPRIATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Personal safety begins with the clothes you wear. Attire should reflect a professional image and be
appropriate for the specific job tasks. Loose fitting clothes with the shirt-tail or long sleeves dangling
are accidents waiting to happen. Long hair should be tucked under a hat or tied back to prevent
being caught in rotating machinery.
The type of personal protective equipment to be used will depend entirely on what the job tasks
entail and the potential hazards. Standard PPE will start with foot and eye protection and should
always be worn in an automotive workshop environment. Thousands of unnecessary and
permanent eye injuries are reported every year by careless workers who do not wear protection or
wear it on top of their heads. Several different types of eye and face protection are available. Good
eye protection should meet the following basic requirements:
• Side shields
• Unobstructed vision
• Comfortable to wear
• Safety plastic lens or tempered glass
• Lenses that do not pop out under impact
Regular prescription eye wear does not meet safety impact

standards and has no side shield protection. Some eye protection is
designed to fit over prescription eye wear. For increased protection
from splash or grinding hazards, a full-face shield should be worn.
Risks and hazards associated with repairing electric braking systems commonly include:
• Exposure to the use of the of heavy lifting equipment

• Exposure to lubricant grease and brake fluid
• Exposure to toxic dust and soldering fumes
• Exposure to using hot soldering irons
WEARING JEWELLERY WHILE WORKING AROUND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
When in a workshop environment, watches, rings, and jewellery present a number of potential
hazards. They can get caught in rotating machinery and because they are mainly constructed from
metal, they can conduct electricity. Imagine leaning over a running engine with a dangling necklace;
it could get caught in the fan belt and be ripped from your neck; not only will it get destroyed, but
it has the potential to cause very serious injure.
A major risk of wearing a ring or watch is it could inadvertently short out an electrical circuit, heat
up quickly and severely burn you. There is also a possibility of fire caused by a spark that may result
in the ignition of flammable gasses (from battery) or liquids such as residual fuels.
A ring can also get caught on moving parts, breaking the finger bone or even ripping the finger out
of the hand. To be safe, always remove watches, rings, and jewellery before starting work and place
in a secure place. Not only is it safer to remove these items, but your valuables will not get damaged
or lost.
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES
Understanding the behaviour of electricity can be more difficult than understanding other
automotive concepts such as four-stroke engine theory or the operation of disc brakes. For all
intents and purposes, electricity cannot be seen, so you will have to use your imagination and
visualise what it is doing.
At the same time, electricity is governed by the laws of physics, so learning how electricity behaves
can be approached in a logical manner, as with any other science. By applying yourself, over time it
will make more and more sense.
To get started, it is helpful to know that electricity is made up of tangible objects, atoms. Even if we
cannot normally see these objects with our eyes, we can imagine them in our minds. In fact, it may
be helpful to think of electricity as nothing more than the movement of specific particles from one
point to another. Imagine a line of marbles rolling through a tube or drops of water through a pipe.
The moving marbles or drops of water can perform work if they are directed against another object
with force.
In the same way, electricity can perform work if it is directed at objects that can extract energy from
the moving particles, such as lights and electric motors.
That is where some of electricity’s magic comes in. The
moving electrical particles (electrons) carry a negative
charge and are attracted to a positive charge or are repelled
by a negative charge. These attractive and repelling forces
are what cause the particles to move and perform work.
VOLTAGE, CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND POWER
Volts, amps, and ohms are three basic units of electrical measurement. Voltage is the potential or
electrical pressure difference between two points in an electrical circuit and is measured in volts.
For example, the voltage of a typical car battery is 12 volts.
VOLTAGE (V) is the potential difference or electrical pressure between the positive and the negative
battery terminal. It can be measured with a voltmeter or multimeter set to read voltage. Voltage
can be measured by hooking a voltmeter in parallel, across two parts of a circuit where you want to
measure the difference in volts.

It might be easier to understand if you think of voltage as the electrical force or pressure in a circuit
or battery, just like the water pressure that exists in the bottom of a full tank of water or a home
plumbing service.
CURRENT (A) or amp, is the unit used to describe how much current or how many electrons are
flowing at a given point in a given amount of time when work is being performed - for example,
when a lamp is operating.
An amp is a measure of the number of electrons flowing past a given point in 1 second. An amp is
equal to 6.28 billion electrons past a given point in 1 second. Yes, billion is correct. To say it another
way, think of a pile of 1 billion electrons. One amp would equal the number of elections in 6.28
billion of those piles travelling past a given point in a circuit in 1 second. That is impressive! No
wonder we can’t see them! Just to get you thinking, a small starter motor may draw > 200 amps.
Amperage, or current flow, can be thought of as a tap being turned on and water flowing. Each drop
of water is like an electron. Current flow is measured in amps by placing an ammeter in series, into
the circuit so that the current flows through the meter.
RESISTANCE (R) or ohms is the unit used to describe the amount of electrical resistance in a circuit
or component. The higher the resistance, the less current (amps) that will flow in the circuit for any
particular voltage. The lower the resistance, the higher the current that will flow in the circuit. Using
the water analogy, if you kink a hose with the water running, less water will come out of the hose
for a given pressure.
If you kink the hose more, more resistance will be added and even less water will flow through the
hose. Lessening the kink will lower the resistance and allow more water to flow. Resistance in a
simple electrical circuit works the same way.
An ohmmeter is used to measure the amount of resistance in a component or circuit. The ohmmeter
pushes a small amount of current through the part being tested, so an ohmmeter is used on a
component or wire that has been disconnected from the rest of the circuit.
The amount of resistance in the component changes the amount of current that the ohmmeter can
push through the component. The more current that the ohmmeter can push through the
component, the lower the resistance will read on the ohmmeter.
POWER (W) or wattage, is the rate of doing electrical work. Power is expressed in watts. A watt is
equal to 1 volt multiplied by 1 ampere. There is another mathematical formula that expresses the
relationship between voltage, current, and power. It is simply: P = V × A. Power measurements are
measurements of the rate at which electricity is doing work. A good example to demonstrate the
concept of electrical power is light bulbs. Automotive light bulbs are sold by wattage. A 100-watt
bulb is brighter and uses more electricity (amps) than a 60-watt bulb.

SERIES CIRCUITS
A circuit is a series circuit when there is only a single path for current to flow through one or more
resistive loads in the complete circuit. Because there is only one path for the current to flow, the
current is the same at any point in the circuit, example below.
Vehicle manufacturers use several series circuits as primary

automotive electrical circuits. Some of the most common are heater
control circuits, burglar alarms and boot release solenoids. They are
also used as part of more complex automotive electrical circuits. The
dependence of individual circuit devices on each other is the main
reason for using series circuits for burglar alarms. Any interruption of
the single path of current flow triggers the alarm circuit. For this same
reason, a series circuit is not used in a taillight circuit. It would be
inconvenient to have all the taillight bulbs go out just because one of
them burns out.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A parallel circuit contains two or more resistive loads with all the positive terminals connected to a
common junction and all negative terminals connected to a second common junction or chassis
ground. The current flows to each branch independent of any other branch.
In the example right, after the current leaves the positive

side of the battery, it splits three ways through the three
resistors. The amount of current flowing through each
resistive branch load depends on the value of the
individual resistor. An open circuit in one resistive load
does not affect the operation of the other loads of the
circuit. In a parallel circuit, total circuit resistance
decreases as additional branches are added.
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
A series/parallel circuit is defined as a circuit that contains

both series circuits and parallel circuits. This type of circuit
is also known as a combination circuit, example right. The
simple circuit has resistor 1 in series from the battery, then
splits into two parallel branches, resistor 2 and resistor 3
before recombining and returning to the battery.

A circuit for dashboard lights is an example of a series-parallel circuit in an automotive application.

In this situation, a variable resistor is connected in series with a number of dashboard lights, which
are connected in parallel to each other.
When the variable resistor is turned, the resistance changes. As the resistance increases, the voltage
drop across the potentiometer increases and the current flow decreases. This lowers the voltage
and current flow to the dashboard lights, making the dashboard lights dimmer.
When the variable resistor is turned such that its resistance is lowered, the voltage drop across it is
reduced and the current flow in the circuit increases, making the dashboard lights brighter. Because
the dashboard lights are in parallel, they each receive the same amount of voltage, and the total
circuit current flow is divided equally between them, making them equally bright as one another.
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law is a relationship between volts, amps, and ohms, and because they must always balance
out, if we know any two of the values, then we can calculate the third. If resistance stays the same
but voltage rises, then the greater force pushes more current through the circuit. If resistance stays
the same but voltage decreases, then less current will flow through the circuit.
That means that the total current flow of a circuit in amps always equals the voltage divided by the
resistance. In calculating Ohm’s law; R stands for resistance, V for voltage, and A for current (in
amps). Depending on which value you wish to solve, you will apply one of the following three
formulas:
• A=V÷R
• V=A×R
• R=V÷A
Voltage can vary across different points in a circuit but determining the current at any point can be
found without an ammeter by using Ohm’s law. Using the Ohm’s law circle will help you remember
which math operation to use, illustrated above.
All you have to do is place your finger over the value you are looking for. If you place your finger on
the top value (volts), then you would multiply amps by resistance. If you place your finger on one of
the side values, then you would divide volts by the other value.
This means two things. First, the values always have to balance. And second, as long as you know
any two values, the third can be calculated. This is especially helpful when determining the circuit
current flow, because instead of breaking into a circuit to measure current with a meter, if the
voltage and resistance are known, Ohm’s law may be used to calculate amps.

