Transportation Research Record 1796 ■ 41

Paper No. 02-3487

Methodology to Calculate Sight Distance

Available to Drivers at
Skewed Intersections
Young-Tae Son, Sang-Gu Kim, and Jin-Kak Lee

A methodology was developed to calculate sight distance available to (intersection angle, lane width, shoulder width, position of stop line),
drivers at skewed intersections of minor roads that are controlled by vehicle’s dimension, and driver’s field of view.
stop signs. The methodology considers the fact that the sight distance
may vary depending on the position of the driver and the different lines
of sight given to the driver by different types of vehicles. Through field SIGHT-DISTANCE EQUATION DEVELOPMENT
observations, factors are found that affect the sight distance available to
drivers. The factors include intersection geometry, the vehicle’s dimen-
The amount of available sight distance (ASD) varies depending on
sion, and the driver’s field of view. With the sight triangle properly
the following factors:
drawn, equations were developed for calculating the available sight dis-
• Geometric design factors such as
tance considering these factors. Values of sight distance were compared
– Lane width,
with stopping-sight distance of vehicles on the crossroads by varying
– Position of stop line, and
design speeds and intersection angles. Nomographs were developed that
– Lateral clearance, including curb width and pedestrian walk
can be used by road designers or operators to check if a skewed inter-
width;
section satisfies the sight-distance requirement.
• Dimension of the design vehicle; and
• Field of a driver’s view.
A skewed intersection is defined as an intersection where the angle
of crossing streets is not close to 90°. When roadways intersect at Considering the above factors affecting the amount of sight dis-
skewed angles, vehicles passing through the intersection have a tance at a skewed intersection, a diagram correctly showing the line
longer distance to traverse. The longer distance will result in an of sight and ASD was drawn and is shown in Figure 1. Notation for
increased time of exposure to the cross-street traffic. This calls for Figure 1 is as follows:
an increased amount of intersection sight distance. Furthermore,
• VA is driver’s field of view (degree),
drivers’ line of sight, with an acute-angle approach to their right,
• θ is intersection angle (degree),
may be obstructed by their vehicles’ body parts, such as door
• f1 is lateral clearance of major road (m),
frame and panel aft of the door. That means sight distance may be
• f2 is lateral clearance of minor road (m),
different for different types of vehicles. Thus, to provide an ade-
• L is length of stopped vehicle on minor road (m),
quate sight distance for a skewed intersection, an appropriate
• l is distance between driver’s eye and vehicle’s front bumper (m),
methodology should be given to road designers. However, current
• K is distance between driver’s eye and end of right side of the
design guidelines, including the AASHTO Green Book (1) and
minor road (m),
other countries’ design manuals, describe the methods of calcu- • W is distance between the end of right-side lanes of major
lating sight distance for intersections where the angle of crossing roadway for both directions (m),
roads is near 90°. • S is distance traveled by vehicle on minor road to clear the
The objective of this research was to develop a methodology for intersection (m), and
calculating sight distance available to drivers at skewed intersections, • a is 180° − (90° + VA) − θ.
assuming that the intersection is one where the crossing of minor
roads is controlled by stop signs. The methodology considers the fact Two shaded triangles in Figure 1 are used to calculate ASD for
that the sight distance may vary depending on the driving positions the skewed intersection. These two shaded triangles are magnified
of the drivers and that different types of vehicles can give drivers dif- and shown in Figure 2.
ferent lines of sight. The research conducted field observations to Using simple trigonometrics, S1 and S2 in Figure 2 are easily found
find the factors affecting the sight distance available to drivers at as follows:
skewed intersections. The factors include intersection geometry
K + f2
S1 = (1)
Y.-T. Son and J.-K. Lee, Department of Transportation Engineering, MyongJi
tan θ
University, San 38-2 Namdong Yongin, Kyunggido 449-728, Korea. S.-G. Kim,
W + f1
Department of Transportation Engineering, Yosu National University, San 96-1 S2 = (2)
Dundoek-Dong, Yeou City, Jeollanam-Do 550-749, Korea. sin θ
42 Paper No. 02- 3487 Transportation Research Record 1796

minor road

K
f2
l S
S
(Sight Line) A L
 S1

S2 f1
major road 90 | θ +VA
a W

ASD (Available Sight Distance)

FIGURE 1 Diagram for calculating sight distance of a skewed intersection.

