CHEMISTRY

Paper 2
short notes
 States of Matter
Changes in states
Heat released to surrounding

Heat absorbed from surrounding

 States of Matter
Heating curve Temperature remains constant when changing state

Because
All energy is used to
boiling overcome attractive
forces

melting
 States of Matter
Cooling curve
Temperature remains constant when changing state
Because
All energy is used to
condensation overcome attractive
forces

freezing
 Diffusion
**Always calculate Mr (relative molecular mass)

• Higher mass, Mr, means slower diffusion

• Lower mass, Mr, means faster diffusion
Diffusion experiment Ammonia travels faster
as it has lower mass, Mr
 Atomic structure
Isotopes
• Have same number of protons
• Have same number of electrons
• Have Different number of neutrons

❖ Isotopes have same chemical properties

Because they have same number of electrons in
outermost orbit/shell
Isotopes abundance calculation

(90.48 x 20) + (0.27x21) + (9.25x22)

=
100

= 20.1877
= 20.19
 Atomic structure
Ionic compounds with ionic bonds
• Strong attraction between oppositely charges ions
• Giant Lattice of oppositely charged ions
• Soluble in water
• Conduct electricity only when molten or aqueous
• Not volatile

• Higher melting point (metal with a non metal)

 Atomic structure
Covalent compounds with covalent bonds
• Weak intermolecular force of attraction between molecules
• Simple molecule
• Not Soluble in water
• Does not conduct electricity
• Not volatile

• Low melting and boiling point (all gases & all organic compounds)
 Giant covalent structures
(diamond, graphite, silicon (IV) oxide)
• Diamond and silicon (IV) oxide have similar structures
• All giant covalent structures have very high melting points

• Only graphite conduct electricity

❑ Graphite used as Lubricant

Because layers can slide past each other
(due to weak forces between layers)
Strong covalent bonds Strong covalent bonds Strong covalent bonds

Hexagonal layers with

weak attractive forces

diamond graphite silicon (IV) oxide

▪In diamond, each carbon forms bonds with 4 other carbons
▪In graphite, each carbon forms bonds with 3 other carbons
▪In SiO2, each oxygen forms bonds with 2 silicon atoms
Metallic bonding (metals group 1,2,3 & transition metals)
• Strong attraction between positive ions & sea of electrons
• Giant Lattice of positive metal ions & sea of electrons

• ALL metals conduct electricity in solid, molten, aqueous

• Not volatile

• Higher melting point (except group 1 metals)

 Electrochemistry
•PANIC (positive anode, negative is cathode)
•CRAO (cathode reduction, anode oxidation)

•OILRIG
(oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons)

▪Always positive ion (mostly H or Cu) deposited at cathode,

▪Always negative ion (oxygen or halide) deposited at Anode,
 Electrochemistry
Basics
• In dilute aqueous solutions, always oxygen formed at anode

• In concentrated aqueous solutions, always halide (chlorine,

bromine, iodine) is formed at anode

• In Aqueous solutions, always hydrogen formed at cathode

except copper, silver, gold
 Electrochemistry
Electron flow
• electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit
 Electrochemistry
Using Copper electrodes (copper purification)
• More copper forms at cathode
• Copper becomes ions at anode

• Cathode mass increases

• Anode mass decreases
X
✓.
✓.
✓.
 Extraction of Aluminium
Bauxite ore contains Aluminium oxide
• Cathode equation
anode needs to
• Anode equation be replaced often
• Because oxygen
formed at anode
❑ Roles of cryolite reacts with carbon
✓Act as a solvent (dissolve aluminium oxide) anode
✓increases conductivity • forming
✓Decrease operating temperature carbon dioxide,
 Chemical energetics
Exothermic Endothermic

ΔH
+ve
ΔH -ve
 Chemical energetics
Bond

• More energy absorbed to break bonds = endothermic

• More energy released in bond making/formation

= exothermic

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 Physical and Chemical changes
▪ In physical changes, no new product is formed
▪ This includes melting, boiling, freezing, evaporation,
filtering, evaporating, crystallization, distillation

▪ In chemical changes, a new product is formed & a reaction occurs

▪ This includes burning, combustion, polymerization,
photosynthesis, all organic reactions, decomposition,
neutralization, rusting, oxidation, reduction, redox
 Rate of reaction
Basics
• Only temperature, increases energy and particles with
more energy than activation energy

• Only catalyst, decreases activation energy,

but catalyst does not increase more collisions

• Increasing concentration, temperature, surface area (using

powder), all of these, increases more frequent collisions
 ▪ Yield increases
Equilibrium when equilibrium moves to right side
1. Rate of forward and reverse reaction is equal
2. Concentration of reactions and products are no longer changing

❑ When temperature increases, system tries to decrease it by

favoring endothermic reaction side, so equilibrium moves that side
❑ When temperature is decreased, system tries to increase it by
favoring exothermic reaction side, so equilibrium moves that side
❑ When pressure is increased, system tries to decrease it by favoring
side with less gas molecules, so equilibrium moves that side
 ▪ Yield increases
Equilibrium when equilibrium moves to right side

3 gas : 1 gas
endo exo

• When temperature is low, system tries to increase

temperature by favoring exothermic reaction – right,
So equilibrium moves to right side, so higher yield

• When pressure is high, system tries to decrease pressure

by favoring side with less gas molecules– right side,
So equilibrium moves to right side, so higher yield
 Redox
Basics

•OILRIG
(oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons)

• Oxidizing agent: helps others to oxidize, itself gets reduced

• Reducing agent: helps others to reduce, itself gets oxidized
 Redox
oxidised
0 0

reduced

• Zinc helps copper to get reduced, itself gets oxidized,

so, zinc is the reducing agent
Acids & Bases
▪ Acids are Proton donor
▪ Bases are Proton acceptor
▪ Alkali are soluble bases
▪ Strong acids have low pH, 1,2
and higher H+ ion concentration
▪ Weak acids have pH, 4,5,6
and less H+ ion concentration

• Strong acids: fully ionized (dissociated) in aqueous solution

• Weak acid: partially ionized (dissociated) in aqueous solution

Thymolphthalein turns blue in alkali, but colorless in acids

Amphoteric • Can react with (neutralize) both acids and alkali
Oxides • Examples: Aluminium oxide Al2O3, Zinc oxide ZnO

Acidic • Non-metal oxides & can react with alkali only

Oxides • Examples: carbon dioxide, CO2 , SO2,

Basic • Metal oxides & can react with ACIDS only

Oxides • Examples: all group 1&2 metal oxides
K2O, Na2O, MgO, CaO, BeO
Oxides

• Group 1 and 2 forms basic oxides

• Group 3 element like aluminium forms
amphoteric oxide
• Group 6,7 forms acidic oxides

• Only Aluminium oxide & Zinc oxide are amphoteric

 Salt paraparation
Precipitation
• Two soluble salts form an insoluble salt

• Common examples include Barium sulfate, lead sulfate

❖ ALL SPA salts are soluble (sodium, potassium, ammonium)

❖ All carbonates are insoluble
Periodic Table Trends