FARADAY’S LAW
Faraday’s law of induction, states that relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic field
allows four ways by which voltage can be induced in a conductor:
1. Moving a magnet so that the magnetic lines of force cut across a conductor, as in an
alternator.
2. Moving a conductor so that it cuts across the stationary magnetic field, as in a generator.
3. Starting, stopping, or changing the rate of current flow in a conductor. This causes the
conductor to induce an electromagnetic field into itself and occurs in the primary windings
of an ignition coil. This process is called self-induction.
4. Starting, stopping, or changing the rate of current flow in a conductor that is positioned close
to a second conductor. This is called mutual induction. It is used to induce high voltage in the
secondary winding of the ignition coil.
When any of these methods are used to induce voltage in a conductor, the value of that voltage
depends on:
• The density, or strength of the magnetic field. The stronger the field, the greater the induced
voltage.
• It is also influenced by the number of conductor wire turns of the coil. The more turns, the
greater the induced voltage.
• The speed at which the lines of force are cut also affects the voltage induced. The greater
the speed, the greater the induced voltage.
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW
Kirchhoff’s current law describes a fundamental electrical principle and is used by technicians in
understanding how all electrical circuits work. Many technicians would understand the principle
behind the law without necessarily associating it with Kirchhoff.
Simply stated, the law is that current entering any junction is equal to the sum
of the current flowing out of the junction. For example, in a junction of three
conductors, current is flowing in at 10 amps from conductor A and out by the
other two conductors, B and C, example right.
According to Kirchhoff’s current law, the sum of the current in conductors B

and C will equal the current flowing into the junction at conductor A, or 10
amps.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND RADIATION
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is an undesirable creation of electromagnetism whenever

current flows through a conductor or when a circuit is switched on and off. As manufacturers began
to increase the number of electronic components and systems in their vehicles, the problem of EMI
can be difficult to control. The low-power integrated circuits used on modern vehicles are sensitive
to the signals produced as a result of EMI.
Any circuit operating in close proximately to other circuits can produce undesirable EMI. The extent
of interference is generally associated with higher current drawing circuits or systems and maybe
produced with surges in current when turning circuits on and off. Low effects of EMI may also be
caused by static electricity that is created by friction. The friction may be a result of tyres contacting
the road, or of fan belts contacting the pulleys.
The symptoms of EMI are often related to disruption to the vehicle’s computer systems by inducing
false signals through the network. The computer requires messages to be sent over data circuits in
order to communicate with other computers, sensors, and actuators. If any of these signals are
disrupted, error codes are common, and the engine and/or accessories may de-rate or malfunction.
EMI can be suppressed by any of the following methods, but the simplest correction is often to
isolate and reroute high current carrying circuits away from other wiring, where possible.
1. Adding a resistance to the conductors. This is usually done to high-voltage systems, such as
the secondary circuit of the ignition system.
2. Connecting a capacitor in parallel and a choke coil in series with the circuit.
3. Shielding the conductor or load components with a metal or metal-impregnated plastic.
4. Increasing the number of paths to ground by using designated ground circuits. This provides
a clear path to ground that is very low in resistance.
5. Adding a clamping diode in parallel to the component.
6. Adding an isolation diode in series to the component.
BRAKING SYSTEM AND COMPONENT FUNDAMENTALS

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid, to transfer
pressure from the master cylinder to the braking mechanism. The braking mechanism is typically a
disc or drum arrangement.
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s)
in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber
through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic
system. This forces fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more callipers or drum brake
wheel cylinders where it acts upon one or two pistons sealed by O-rings or cups which prevent the
escape of any fluid from around the piston.

DRUM BRAKES
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or linings that press against a
rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. The term drum brake usually means a brake in
which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum.
Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic, better known as "self-energizing." The
rotation of the drum can drag either one or both of the shoes into the friction surface, causing the
brakes to bite harder, which increases the force holding them together. This increases the stopping
power without any additional effort being expended by the driver, but it does make it harder for
the driver to modulate the brake's sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake fade,
as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of brake assist.
In most designs, the "self-energizing" effect only occurs on one

shoe. While this shoe is further forced into the drum surface by a
moment due to friction, the opposite effect is happening on the
other shoe. The friction force is trying to rotate it away from the
drum. The forces are different on each brake shoe resulting in one
shoe wearing faster.
Drum brakes are typically described as either twin leading,

leading/trailing or duo-servo.
Electric drum brake systems are commonly of the duo-servo design, because they work well in both
forward and reverse. Provided the contact area of the brake shoes is large enough, which isn't
always the case, the self-applying effect can securely hold a vehicle when the weight is transferred
to the brakes due to the incline of a slope or the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage
of using a single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot may be made in the form
of a double-lobed cam that is rotated by the action of the parking brake system.
DISC BRAKES
When hydraulic pressure is received from the master cylinder,

the brake calliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads,
which pushes them against the spinning rotor, and the friction
between the pads and the rotor causes a braking torque to be
generated, slowing the vehicle. Heat generated by this friction
is dissipated effectively either through vents and channels in
the rotor or conducted through the pads, which are made of
specialized heat-tolerant materials such as Kevlar or sintered
glass. Note: older brake friction material contained asbestos.

Disc brake systems has the advantage over drum braking systems of having all the friction
components exposed to the air, providing a greater cooling efficiency and reducing the likelihood of
brake fade. Conversely, disc brakes exhibit no self-energizing effect because the hydraulic pressure
acting on the pads is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of the disc. As a result, disc brakes
need to be applied with much more force than drum brakes which is usually achieved through a
brake booster and hydraulic advantage, using a larger diameter piston within the calliper.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows spring(s) to return the master piston(s) back
into position. This relieves the hydraulic pressure on the calliper or wheel cylinder, allowing the
brake piston to slide back into its housing and the brake pads or shoes to release the rotor or drum.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system,
none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use.
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKE SYSTEMS
Most light and mid-weight (750kg-2000kg)

electrically operated brakes are based on drum
brakes. Internally they are almost the same as
hydraulic brakes, except that electric brakes do not
use a cylinder and pistons to force the brake shoes
against the brake drum in order to stop the
caravan/trailer. In place of the cylinder and pistons
there is an electromagnet which is fed with a
pulsing or rising voltage from the vehicles brake
controller. When energized, the electromagnet
grasps the internal face of the drum assembly, and
as the wheel rotates, cams on the lever arm force
the brake shoes against the radius surface of the drum.
Provided that they are correctly installed, and the wiring used is of the correct mm2 area, electric
brakes provide reliable and positive performance.
Electromagnets units have a resistance ranging from 2.5 ohms to 4 ohms, using ohms law; I = V÷R
electromagnet units at 12 volts would have a range around 3 to 5 amps of current flowing. Making
a very strong electromagnet.
However electric brakes have some limitations. Because they are not designed for immersion,
repeatedly soaking the magnets in any liquid can cause the insulation to break down and fail. They
are not able to cope with salt water immersion. Road wheels need to be removed after every salt
water immersion and electric brakes need to cleaned and dried.

The most common failure of electric brakes operation is from inappropriately secured wiring,
leading to facture of conductor and eventual open circuit. Always ensure that wiring is running
through conduit and secured.
As mentioned, all trailers over 2000kg must be fitted with a break-away protection system. Systems
using electromagnetic brakes take the form of an electrically energised circuit which is switched on
the moment a plug is pulled out of a socket secured to the A frame of the trailer.
When a cable that is attached to the body of the towing vehicle becomes tight enough to pull the
switching plug out of the trailer attached switch, the trailer on board battery powers the electric
brakes so the trailer will stop.
For trailers that do not have an on-board battery, manufactures such as RV Electronics, manufacture
a unit that contains a rechargeable battery; and fitted to the A frame.
ELECTRIC BRAKE CONTROLLERS
A brake controller is needed to provide an accurate voltage reference in proportion with the braking
requirements, controlling current to the hydraulic activator or electromagnets in the brake
assembly. The fundamental task of the electric brake controller is to send controlled power to the
electric actuators, i.e. electric motor or electromagnets. When greater braking force is needed,
more power is sent to the actuators, this exerts greater force on the brake mechanisms, giving more
powerful braking effect.
There are many different types of controllers but commonly, they fitted under the dash area; the
driver needs to be able to reach the control unit to adjust the current to suit the load being carried,
and compensate for variations in requirements from 2, 4 and up to 8 brake wheels on trailer.
The two main energising methods are:
• the pendulum-based controller

• the time and intensity.
PENDULUM CONTROLLER OR MOTION SENSING:
In the pendulum base controllers, (also can be known as deceleration inertia controllers), the
slowing action of the tow vehicle is sensed and a proportional current is transmitted to the trailer
brakes. Some models of these units have self-adjusting pendulum, whereas the basic models need
to be set up. They work by the pendulum through inertia moving over a resistor to change current
flowing in the circuit.