(a) selection of vehicles representing design vehicles; and (b) finding

S1 S2 the field of view and visual angle through field study.
K+ f 2
According to the Korean Road Design Guide, design vehicles are
W+f 1 classified into three categories: passenger vehicle, large vehicle, and
semitrailer (2). Figure 3 shows the dimensions of the three design
(a) (b) vehicle types.
To select and conduct field study on driver’s field of view and visual
FIGURE 2 Triangles for calculating (a) S 1 and (b) S 2 .
angle, vehicles representing design vehicles are selected through
investigating vehicles’ dimensions based on the Korean Automobile
Thus, ASD is calculated using Equation 3: Association Annual Report (2000). The selected vehicles are also
shown in Figure 3.
S After selecting the vehicles representing design vehicles, visual
ASD =  sin(90° + VA) (3)
sin a angles of drivers are measured by varying the driving posture of a
driver (Figure 4). Different postures are defined in the same manner
where S ′ = S1 + S2 + 1. as done by Gattis and Low (3): sit-back position (SB), comfort posi-
tion (CP), and lean-forward position (LF). The visual angle (VA) for
the three positions can be found as follows:
DETERMINING FACTOR VALUES
VA SB = arctan 
SB 
Design Factor Values  ( K + f2 ) 

VA CP = arctan 
To produce ASD values, several factors affecting sight distance are CP 
assumed or found. Table 1 shows factor values suggested by the  ( K + f2 ) 
Korean Road Design Guide (2).
VA LF = arctan 
LF 
 ( K + f2 ) 
Visual Angle
Figure 5 shows visual angles of 15 adult drivers for design vehi-
The value of the visual angle of a driver approaching on the minor cles. Representative visual angle values for different design vehicles
road by vehicle type is also necessary for the calculation of sight are selected as 15 percentile values. Table 2 shows the selected
distance. Finding the values was accomplished through two steps: visual angle values.

TABLE 1 Design Factor Values

Design Vehicle K (m) L (m) l (m) f 1, f 2 (m)

Passenger Car 1.3 4.7 2.35 1.5

Large Vehicle 1.85 13.0 1.20 1.5

Semi-Trailer 1.85 16.7 1.15 1.5

Son et al. Paper No. 02- 3487 43

4.7

0.8 2.7 1.2

0.2

1.3 1.7

0.2

(a)

13.0

2.5 6.5 4.0

0.3 0.3

1.9 2.5

0.3 0.3
(b)

16.7

1.3 4.2 9.0 2.2

0.3 0.3

1.9 2.5

0.3 0.3

(c)

FIGURE 3 Dimension of design vehicles: (a) passenger car, (b) large vehicle, and (c) semitrailer.

ASD AND STOPPING-SIGHT DISTANCE
ASD values are calculated by Equations 1 to 3 using design factor
values. Tables 3, 4, and 5 list calculated ASD values for different
types of design vehicles with varying intersection angles from 55°
to 75°.
Calculated ASD values can be used to see if a skewed intersection
provides a sufficient sight distance. To do this, calculated ASD for
an intersection should be compared with corresponding stopping-
K ta = time required to traverse distance S to clear the major road-
f2
sight distance. The ASD must be greater than the stopping-sight
distance. Stopping-sight distance can be described as the distance
traveled by a vehicle on the major road at design speed, during the
time a vehicle on a minor road traverses the distance to clear the traf-
fic in the lane approaching from the major road (1). Stopping-sight
distance, d, is calculated as follows:
d = 0.28V ( J + ta )
where
V = design speed of major road (km/h);
J = sum of perception and time in seconds required to actuate the
clutch or actuate an automatic shift, which is generally 2 s; and
way(s).
The equation for ta is

2S
<SB> sit back ta =
a
<CP> comfort position
where a is accelerating rate (m/s2).
<LF> lean forward Tables 6, 7, and 8 show calculated stopping-sight distance values
for different types of design vehicles with varying intersection
FIGURE 4 Vision angle geometry. angles and design speeds.
44 Paper No. 02- 3487 Transportation Research Record 1796