Because these use a weighted pendulum to inform the circuit of

deceleration, this style of controller must be mounted level. When
the pendulum is swung by the tow vehicle deceleration, the
amount of power supplied to the trailer electromagnets increases
to provide braking effort. The level of power delivered to the trailer
can be adjusted by a control on the unit, allowing the driver to
make adjustments to suit the road surface, weight of load, weather
conditions.
Also, a manual slider or plunger is provided so that in an emergency

the brakes of the trailer can be applied without applying the tow vehicles brakes.
TIME AND INTENSITY OR SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS:
With the time and intensity-based controllers, a setting is established at the outset as to how the
trailer brakes will be applied, so each time the trailer brakes circuit is closed the trailer brakes will
come on after a pre-set time and rise to a maximum pre-set braking power.
Once set up the power adjustment should remain satisfactory, provided

that the same load and same trailer is being used on the controller.
These units are internally simple and unaffected by position or angle.
Different makes have their own characteristics, including systems which
employ a pre-set voltage rise time for brakes application, while others
allow the power setting to be controlled by user.
There are strengths and weakness for each style of unit.
• The pendulum base units: require a braking sensation to engage them, so on slippery road
they can have reduce effectiveness. Some may also be tricked momentarily if braking is
undertaken on a very steep rise or descent.
• Time and intensity base units: Always apply the same braking effort, which could be
inappropriate at times.
Both types have a manual over-ride operation for applying the brakes. Some models boast digital
readouts, short circuit, or faulty wiring indictors, or temporary braking boost as additional feature.
A feature of electric brake controllers is a manual override function which allows the driver to apply
the trailer brakes independent of the towing vehicle.
Multiplexing is the next stage for brake controllers making it even easier to fit, however at the time
writing, no brake controllers utilise multiplex system.

TRAILER MOUNTED INERTIAL DECELERATION CONTROLLERS:
If the same trailer is hauled by a variety of tow vehicles, this controller

can provide trailer self-contained brake system capability. The controller
connects to the trailer brake light circuit and a pre-set current is supplied
to the electromagnets, enabling tow vehicles without the need for brake
controllers. Duo-servo drum brakes may only be used with this design
because of the reduced magnetic attraction. Disadvantage of this
system is the driver does not have manual over ride capability.
MOTION SENSING TYPE CONTROLLERS
Describing types of brake controllers available to the client, they will arrange in price and options,
it will depend on what the controller has to do from a trailer to a large five-wheeler.
The two types of electrical brake controllers motion sensing or pendulum style and time delay or
solid state. Although the controller’s methods are different, both types of controllers are very
similar. Both allow the user to adjust output or braking power and both have a pressure sensitive
manual over-ride trigger that can be used to apply the trailer brakes independent of the vehicle
brakes and as well as having the same wiring configuration.
TEKONSHA P3
Tekonsha P3 electric brake controller is said to be the most advance

controller on the market. Features include easy to see LCD display with
multiple colour and contrast options with highly advanced easy-to-
understand roadside diagnostic and easy up front controls. The original
Boost feature allows for different levels of customized braking. It also
has a compact, dash – hugging design and unique easy to use clip
mounting system for quick disconnect and easy storage.
TEKONSHA PRODIGY
The prodigy is a technologically advanced controller. Even with its

pendulum-based output it requires no levelling and is equipped with
self-adjusting sensing device to compensate for varying terrain. Its
digital display illustrates the voltage level delivered to trailers brakes
whilst driving and also reports any electrical fault conditions such as
power loss, short circuits. It has a plug in the wiring harness for easy
removal and a unique pocket mounting for flexible options. This unit
has a variable power level that is further complimented by a boost feature for incremental power.

TEKONSHA VOYAGER
The voyager unit is a basic pendulum based controller with an indicator

light to confirm that the trailer is connected and the circuit is complete.
The indicator light also changes colour as an indication of the amount
of power going to the trailers brakes. The Voyager controller has a
manual-braking slide lever and variable gain control. It provides
smooth braking but can be fiddly to adjust.
ACCU-POWER ACCU-TRAC
The Accutrac is an inertia activated brake controller. The AccuTrac is

especially suited for constantly changing load conditions. The dual
action slide controls allow customized stopping power both in town
and on the highway. It features dual brake action setting controls, solid
state electronics, easy to set up and adjust, positive LED indicator
confirms brake connection.
HAYES LEMMERZ ENERGIZE 111
The Energize is a simple to use pendulum base controller. It has a

manual pendulum level which is highly visible and easy to set. A roller
gain wheel allows easy tuning of braking quantity and the manual
braking slide overrides gain settings for full emergency braking. An LED
indicator light intensifies as braking power increases.
TIME DELAY CONTROLLERS
ACCUPOWER PILOT
The Accupower pilot mounting options are very flexible as you are able
to mount it in any direction even upside down. It has a large digital two-
digit display making it easy to read the voltage output to brakes (vs. a
percentage output) as well as connection to trailer.
Feature include microprocessor allowing control to be mounted upside

down and still have a readable display, protection against short circuit
and loss of ground and with an optional ball mount available.

HAYMAN REESE SENTINAL
The Hayman Reese controller features simple operation, slim design and
unlimited mounting position. Not being a pendulum base controller, its
power level is varied by adjusting the Sync and Output controls on the unit.
The Sync relates to the timing of the brakes, (advance or delayed) and the
output level control adjusts the power.
Because there is no internal pendulum sensor the Hayman Reese controller will deliver the same
braking performance every time you apply the brakes which limits its ability to deliver smooth and
effective braking in all stopping conditions. The unit also has a manual control that allows variable
independent application of the trailers brakes.
REDARC
The Redarc is a miniature solid-state controller which

provides a smooth and progressive brake application
when the vehicles brakes are applied. Adjustable braking
force is by a fingertip rotary control, while a manual
switch provides manual override to operate the trailer
brakes and brake lights without applying vehicle brakes.
The intensity of the braking depends on the position of the sensitivity adjustment. An LED indicator
advises operating mode by changing from green to red as braking force is increased.
SET UP AND WIRING DIAGRAM.
A brake controller is needed to send controlled current to the hydraulic activator or electromagnets
in the brake assembly. Selecting the correct wire size to the actuators (blue wire) is critical to prevent
voltage drop. The wiring colour codes are the same for most types and consist of four wires:
• Black – B+ (mostly 12v systems)
• White – Ground
• Blue – Trailer Brake wire
• Red – Vehicle Brake Switch
Older vehicles that do not have electronic control systems or LED lights, the red brake wire for the
control unit can be splice into the cold side of the brake switch. For most current vehicles,

manufacture instructions will have to be followed. These systems use a BCM to control current to
operate circuits, fault codes can be activated if the correct installation process is not followed.
Example of this is BT50 instruction from Mazda; to avoid

impairment, prevent direct attachment of brake switch
wire to the brake input control unit. This circuit will need a
relay wired in, utilising the vehicle brake switch to trigger
relay to provide a B+ (fused) to brake controller input wire.
By doing this a small current will trigger the relay for a larger
current to flow to the control unit and this will not affect the current from the BCM to circuits.
ELECTRIC OVER HYDRAULIC TRAILER BRAKES
Arguably the most popular modern heavy (exceeding 2 tonnes) trailer brake system, the electric-
hydraulic trailer brake actuator is a compact microprocessor-based 12-24 volt DC system for use on
single, two, and three axle trailers commonly equipped with hydraulic disc brakes.
The electric-hydraulic actuator is unique in that it is totally trailer mounted incorporating a battery
and an emergency breakaway switch. The actuator connects to the wiring on the trailer and requires
an additional 12-24 volt, 20 amp power supply from the tow vehicle to the electric-hydraulic unit.
The Electric-Hydraulic actuator contains a compact hydraulic

pump driven by an electric motor. The amount of current
supplied by the in-cab controller varies the speed of the
electric motor and ultimately controlling the amount of
hydraulic pressure from the hydraulic pump to the brake
assemblies which can be either disc or drum type brakes.
The accelerometer is used to sense the amount of braking

being generated by the towing vehicle. Based on that input, the
microprocessor then automatically adjusts the output of the
unit to generate a comparable amount of trailer braking.
A small dry cell battery is mounted close to the Electric-Hydraulic unit that is capable of supplying
current to the unit for at least 15 minutes should the trailer become detached from the tow vehicle.

CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES
Most automotive electrical circuits are protected from damage by current levels that exceed the
designed amperage capacity of the system. The most common circuit protection device is the fuse.
There are several basic types of quick replacement fuses: glass, ceramic, and the newer blade type
fuse. Glass and ceramic fuses are found mostly on older vehicles.
There are three different types of blade style fuses. These fuses consist of a plastic housing with a
metal strip connected between two metal blade-type connectors. The fuse rating is indicated on top
of the plastic housing, and the plastic is colour-coded for current rating.
Because electric braking systems is a control system of a vehicle, they can’t be protected by fuses
(if the fuse blows for any reason, the circuit is inoperative), they must be protected by a self-
resetting circuit breaker. Circuit breakers can be mounted in the fuse panel or installed in-line with
the electrical circuit. There are three common types of circuit breakers: the self-resetting circuit
breaker (also called the cycling circuit breaker), the manual circuit breaker (also called the resettable
circuit breaker), and the positive temperature coefficient (PTC) solid-state circuit breaker.
SWITCHES, RELAYS AND GLOBES
An electrical switch is the most common way of controlling an on/off function or

of directing the flow of current in an electrical circuit. The simplest type of switch
is the single-pole/single-throw (SPST) switch, example right. The term pole refers
to the number of input circuits, and throw refers to the number of output circuits.
Some SPST electrical switches are momentary contact switches. For example, a
horn switch (button) has a spring-loaded contact that keeps the contacts from
closing unless external pressure is applied to the button.
Another type of specialized switch used extensively in vehicles is a remotely controlled

electromagnetic switch, also called a relay. This switch is designed to use a small amount of current
to control a relay coil that will electromagnetically close a set of contact points to complete a higher
amperage circuit. A horn circuit is an example of a relay-controlled application.
There are normally two tests to perform on a relay. To bench test a relay when it is off the vehicle,
first test the relay coil for continuity with an ohmmeter. If there is continuity in the coil, the relay
winding is good. An open in the coil wiring would be indicated by an infinity reading on the
ohmmeter.
Next, test the relay contacts by connecting an ohmmeter to the relay contact terminals. When the
relay coil is energized by a suitable battery, the ohmmeter should indicate continuity through the
contact points. If the contact points are worn or burned, the resistance reading on the ohmmeter
will be high.

There are several different brands, styles, and shapes of relays used by
vehicle manufacturers. The most common relay is a normally open (N/O)
contact type with a four-pin terminal. Whenever there is a five-pin relay,
the fifth terminal of the relay is most often a normally closed (N/C) contact,
example right.
The simplest lamp design is an incandescent lamp, which produces a light

as a result of current flowing through a coiled tungsten wire filament inside
a glass bulb envelope. Inside the glass bulb is an inert gas that replaces the oxygen and lengthens
the life span of the filament.
LEDs, illustrated right, consist of a crystal that glows like a light bulb when controlled current is
passed through them. LED lights have several advantages over the incandescent lamps:
• Quicker on time
• Less amperage draw
• Brighter operation
• Long service life
LED lighting systems have a very fast on time. A typical LED reaches full output brilliance in less than
1 millisecond, whereas incandescent bulbs take about 200 milliseconds or more to reach their full
brightness. When LEDs are used in stoplights, the quicker on time has been proven in government
studies as helping reduce the number of rear-end collisions.
The current draw in a typical LED lighting system uses significantly less than an incandescent lamp
system. The actual amperage in an incandescent circuit varies depending on the number of bulbs in
the lighting circuit. The start-up surge current is almost non-existent in LEDs, making this circuit very
popular with the trucking industry, which can use dozens of lights on its truck and trailer
combinations.
Because LEDs are smaller than incandescent lamps, several can be placed behind the lens assembly,
giving it overall brighter illumination. In addition, LED lights have an expected life span of 100,000
hours or more, compared to incandescent lamps, which normally last from 1,500 to 10,000 hours
depending on heat and vibration factors.
CABLE TYPES AND SIZES AND CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY
For a load component to operate properly as designed, the wire size used in electrical circuits must
handle not only the necessary current, but also any vibration and heat exposure. Two common wire
size standards are used to designate a wire size: the American wire gauge (AWG) and the metric
wire size currently used by most automotive manufacturers.

The AWG standard assigns a number to a wire based on the diameter of the wire conductor,
excluding its insulation. The AWG wire rule states that the higher the AWG number is the smaller
the wire conductor is. For example, an 18-gauge wire is smaller in diameter than a 12-gauge wire.
The majority of automotive electrical systems use 12 to 18-gauge wires.
The metric system of wire size is determined by the Metric Size AWG (Gauge) Ampere
cross-sectional area of the wire, which is expressed (mm2) Size Capacity
in square millimetres (mm2). In the metric system 0.5 20 4
the smaller the number is, the smaller the wire 0.8 18 6
conductor is. The table right, is a cross-reference 1.0 16 8
2.0 14 15
between AWG and metric wire sizes. Many
3.0 12 20
aftermarket parts suppliers offer wire only in AWG 5.0 10 30
sizes, so it is necessary to convert in most cases. 8.0 8 40
Another factor in determining the proper wire size for an electrical circuit is the length of the wire.
As the wire gets longer, its internal resistance increases. For example, a 1 mm2 (16 gauge) wire that
is 3 meters long is capable of conducting 8 amperes. However, if the 8-ampere current is to be
carried for 5 meters, then 2 mm2 (14 gauge) wire is needed. Changing to 2 mm2 (14 gauge) wire
prevents unnecessary voltage drops in the circuit due to inadequate wire size.
SENSORS (TWO AND THREE-WIRE)
Wheel speed sensors create electrical signals based on the rotational speed of each wheel they
monitor. Wheel speed sensors do so by using principles of electromagnetism to generate an
analogue or digital electrical signal.
The three most common types of wheel speed sensors are the variable reluctance (magnetic
induction style), magneto-resistive and Hall effect styles. The variable reluctance type is simpler and
usually less expensive for manufacturers to use. This style is sometimes called a passive system
because it is self-contained and needs no outside power to function. Magnetic induction occurs
when the teeth on the tone wheel pass the sensor, creating an analogue AC voltage signal. The
faster the tone wheel rotates, the faster the AC signal
frequency. This AC signal is sent to the ECU where it is processed
and then compared to the AC signals from the other wheels.
Most variable reluctance wheel speed sensors are two-wire sensors, which complete the circuit back
to the ECU. The variable reluctance sensor assembly consists of a coil of wire around a permanent
magnet, with each end of the coil connected to one of the wheel speed sensor terminals which
connect directly into the EBCM. Because this type of sensor operates on principles of magnetism,
the air gap between the toothed tone wheel and sensor is critical. If the air gap is too small, the
parts could contact each other, damaging them. If the air gap is too large, the sensor output signal
to the ECU could be too weak and trigger a code or cause the sensor to work intermittently.

One drawback to the variable reluctance sensor is that because it depends on the speed of
movement of the tone wheel to create a signal, it does not function effectively below vehicle speeds
of around 10 kph. In other words, the amplitude of the sine wave it creates at slow speeds is not
high enough for the EBCM to read it properly.
The magneto-resistive and Hall effect sensor systems are called active systems because they require
an outside power source to operate. If the sensor loses power or ground, it cannot generate an
output signal. The power wire originates from the EBCM and normally supplies the magneto-
resistive or Hall effect sensor systems with a reference voltage of between 5 and 12 volts, depending
on the manufacturer. This helps ensure that the sensor is not affected by changes in the vehicle’s
electrical system voltage. A signal wire transmits the output signal from the sensor to the EBCM.
The magneto-resistive and Hall effect sensors can be a three-wire arrangement, with the third wire
being a dedicated ground, or a two-wire arrangement with ground being provided by the chassis.
A reference voltage and ground are supplied to the sensor assembly, where internal circuitry causes
a small current to flow across the semiconductor bridge/Hall material. If the bridge/Hall material is
exposed to a magnetic force, the magnetism
forces the current to flow to one side of the
bridge/Hall material. This produces a small
difference in voltage across the sides of the
bridge/Hall material, example right. This voltage is
then amplified and processed into a digital “on”
signal (circuit is pulled to ground) and sent to the EBCM. As the magnetic field is removed, the small
signal voltage across the bridge/Hall material falls to 0V. The signal sent to the EBCM will be a digital
“off” signal (reference voltage). As the magnetic field is alternately applied and removed, the sensor
will send a digital square wave on/off signal corresponding to the changes in the magnetic field.
Because the magnetic field does not have to be moving for the bridge/Hall effect voltage to be
created, the sensor works all the way down to 0 kph.
Testing wheel speed sensors is dependent on knowing which kind of sensor the vehicle uses. Do not
assume all two-wire sensors are of the variable reluctance style. With the ignition switch set to the
“run” position and the wheels stationary, use your digital multi-meter (DVOM) to properly back-
probe both sensor wires for voltage. If neither wire has voltage, suspect a variable reluctance sensor.
If one of the two wires has a reference voltage, you are likely dealing with a magneto-resistive or
Hall effect sensor.

ACTUATORS, INCLUDING PULSE WIDTH MODULATED
Actuators are devices such as solenoids, electromagnets and electric motors. They are used to
convert electrical signals into mechanical movement. A typical vehicle has many actuators that are
controlled by the vehicle’s computer systems to manage such functions as stepper motors, various
engine and transmission components, ABS solenoids and valves. Actuators will need to be tested
for correct operation when faults occur in vehicle systems.
The test process will usually entail checking for correct signals to the actuator to verify that correct
operation is possible and checking the mechanical and electrical operation of the actuator to ensure
it is capable of working under operating conditions. Testing actuators may involve the use of test
equipment such as DVOMs, digital storage oscilloscopes and pressure gauges, and may require
other tools such as jumper leads and fused power supplies. Many actuators operate on voltages
supplied by the system computer and may operate at voltages other than battery voltage for
example, 5 volts. Always check the manufacturer’s information for correct voltages, and always
isolate an actuator from its control circuit before applying any external voltage or power supply to
test its operation. Never jump battery or power supply voltages to an actuator while it is connected
to its control circuit; doing so may result in damage to the system computer.
Speed control circuits are used on vehicles to control the speed of electric motors and/or
accessories. A common use is to control of the electric motor that drives the hydraulic pump on
trailer, hydraulic disc brake systems.
Essentially, the speed control circuit manages

the speed and torque of a motor to control the
amount of hydraulic pressure in the system.
Most speed control systems use pulse-width
modulation to control motor speed.
Pulse width (or duty cycle) refers to the percentage of time a circuit is fully on, versus fully off. A
pulse width of 50% means that the circuit is on 50% of the time and off 50% of the time.
This provides about 50% of the electrical power to the motor, which allows it to operate at about
50% power. Likewise, a 25% pulse width means that the electrical power is on 25% of the time.
Because the pulse width is cycled on and off very fast (sometimes exceeding 10,000 cycles per
second), power to the motor appears very smooth and the motor power is controlled very
accurately.
Speed control circuits are constructed from electronic components that can be in dedicated control
modules (brake control module) or integrated into the vehicle’s power train control module that
controls the circuit.

TECHNIQUES FOR READING AND INTERPRETING TECHNICAL INFORMATION
One of the most valuable tools for diagnosing and repairing electric braking system and locating
electrical problems is a wiring diagram. A wiring diagram is an electrical schematic that shows a
representation of actual electrical or electronic components (by use of symbols) and the wiring of
the vehicle’s electrical systems. These diagrams identify the wires and connectors from each circuit
on a vehicle. They also show where different circuits are interconnected, where they receive their
power, where the ground is located and the colours of the different wires. All of this information is
critical to proper repair and researching electrical problems. Some wiring diagrams also give
additional information that helps you understand how a circuit operates and how to identify certain
components.
Wiring diagrams do not explain how the circuit works; this is where your knowledge of the system
is required. By using the wiring diagrams, service information and your electrical knowledge, you
should be able to ascertain the proper operating design of the system. Also, you need to determine
how electrical systems interact with each other.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTING PROCEDURES FOR ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS

Testing of electric brake system devices and wires usually starts with a visual inspection of the
electrical circuit and is followed up with electrical testing. The visual inspection looks for breakage,
corrosion, or deformity and includes examination of the insulation for any worn or melted spots.
In the case of switches, solenoid and relay contacts, an electrical test is necessary. For example, all
switches would require voltage drop testing to see if they operate properly without excessive
resistance.
Additionally, solenoid and relay contacts can wear out and produce excessive resistance, so
performing a voltage drop test on them is a valid testing procedure. Some solenoids can be
disassembled and visually inspected, if time and cost constraints permit. In this case, the solenoid
cap may be removed and the contacts visually inspected.

Typically, if there is an excessive voltage drop across the contacts, the contacts will be pitted and
burned. Measuring resistance and continuity also comes into play when a shorted or open circuited
relay or solenoid winding is suspected.
DVOMs and test lamps are used for most basic testing, with more specialised test equipment, such
as oscilloscopes, being used if necessary. It is important to note that conventional test lamps should
not be used on electronic circuits due to their higher current draw, which could overpower the
electronic components.
Some tests, such as resistance tests, can be conducted on components while installed or out of the
circuit, provided they are isolated from the circuit beforehand. In-circuit voltage and current tests
are often preferred because they usually provide the opportunity to test the component under load
or during operational conditions. After in-circuit testing, components can be removed for individual
testing, if required.
Manufacturers produce diagnostic flowcharts that guide the technician through a diagnostic
sequence based on test results. In complex circuits, it is good practice to gather as much information
as possible about the operation of the circuit and the customer concern.
With that information, and the diagnostic flowchart, formulate a testing sequence for diagnosing
the fault. Going through this process will help you to understand the problem and to identify
possible causes and a potential sequence of testing.
USING DIAGNOSTIC FLOW CHARTS
Flow charts (sometimes referred to as a fault tree) are a useful tool in automotive diagnosis, as they
make a process easy to understand at a glance. The flow chart guides you through the process as
system tests are performed. The results of a test then direct you on to another branch. Keep
following the steps until the problem is isolated.
A flow chart is a convenient way to observe and follow

the process from beginning to end, it helps improve
and speed up the work flow process, highlight the key
elements and detach non-essential or even excessive
steps. Nearly all vehicle manufactures produce
diagnostic flowcharts for their systems in either
hardcopy (workshop manuals) or electronic format.
Having established flow charts promotes an efficient
resolution to customer complaints and introduces
quality standards to diagnosing vehicle faults,
regardless of the skill level of the technician.

ACCESSING ELECTRICAL TERMINALS
A probing technique is a way accessing electrical terminals, using the DVOM test probes without
damaging connectors, fuse holders or wiring. There are many different types of probes and probing
techniques you can use, depending on the circuit being tested. Some examples are alligator clips,
fine-pin probes, and break in connections.
Make sure you know the voltage limits of the probes you use, because high-voltage measurements
require special probes that are designed for that purpose. Never use excessive force when probing;
doing so may bend or damage connectors and terminals. The standard probe leads that are supplied
with a DVOM are basic straight metal probes useful for making quick measurements in circuits, but
they do require the use of both hands to hold them in place.
Leads with alligator clips, which come in various sizes, allow

the DVOM leads to be clipped onto the circuit and held in
place, freeing up your hands for other tasks. These clips are
particularly useful for connecting to larger exposed terminals.
Back-probing is when the probe is pushed in from the back of

a connector to make a connection. To perform this task, very
fine pins are used to reduce the possibility of damage.
The pins are designed to slip into the back of connectors and provide contact without causing
damage to any seal or insulating material.
Insulation piercing probes MUST never be use on high-voltage systems. The practice of using sharp
fine pins that pierce the insulation on low voltage conductors to create a connection has all but been
eliminated. If you must pierce insulation to perform a test, remember to always reinsulate the hole
that the probe makes to prevent any corrosion. Use liquid insulation or a similar product to
reinsulate; do not use room temperature vulcanising (RTV) silicone, which attracts moisture as it
cures, potentially causing corrosion. Because it may result in damage to the insulation or conductor,
this type of probe should be used only on low voltage systems and as a last resort.
RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE DROP
To test for unwanted voltage drop of the conductors, switches, and connectors, measure the voltage
across each of these parts of the circuit and add the voltage drops together. Voltage drop can occur
in electric brake circuits for a number of factors, all affecting the resistance of the circuit:
• The total length of the circuit

• Connection points at the trailer plug
• Conductor determination due to fatigue and exposure

Problems can arise with voltage drop if the correct size wire or trailer connection plug is not to
specifications to carry the current load. Cable deterioration can be prevented by using tinned wire
and double insulation to exposed areas, practically on boat trailers. All ground cables must come
back to the tow vehicle and not chassis of trailer (tow hitch is not a good continuous ground).
To offset the effects of voltage drop, standard wiring calculus needs to apply to selection of cable
size to be used. We first need to calculate the maximum potential current flow in a circuit then
multiply by how many brakes units that are on the trailer. As established previously, each magnetic
brake unit will take a maximum of around five amps under full application.
• 0ne axle two units maximum 10 amperes

• Two axle four units maximum 20 amperes
• Three axles six units maximum 30 amperes
We know that if the system is using an Electric-Hydraulic actuator, the unit will draw around 20
amperes, however refer to the manufactures specification for actual draw.
Refer to a cable chart to calculate the required cable size for a given application.
OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
An open is simply a break in the circuit. An open is caused by turning a switch off, a break in a wire,
a burned-out light bulb, a disconnected wire or connector, or anything that opens the circuit. When
a circuit is open, current does not flow and the component doesn’t work. Because there is no current
flow, there are no voltage drops in the circuit. Source voltage is available everywhere in the circuit
up to the point at which it is open. Source voltage is even available after a load, if the open is after
that point.
Opens caused by a blown fuse will still cause the circuit not to operate, but the cause of the problem
is the excessive current that blew the fuse. Nearly all other opens are caused by a break in the
continuity of the circuit. These breaks can occur anywhere in the circuit.
A short results from an unwanted path for current. Shorted circuits cause an increase in current flow
by bypassing part of the normal circuit path. This increased current flow can burn wires or
components.
An example of a shorted circuit could be found in a faulty electromagnet. The windings within a
magnet coil are insulated from each other; however, if this insulation breaks down, a copper-to-
copper contact is made between the turns. Since part of the windings will be bypassed, this reduces
the number of windings in the coil through which current will flow. This results in the effectiveness
of the coil being reduced, so magnetism decreases. Also, since the current bypasses a portion of the
normal circuit resistance, current flow will increase, and excess heat can be generated.