Sit Back(13.5°) Comfort Position(17.0°) Lean Forward(21.7°)

90
cumulative percentage (%)
75

60

45

30

15

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
sight angle (degrees)
(a)

Sit Back(1.3°) Comfort Position(5.4°) Lean Forward(13.1°)

90
cumulative percentage (%)

75

60

45

30

15

0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
sight angle (degrees)
(b)

Sit Back(1.3°) Comfort Position(5.2°) Lean Forward(12.6°)

90
cumulative percentage (%)

75

60

45

30

15

0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
sight angle (degrees)
(c)

FIGURE 5 Distributions of visual angles for (a) passenger car, (b) large vehicle, and (c)
semitrailer.
Son et al. Paper No. 02- 3487 45

TABLE 2 Selected Visual Angle Values TABLE 6 Stopping-Sight Distance for Passenger Car

Visual Angle (degrees) Stopping Sight Distance (m)

Design Vehicle Design Speed
VASB VACP VALF Intersection Angle (degrees)
(km/h)
55 60 65 70 75
Passenger Car 13.5 17.0 21.7
20 35.47 34.64 34.64 33.80 33.80
Large Vehicle 1.3 5.4 13.1
30 53.21 51.96 51.96 50.71 50.71
Semi-Trailer 1.3 5.2 12.6
40 70.95 69.28 69.28 67.61 67.61
50 88.68 86.60 86.60 84.51 84.51
60 106.42 103.92 103.92 101.41 101.41
TABLE 3 Calculated ASD Values for Passenger Car
70 124.15 121.24 121.24 118.32 118.32
ASD (m) 80 141.89 138.56 138.56 135.22 135.22
Intersection
Angle (degrees) Comfort
Sit Back Lean Forward 90 159.63 155.87 155.87 152.12 152.12
Position
100 177.36 173.19 173.19 169.02 169.02
55 34.12 39.80 51.94
Accelerating rate = 1.25 m/s2.
60 41.22 51.18 77.49

65 55.50 78.20 183.68

TABLE 7 Stopping-Sight Distance for Large Vehicle
70 92.94 197.71 N/A
Stopping Sight Distance (m)
75 384.46 N/A N/A Design Speed
Intersection Angle (degrees)
(km/h)
55 60 65 70 75
20 56.43 55.43 54.49 54.49 53.49
TABLE 4 Calculated ASD Values for Large Vehicle
30 84.65 83.19 81.73 81.73 80.23
ASD (m) 40 112.87 110.87 108.98 108.98 106.97
Intersection
Angle (degrees) 50 141.09 138.58 136.22 136.22 133.72
Sit Back Comfort Position Lean Forward
60 169.30 166.30 163.46 163.46 160.46
55 21.80 24.39 31.60
70 197.52 194.02 190.71 190.71 187.21
60 23.34 26.81 37.56 80 225.74 221.73 217.95 217.95 213.95
90 253.95 249.45 245.20 245.20 240.69
65 26.07 31.10 49.50
100 282.17 277.17 272.44 272.44 267.44
70 30.78 38.98 80.02 2
Accelerating rate = 0.85 m/s .
75 39.47 55.82 274.67

TABLE 8 Stopping-Sight Distance for Semitrailer

TABLE 5 Calculated ASD Values for Semitrailer Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Design Speed
Intersection Angle (degrees)
ASD (m) (km/h)
Intersection
55 60 65 70 75
Angle (degrees) Sit Back Comfort Position Lean Forward
20 70.56 69.44 68.39 67.28 67.28
55 21.71 24.15 30.86 30 105.83 104.17 102.58 100.91 100.91
60 23.23 26.50 36.42 40 141.11 138.89 136.78 134.55 134.55

65 25.94 30.66 47.40 50 176.39 173.61 170.97 168.19 168.19

60 211.67 208.33 205.16 201.83 201.83
70 30.62 38.28 74.41
70 246.95 243.06 239.36 235.47 235.47
75 39.26 54.41 216.74
80 282.23 277.78 273.55 269.10 269.10
90 317.50 312.50 307.75 302.74 302.74
100 352.78 347.22 341.94 336.38 336.38
Accelerating rate = 0.70 m/s2.
46 Paper No. 02- 3487 Transportation Research Record 1796

To facilitate comparisons between ASD and stopping-sight

Stopping-Sight Distance Available Sight Distance
distance, three nomographs have been developed and are shown in
Figures 6, 7, and 8. Findings drawn from these figures are as follows: 300
VA LF
• Among vehicle types, passenger cars have the longest ASD 275
100km/h

because larger vehicle types have more obstruction from their

250 90km/h
vehicle bodies.
• The lean-forward position provides much longer ASD than 225 80km/h
other driving positions.
• Except for passenger car types, for intersection angles less than 200 70km/h
70°, ASDs are less than stopping-sight distance even with a design

Sight Distance (m)

175
speed of 20 km/h. 60km/h
• At a 70° intersection angle, ASDs are increasing rapidly as the 150
intersection angle increases. 50km/h
125
Using the information shown in Figures 6, 7, and 8, road design- 40km/h

ers can judge if the current geometric design of a skewed intersection 100
30km/h
provides sufficient ASD based on design speed, geometric design,
75
and design-vehicle types. Also, designers can check if design for a 20km/h VA CP
new intersection will satisfy a certain level of safety with regard to 50
sight distance. VA SB
25

0
CONCLUSIONS
50 55 60 65 70 75 80

A methodology has been described for calculating sight distance Intersection Angle (Degrees)
available to drivers at skewed intersections, which are nonsignalized FIGURE 7 ASD versus stopping-sight distance for
intersections at which minor roads are controlled by stop signs. The large vehicle.
methodology considers the fact that the sight distance may vary
depending on (a) driving positions of the drivers and (b) the differ-

Stopping-Sight Distance Available Sight Distance

Stopping-Sight Distance Available Sight Distance
425

400 375
VA SB
100km/h
375 350
350 325 90km/h
325 300
300 80km/h
275
275 250 70km/h
Sight Distance (m)

Sight Distance (m)

250
225
60km/h VA LF
225
VA CP 200
200 VA LF 50km/h
175
100km/h
175
90km/h 150 40km/h
150 80km/h
125
125 70km/h
30km/h
60km/h 100
100
50km/h
75 20km/h
75 40km/h
VA CP
50
30km/h 50
20km/h
25 25 VA SB

0 0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Intersection Angle (Degrees) Intersection Angle (Degrees)

FIGURE 6 ASD versus stopping-sight distance for passenger car. FIGURE 8 ASD versus stopping-sight distance for semitrailer.
Son et al.
ent lines of sight given to drivers by different types of vehicles
whose sight-line obstruction by the vehicle bodies is unique for each
type. Equations for calculating ASD were derived that reflect fac-
tors affecting the sight distance available to drivers at skewed inter-
sections, such as geometry (intersection angle, lane width, shoulder
width, position of stop line), the vehicle’s dimension, and the driv-
er’s field of view. Values of calculated ASD were compared with
stopping-sight distance. Findings from this research provide evi-
dence that an intersection angle less than 70° should not be used in
design when the design vehicle is a large vehicle or semitrailer. This
is because ASDs are less than the stopping-sight distance, even with
a low value of design speed for intersection angles less than 70°.
Three nomographs were developed, as shown in Figures 6, 7,
and 8, which can be used by road designers or operators to easily
check if a skewed intersection satisfies the sight-distance requirement.
The methodology described considers only horizontal design fac-
tors. Further research is suggested on calculating sight distance
incorporating vertical design factors.
Paper No. 02- 3487 47
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was performed as part of an Advanced Highway
Research Center Project funded by the Korea Ministry of Science
and Technology and the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation.
REFERENCES
1. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets. AASHTO,
Washington, D.C., 1994.
2. Korean Road Design Guide. Korean Ministry of Construction and Trans-
portation, Gwacheon, 2000.
3. Gattis, J. L., and S. T. Low. Intersection Angle Geometry and the
Driver’s Field of View. In Transportation Research Record 1612, TRB,
National Research Council, Washington D.C., 1998, pp. 10–16.
Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Geometric Design.