CHECKING SHORTS TO GROUND, POWER AND SIGNAL CIRCUITS
A pure short circuit is not the only type of short circuit. There are three additional types of short
circuits that you need to understand.
SHORT TO GROUND.
The first is a short to ground. In this case, the circuit

has an unintended path directly to ground. For
example, if the wire from the brake switch to the
brake lights rubs through the wire insulation on a
sharp edge of a body panel, the bare wire may make
contact with the metal panel and cause a short to
ground when the brake pedal is pressed.
A short to ground causes increased current flow and will typically blow the circuit fuse.
SHORT TO POWER.
Another type of short is a short to power. In this case,

the circuit has an unintended path directly to a power
source. An example would be two wires in a harness
that have melted together, one that supplies power
to the blower motor and one that feeds power from
the brake light switch to the brake lights.
In this example, turning on the ignition switch would cause the brake lights to come on because
power would be sent from the ignition fuse and then, due to the short in the wiring to the brake
lights.
SHORT TO SIGNAL
A short to signal is very similar to a short to supply and

may cause the circuit to remain live even after the
switch is turned off. For example, a short between a
wire with power on all the time and a wire switched by
the ignition switch would cause the circuit controlled
by the ignition switch to remain on even after the
switch is turned off. Another example is illustrated
right. With the two wires shorted together, the horn
will sound every time the brake pedal is depressed.
Also, if the horn switch is pressed, the brake lights will
come on. Just remember that shorts can be caused by
faulty components and/or damaged wiring.

Shorts that happen within components, such as an electromagnet brake coil, can usually best be
tested by comparing the reading of an ohmmeter to specifications. Shorts that occur in wire
harnesses are usually best tested by disconnecting each end of the affected harness and using an
ohmmeter to test for unwanted continuity between various wires. A reading on the ohmmeter
when connected to two separate wires indicates a short circuit between them. A true short between
wires would be indicated by a very low ohm reading, typically around 1 ohm or less.
Unintended high resistance in a circuit causes a reduction in current flow in the circuit as well as a
drop in voltage at the resistance. Both of these cause the intended circuit device to not operate
effectively or at all. Unintended high resistance can also cause an overheating condition at the area
of resistance, which can melt wire insulation or plastic connectors. This condition can be caused by
a number of faults, including corroded or loose harness connectors, wire that is too thin for the
circuit current flow, incorrectly connected terminals, and poorly soldered joints.
VISUAL, AUDITORY AND FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENTS

When the electric current is fed into the system by the controller, it flows through the electro
magnets in the brakes or to the Electric-Hydraulic actuator. The high capacity electromagnets are
energized and are attracted to the rotating armature surface of the drums which moves the
actuating levers in the direction that the drums are turning.
The resulting force causes the actuating cam block at the shoe end of the lever to push the primary
shoe out against the inside surface of the brake drum. The force generated by the primary shoe
acting through the adjuster link then moves the secondary shoe out into contact with the brake
drum.
Increasing the current flow to the electromagnets causes the magnet to grip the armature surface
of the brake drum more firmly. This result increasing pressure against the shoes and brake drums
until the desired stop is accomplished.
In electric-hydraulic actuator systems, the brake controller provides a proportional current flow
according to braking needs, to an electrically driven hydraulic pump which provided the hydraulic
pressure to the brake callipers located at the ends of each axle. When the electric-hydraulic pump
is operating, a distinct sound can be heard coming from the unit that changes with increasing
pressure. This is a normally functioning unit.
Trailer and tow vehicle will seldom have the correct amperage flow to the brake magnets to give
safe braking unless the proper adjustments are made. Changing trailer load and driving conditions,
poor electrical connections as well as variations in vehicle charging system output can mean
unstable current flow to electromagnets and electric-hydraulic actuator.

Maintaining brake adjustments (where applicable) and properly set up the brake controller is critical
for safe operation. Refer to the manufactures instructions to set up controllers and maintenance
procedures, some like Tenkonsha provide a CD but most now provide online tutorials.
Electric brake controllers provide a modulation function that varies the current to the electric brakes
with pressure on the brake pedal or amount of deceleration of the tow vehicle. It is important that
the brake controller provides approximately two volts to the braking system when the brake pedal
is first depressed and gradually increases to the voltage 12/14 volts as brake pedal pressure
increased. If the controller jumps immediately to a high voltage output, even during a gradual stop,
the electric brakes will always be fully energized and will result in harsh brakes and potential wheel
lock up.
HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION
BRAKE FLUID LEVEL
The level of the hydraulic fluid in the master cylinder reservoir

should be checked regularly. Reservoirs maybe made of
transparent material and have maximum and minimum fluid
level marks. This enables the fluid level to be checked without
removing the reservoir cap.
The fluid in the reservoir should be maintained at the maximum level and normally should not
require topping up. If frequent topping-up is necessary, the system should be checked for leaks. It
is important to note that not all brake fluid is the same; the manufactures specification should be
followed. Do not mix different brake fluids.
The cap and seal, or the cover and seal, should be refitted to the reservoir correctly so that the fluid
will not leak or be exposed to the atmosphere. Brake fluid is hygroscopic, which means that it
absorbs moisture really. The more moisture that brake fluid contains, the lower the boiling point of
the fluid.
If fluid is being lost from the reservoir, the system should be checked for signs of leaks. Locations of
possible fluid leaks are the master cylinder, the wheel cylinders, the brake hoses, the brake lines
and connections.
Care should be taken when handling and using brake fluid as it will cause damage if spilt on
paintwork. Should this occur, the area should be immediately washed with cold water.
BRAKE FLUID CHANGE
Brake fluid gradually deteriorates and becomes contaminated. It also absorbs moisture and this
reduces its boiling point.

Brake fluid should be changed regularly - the usual recommendation is every two years. The system
is bled, following the manufactures recommended processes. Fluid is bled from each wheel until
new, clean fluid flows from the bleeder.
BRAKE ADJUSTMENTS
Disc brakes do not require adjustment of the pads because they are self-adjusting. The pistons
gradually move out of their cylinders as the pads wear to maintain a small clearance between the
pads and the discs.
Most drum brakes have self-adjusting mechanisms, but there are some that have manual
adjustments. These will require periodic adjustment to compensate for brake-lining wear.
FOUNDATION BRAKE COMPONENT INSPECTION
Use of the brakes gradually wears away the friction material of the brake linings and the brake pads
until a point is reached where they have to be replaced.
The thickness of brake pads can usually be checked visually without removing them from the calliper
assembly. Callipers often have an inspection hole through which the edges of the pads can be seen.
Some brake pads have a metal spring which acts as a wear indicator. When the pad has worn so that
there is only about 1.5 mm of facing left, the spring makes contact with the disc when the brakes
are applied. This produces a metallic sound that warns the driver that the pad is near its wear limit.
With drum brakes, the wheels and brake drums have to be removed to check the thickness of the
brake linings. Refer to the manufacture’s specifications for minimum friction thickness (usually 0.5
– 1.0 mm).
The condition of the disc rotor and drum also should be examined regularly. This is particularly
important on boat trailers where corrosion can quickly determinate metal components if not
flushed sufficiently after use. Metal hydraulic brake lines and flexible brake hoses are also a
common maintenance item for boat trailers.

COMPONENT DAMAGE AND WEAR
Brake drums need to be removed for a variety of reasons, such as inspecting the thickness of the
brake linings, checking electro magnets and the operating mechanism. Drum electric brake systems
are equipped with high quality electromagnets that are designed to provide the proper input force
and friction characteristics. Magnets should be inspected and replaced if worn unevenly or
abnormally.
Even if wear is normal as indicated by the straightedge,

the magnets should be replaced if any part of the
magnet coil has become visible through the friction
material facing magnet. The drum armature surface
also should be resurfaced when replacing magnets.
Lining on brake shoes is much thinner than on disc brake pads

due to the much greater surface area of the brake shoe lining.
Drum brake shoes consist of friction material or lining bonded
or riveted onto a steel shoe. Refer to the manufacture’s
specifications for minimum friction thickness (usually 0.5 – 1.0
mm) and replacement procedures.
There is usually a combination of springs, links, levers, guides,

and retainers. It is easy to install these items incorrectly. It is
good practice to carefully examine each brake assembly
before disassembling and do one unit at a time.
The disc brake pads are located inside the calliper or calliper
mounting bracket. The pads clamp onto the rotor to slow or
stop the trailer. The disc brake pad consists of a friction
material bonded or riveted to a steel backing plate. With this
design, the pads will wear out over time and need to be
replaced periodically. As with drum brake systems, refer to
the manufactures specifications for minimum friction material
thickness (usually 1.5mm) and replacement procedures.
Disc brakes have a number of advantages over drum brakes, but there also have disadvantages.
Advantages include a reduction in weight, easier inspection and ongoing maintenance, easier pad
replacement and a greater exposure to cooling reducing the likelihood of brake fade.
Disadvantage; they are prone to noisy squeals and squeaks, the rotors tend to warp easier than in
drum brake systems and because disc brakes are not self-energising, they need higher clamping
forces for their application, hence the need for an effective electric over hydraulic system.

COMPONENT OR CONNECTOR CORROSION
Over time, electrical devices wear out and electrical contacts, terminals, and wires may become
corroded, loosed, or broken, introducing unwanted electrical resistance that prevents the circuit
from working properly or at all.
External visual inspections miss most cases of component or

connector corrosion producing electrical voltage drop. Unless in
particularly bad cases, you usually can't see the corrosion inside a
connection or the damaged wire that is causing the problem.
However, obvious signs are discolouration, distortion,
swelling/growth or any abnormality are a dead giveaway that
require further investigation.
Normally, connectors will need to be physically separated to perform a visual inspection for the
presence of corrosion. Adequate lighting is critical for inspection and may include a magnifying glass
to examine deep into terminals of a problematic circuit. Once the presence of corrosion in a
connector is confirmed, a decision whether to clean or replace it must be made. Usually there is no
way in telling just how far corrosion has penetrated into the terminals and the conductor, and for
that reason it is often more economical and less liable to replace the connector and/or the terminals
when possible.
A voltage drop test should be one of your primary tools in troubleshooting electrical corrosion
problems. Done correctly, this test can tell you whether a circuit is dropping more voltage than it
should.
COMPONENT WATER OR MOISTURE INGRESS
Connector terminals are installed to the ends of wires to provide low-resistance termination to
wires. They allow electricity to be conducted from the end of one wire to the end of another wire.
In many cases, they allow the wires to be disconnected and reconnected.
They come in many different types and sizes to suit various applications for wire sizes and
termination requirements. For example, there are push-on spade terminals, eye ring terminals to
accommodate screws, butt connectors, and male and female terminals that are designed to be
separated and reconnected. Most terminals are the crimp type, which require the use of special
tools to crimp the terminal to the end of the wire. They can be insulated or non-insulated.
Terminals can be installed as a single terminal on a wire or grouped together in a wiring harness
with a connector housing or harness connectors. Connector housings have male and female sides
and are usually shaped so that they can be connected in only one way. They will often incorporate
a locking mechanism, so the plug cannot accidentally work loose.

Many of these connectors have some degree of weatherproofing to keep moisture out. Special tools
are usually needed to insert and remove the terminals from the connector housing.
Fully weatherproof connectors have seals at the back of the

connecter (around each cable) and at the connector join to
preventing moisture ingress. Added protection can be improved by
applying a dielectric grease to the male and female terminals
before reconnecting. Moisture accumulation inside a connector
housing and the presence of an electrical current flow will
eventually cause corrosion. Practically all automotive wiring is made from copper and connection
terminals are copper or brass based which may include a protective coating. When copper or brass
corrodes the oxidation takes on a distinctive green appearance, commonly referred to as green
death. The presence of corrosion to this extent requires immediate correction.
REPAIR PROCEDURES FOR ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEM CIRCUITS

Most electric brake problems that cannot be corrected by either brake adjustment or
synchronization adjustment can be generally traced to electrical system failure. Mechanical causes
are obvious, i.e. bent or broken parts, worn out brake linings or pads, drums or rotors and worn
magnets.
Electric drum brake system voltage is measured at the magnets by connecting the voltmeter to the
two magnet lead wires at any brake. The engine of the towing vehicle should be running when
checking voltage so that a low battery will not affect the readings.
Voltage in the system should begin at 0 volts and, as the controller bar is slowly actuated, should
gradually increase to 12 volts. This is referred to as modulation. No modulation means that when
the controller begins to apply voltage to the brakes it applies an immediate high voltage which
causes the brakes to apply at maximum power.
The threshold voltage of a controller is the voltage applied to the brakes when the controller first
turns on. The lower the threshold voltage the smoother the brakes will operate. Too high of a
threshold voltage (in excess of 2 volts as quite often found in heavy duty controllers) can cause
grabby, harsh brakes.
System amperage is the amperage being drawn by all brakes on the trailer. The engine of the tow
vehicle should be running to check amperage.
The best place to measure system amperage is at the blue wire of the controller, (Using a clamp
ammeter is the best, saves cutting wires to put ammeter in series). If a clamp meter is not available,
then the blue wire must be disconnected, and the ammeter put in series into the circuit. System
amperage draw should be noted.

Individual amperage draw can be measured by inserting the ammeter in the line at the magnet you
want to check. A clamp ammeter is best, if the wire is cut to put meter in series then when
reconnecting, wires have to be soldered a heat shrink used to seal connection.
With the electric disc brake system, pull the breakaway switch. The electric brake unit should run.
If it doesn’t, check the onboard battery condition, circuit breaker and system wiring.
Attach the trailer to the towing vehicle. Turn on the ignition switch and ensure the in cab electronic
brake controller is on. The trailer electric brake unit should run whenever the brake pedal is
depressed. If it doesn’t run check the wiring is to specifications.
With the trailer electric brake units running, determine that a minimum of 8.5 volts is reaching the
electric brake unit controller through the black wire.
To test the electric brake units separately; use a 12-volt battery, connect the white wire to the
negative battery terminal, and the blue and black wires to the positive battery terminal. The electric
brake unit motor should run and pressurise.
The most common problem; is low or no voltage and amperage at the brakes, common causes of
this:
• Poor electrical connections

• Open circuits
• Insufficient wire size
• Broken wires
• Improperly functioning controllers
Another common electrical problem is shorted or partially shorted circuits (indicated by high
amperage). These are the most difficult to find.
Possible causes
• Shorted magnet coils

• Defective controllers
• Bare wires contacting a grounded object.
All electrical troubleshooting procedures should start at the controller. Most complaints regarding
brake harshness or malfunction are traceable to improperly adjust or non-function controllers.
Check manufactures instructions for adjustment and testing procedures.

BRAKE CONTROLLERS
Although there is a large number of commercially-available controller units, the majority operate
on a similar set of principles and are a self-contained electronic assembly. They are not designed to
dismantled to facilitate a repair and are typically replaced when there is an internal malfunction. All
manufactures commonly provide a troubleshooting process to isolate and locate system and
component faults. It is strongly recommended that this process is followed.
Essentially electric brake controllers require a constant power supply via a circuit breaker and a good
earth, a feed from the vehicle’s brake lights into the controller unit, and an output through a 7-pin
or 12-pin socket to the trailer. By providing this, it allows for the trailer’s brakes (of any design) to
automatically apply as the vehicles are. Given the variable nature of control units, output power
flow will modulate or vary in proportion to the stopping force applied to the tow vehicle.
Most quality controllers will also have an in-built function to manually apply the trailer’s braking
force totally independently of the tow vehicle’s, a feature which is especially useful in helping
minimise trailer jack knifing, general instability of the rig and swaying of the rig under tow.
Depending on the controller type, you may be able to test the operation of the controller by
connecting a 21watt filament globe between a ground and the blue trailer brake output wire. With
the test light in place the remote head LED will flash green and blue indicating the unit has sensed
trailer brakes are connected. Next, apply the brakes with either the manual override or foot brake
and vary the control knob from minimum to maximum. You should see a smooth progression on the
test lamp from virtually nothing to full brightness, with the remote head’s LED flashing green with
increasingly red flashes as the dial is turned.
ELECTRIC DRUM BRAKES
Trailer drum brakes must be inspected periodically or when a loss of performance is indicated. With
normal use, servicing at annual intervals is usually adequate. To perform and inspection, the drum
must be removed from the stub axle. This is normally achieved with the wheel removed by removing
the wheel bearing nut. It is critical that this nut is refitted to the correct tension, providing the
required bearing pre-load. Magnets and shoes must be changed when they become excessively
worn or scored, a condition which can reduce vehicle braking.
Note: some older brake linings may contain asbestos dust, which has been linked to serious or fatal
illnesses.
1. Avoid creating or breathing the dust within the brake assembly.

2. Avoid machining, filing or grinding the brake linings.
3. Do not use compressed air or dry brushing for cleaning (dust can be removed with a damp
brush).

Many electric brakes have a self-adjusting feature that normally requires on manual adjustments.
Drum brakes not equipped with this feature can be adjusted by using the following procedure:
1. Jack the trailer and secure on an adequate capacity jack stands. Make sure the wheel can
rotate freely.
2. Remove the adjusting hole cover from the adjusting slot on the bottom of the brake backing
plate.
3. With a flat blade screwdriver or standard adjusting tool, rotate the star wheel of the adjusted
to expand the brake shoes. Adjust the brake shoes out until the pressure on the linings
against the drum makes the wheel very difficult to turn.
4. Then rotate the star wheel in the opposite direction until the wheel turns freely with slight
lining drag.
5. Replace the adjusting hole cover and repeat the process on all brakes. Lower the trailer to
the ground.
Electric drum brakes are equipped with high quality electromagnets that are designed to provide
the proper input force and friction characteristics. The magnets should be inspected and replaced if
worn unevenly or abnormally. For best results the magnet friction surface should be flat. The
magnets should be replaced if any part of the magnet coil has become visible through the friction
material facing. It is also recommended that the drum armature surface be refaced when replacing
magnets. Magnets should be replaced in axle pairs.
A visual inspection of the brake shoe linings will

generally indicate if they are useable. Replacement
is necessary if the lining is worn to within 0.8mm
from a rivet head or less that 1.5mm overall on
bonded linings. Drum brake shoes are retained in
place by shoe hold down springs and retractor
springs. The linings are commonly directional and
can be fitted in the wrong position, therefore it is
very important that the correct orientation of all the
components is noted prior to dismantling and one
brake unit is dismantled/reassembled at a time.
Finally, ensure the brake adjusted is lubricated and
wound back in prior refitting the shoes. After the brake drum and wheel have been refitted, each
brake assemble will require adjusting, as described above.

ELECTRIC DISC BRAKES
Disc brake pads can generally be inspected without removing the wheel from the trailer but in most
cases the wheel and calliper will need to be removed if it necessary to replace the brake pads.
Furthermore, it allows for a thorough inspection of the calliper, pads and rotor to determine the
cause of a brake concern. Research the procedure for removing the calliper in the appropriate
service information. To remove the calliper assembly, inspect for leaks, seized slides and damage to
the calliper housing and determine any necessary actions, follow the steps:
1. Jack the trailer and secure on an adequate capacity jack stands. Make sure the wheel can
rotate freely.
2. Undo the wheel nuts and remove the wheel assembly for the axle
3. Push the calliper pistons back into their bores slightly. Although many use a screwdriver a
pry bar is a safer choice.
4. Undo the caliper mounting bolts and remove the calliper assembly from its mountings.
5. Support the calliper assembly once removed, do not allow the calliper to hang by its hose.
6. Inspect the pad thickness and any signs of separation from the backing plate. If the pads
require replacement, the caliper piston will need to be pushed all the way back into the
calliper with the aid of a suitable caliper piston return tool.
7. Ensure the calliper slides are free and not seized, particularly on boat trailers. Always a good
idea to lubricate with an anti-seize whenever the calliper is removed.
8. Carefully remove one section of the calliper piston boot, and check the seal is not leaking.
9. Measure the thickness and check the condition of the disc rotor and compare to
manufactures specifications.
10. Brake fluid is hygroscopic which means it has a tendency to absorb moisture. It requires
changing at regular intervals. Always ensure the correct DOT rating is used for the system
type and application.
ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEM CONNECTORS AND WIRING REPAIRS
CONNECTOR REPAIR
The connector repair parts now in supply are often limited to those connectors having common
shapes and terminal cavity/pin numbers. Therefore, when there is no available replacement
connector of the same shape or terminal cavity/pin number, use one of the alternative methods
described below. Make sure that the terminals are placed in the original order in the connector
cavities/pins, if possible, to aid in future diagnosis.
1. When a connector with a different number of terminals than the original part is used, select
a connector having more terminal cavities/pins than required and replace both the male and
female connector parts.

Example: You need a connector with six terminals but the only replacement available is a
connector with eight terminal cavities. Replace both the male and female connector parts
with the eight-terminal part, transferring the terminals from the old connector to the new
connector.
2. When several different type terminals are used in one connector, select an appropriate male
and female connector part for each terminal type used, and replace both male and female
connector parts.
Example: you need to replace a connector that has two different types of terminals in one
connector. Replace the original connector with two new connectors, one connector for one
type of terminal, another connector for the other type of terminal.
3. When a different shape of connector is used, first select from available parts, a connector
with the appropriate number of terminal cavities/pins and one that uses terminals of the
same size as or larger than the terminals size in the vehicle. The wire lead on the replacement
terminal must also be the same size as, or larger than, the normal size of the wire in the
vehicle. Replace all existing terminals with the new terminals, then insert the terminals into
the new connector.
Example: You need to replace a connector that is round and has six terminal cavities. The
only round replacement connector has three terminal cavities. You would select a
replacement connector that has six or more terminals cavities and not round, then select
terminals that will fit the new connector. Replace the existing terminals, then insert them
into the new connector and join the connector together.
WIRE (CONDUCTOR) REPAIR
Conductor repairs are sometimes needed because of wire damage caused by electrical faults or by
physical damage. Wires may be damaged electrically by short circuits between wires of from wires
to ground. Fusible links may melt from circuit overloads. Wires may be damaged physically by
scraped, crushed or cut insulation, chemical of heat exposure, or breaks caused during testing or
component repair.
Choosing the proper size of wire when making circuit repairs is critical. While choosing wires too
thick for the circuit will only make splicing a bit more difficult, choosing wires too thin may limit
current flow to unacceptable levels or even result in melted wires.
• Cut insulation should be wrapped with tape or covered with heat-shrink tubing. In both
cases, overlap the repair by about 10-15mm on either side.
• If damaged wire needs replacement, make sure the same or larger size conductor is used.
Also attempt to use the same colour. Wire strippers will remove insulation without breaking
or nicking the wire strands.
• When splicing wires, make sure the battery is disconnected. Clean the wire ends. Crimp and
solder then using rosin-core, NOT acid-core solder.

POST-REPAIR TESTING
Post-repair testing of the electric brake system repair is a process carried out according to workplace
procedures to confirm the original fault has been fixed, and any further problems detected as having
been introduced during the repair process, are rectified. The process should include a final
inspection to ensure the work area on the vehicle where the repairs were performed is cleaned and
the work performed is to workplace expectations prior to presenting the vehicle to the customer
ready for use.
Electric braking system post-repair testing procedures should include both static and dynamic
performance tests and initial synchronisation checks of the brake controller, following the
manufactures processes.
Static tests consist of a series of checks when the vehicle/trailer combination is stationary. Different
models will have varied modes of operation but almost all have lights showing when the trailer is
connected and when the brakes are being applied. You should see the lights change colour or start
flashing when the brake pedal is depressed. This indicates that the controller should be supplying a
current flow to the trailer brakes, which can be measure using an ammeter. They will also have a
knob or lever for manually braking application.
With an electric over hydraulic system, a distinct auditable sound will be detected from the hydraulic
actuator mounted on the trailer, confirming the system is operating. A functional test can be applied
by raising the trailer using a jack and position a jack stand under the frame for support, with the
brake pedal depressed, the wheel should not be able to be rotated. However, this may not apply
with some proportional mode electric brake controller because a stationary vehicle is not
decelerating, and some proportional brake controllers will not be applying any power to the trailer
brakes. Many of these systems allow you change to a “User Controlled” mode for the test then
switch it back to “Proportional Mode” when the test is completed.
Dynamic tests are conducted with the vehicle/trailer combination moving. Before road testing
electric brake systems, make sure that it is safe to do so. With the brakes correctly adjusted, make
several hard stops from 30kph on a dry road free of sand and gravel. If the trailer brakes lock and
slide, decrease the gain setting on the controller. If they do not slide, try increasing the gain setting
to the point of impending brake lockup and wheel skid. There should be no sensation of the trailer
'jerking' or 'pushing' the tow vehicle. The trailer should not be braking the towing vehicle otherwise
overheating of the brakes and premature wear will occur.

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AURETB001

DIAGNOSE AND REPAIR ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS

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• The capacity of the towing apparatus fitted to the vehicle, or

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LOCATING AND INTERPRETING POLICIES AND PROCEDURES RELATING TO

WHS, RELATING TO DIAGNOSING AND REPAIRING ELECTRIC BRAKING SYSTEMS

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USING SPECIALISED TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

For diagnosing today’s automotive electrical and electronic systems, the

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USING APPROPRIATE PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Regular prescription eye wear does not meet safety impact

• Exposure to the use of the of heavy lifting equipment

WEARING JEWELLERY WHILE WORKING AROUND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

VOLTAGE, CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND POWER

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Vehicle manufacturers use several series circuits as primary

In the example right, after the current leaves the positive

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A series/parallel circuit is defined as a circuit that contains

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A circuit for dashboard lights is an example of a series-parallel circuit in an automotive application.

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According to Kirchhoff’s current law, the sum of the current in conductors B

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ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE AND RADIATION

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is an undesirable creation of electromagnetism whenever

BRAKING SYSTEM AND COMPONENT FUNDAMENTALS

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In most designs, the "self-energizing" effect only occurs on one

Drum brakes are typically described as either twin leading,

When hydraulic pressure is received from the master cylinder,

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ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKE SYSTEMS

Most light and mid-weight (750kg-2000kg)

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ELECTRIC BRAKE CONTROLLERS

The two main energising methods are:

• the pendulum-based controller

PENDULUM CONTROLLER OR MOTION SENSING:

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Because these use a weighted pendulum to inform the circuit of

Also, a manual slider or plunger is provided so that in an emergency

TIME AND INTENSITY OR SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS:

Once set up the power adjustment should remain satisfactory, provided

There are strengths and weakness for each style of unit.

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TRAILER MOUNTED INERTIAL DECELERATION CONTROLLERS:

If the same trailer is hauled by a variety of tow vehicles, this controller

MOTION SENSING TYPE CONTROLLERS

Tekonsha P3 electric brake controller is said to be the most advance

The prodigy is a technologically advanced controller. Even with its

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The voyager unit is a basic pendulum based controller with an indicator

The Accutrac is an inertia activated brake controller. The AccuTrac is

HAYES LEMMERZ ENERGIZE 111

The Energize is a simple to use pendulum base controller. It has a

TIME DELAY CONTROLLERS

Feature include microprocessor allowing control to be mounted upside