MANDATORY APPENDICES

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MANDATORY APPENDIX 1
SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN FORMULAS

1-1 THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL Where t is known and P is desired,

AND SPHERICAL SHELLS
冢 Z + 1冣
Z−1
P p SE (2)
(a) The following formulas, in terms of the outside
radius, are equivalent to and may be used instead of those
where
given in UG-27(c) and (d).
2 2 2

冢 冣 冢 冣 冢 冣
(1) For cylindrical shells (circumferential stress), R+t Ro Ro
Zp p p
PRo SEt R R Ro − t
tp or Pp (1)
SE + 0.4P R o − 0.4t (2) Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints).
where When the thickness of the cylindrical shell under internal
design pressure exceeds one-half of the inside radius, or
R o p outside radius of the shell course under consider- when P exceeds 1.25SE, the following formulas shall
ation apply:
(2) For spherical shells,
When P is known and t is desired,
PR o 2SEt 1⁄
tp or Pp (2)
冢 冣
1⁄ 2
2SE + 0.8P R o − 0.8t 2 Z −1
t p R (Z − 1) p Ro 1⁄
(3)
2
Other symbols are as defined in UG-27. Z
where

冢SE + 1冣
P
Zp
1-2 THICK CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
(a)(1) Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints). When t is known and P is desired,
When the thickness of the cylindrical shell under internal
design pressure exceeds one-half of the inside radius, or P p SE (Z − 1) (4)
when P exceeds 0.385SE, the following formulas shall where
apply: 2 2 2

冢 冣 冢 冣 冢 冣
R+t Ro Ro
Zp p p
When P is known and t is desired, R R Ro − t
1⁄
1⁄ 2
2 (Z −1) Symbols are as defined in UG-27 and 1-1.
t p R (Z − 1) p R o 1⁄
(1)
2
Z
where 1-3 THICK SPHERICAL SHELLS
SE + P When the thickness of the shell of a wholly spherical
Zp
SE − P vessel or of a hemispherical head under internal design

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 1-3
pressure exceeds 0.356R, or when P exceeds 0.665SE,
the following formulas shall apply:
When P is known and t is desired,
1⁄
冢 冣
1⁄
3 Y
t p R (Y − 1) p R o
Y L p inside spherical or crown radius for torisph-
where
2(SE + P)
Yp
2SE − P
When t is known and P is desired,
冢 Y + 2冣
Y−1
P p 2SE
where
3 3
冢 冣 冢
R+t Ro
Yp p
R Ro − t
Symbols are as defined in UG-27 and 1-1.
1-4 FORMULAS FOR THE DESIGN OF
FORMED HEADS UNDER
INTERNAL PRESSURE
(a) The formulas of this paragraph provide for the
design of formed heads of proportions other than
those given in UG-32, in terms of inside and outside
diameter.
The formulas in 1-4(c) and (d) given below shall
be used for t/L ≥ 0.002. For t/L < 0.002, the rules of
1-4(f) shall also be met.
(b) The symbols defined below are used in the
formulas of this paragraph (see Fig. 1-4):
t p minimum required thickness of head after
forming
P p internal design pressure (see UG-21)
D p inside diameter of the head skirt; or inside
length of the major axis of an ellipsoidal
head; or inside diameter of a cone head
at the point under consideration measured
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
Do p outside diameter of the head skirt; or outside
length of the major axis of an ellipsoidal
head; or outside diameter of a cone head
at the point under consideration measured
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
S p maximum allowable working stress, as given
in Subsection C except as limited by foot-
note 1 to 1-4(c) and (d), UG-24, UG-32(e),
and UW-12.
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2004 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1 1-4
E p lowest efficiency of any Category A joint
in the head (for hemispherical heads this
includes head-to-shell joint). For welded
vessels, use the efficiency specified in
UW-12.
3
−1
1⁄
(1) r p inside knuckle radius
3
erical and hemispherical heads
L p K1 D for ellipsoidal heads in which K1 is
obtained from Table UG-37
Lo p outside spherical or crown radius
L / r p ratio of the inside crown radius to the inside
knuckle radius, used in Table 1-4.2
M p a factor in the formulas for torispherical
(2)
heads depending on the head proportion L / r
h p one-half of the length of the minor axis of
the ellipsoidal head, or the inside depth
冣
of the ellipsoidal head measured from the
tangent line (head-bend line)
K p a factor in the formulas for ellipsoidal heads
depending on the head proportion D / 2h
D / 2h p ratio of the major to the minor axis of
ellipsoidal heads, which equals the inside
diameter of the skirt of the head divided
by twice the inside height of the head, and
is used in Table 1-4.1

p one-half of the included (apex) angle of the
cone at the center line of the head
ET p modulus of elasticity at maximum design
temperature, psi. The value of ET shall be
taken from applicable Table TM, Section
II, Part D
Sy p yield strength at maximum design tempera-
ture, psi. The value of Sy shall be taken from
application Table Y-1, Section II, Part D
(c) Ellipsoidal Heads 1
PDK 2SEt
tp or P p (1)
2SE − 0.2P KD + 0.2t
PDo K
tp
2SE + 2P (K − 0.1)
or
2SEt
Pp (2)
KD o − 2t (K − 0.1)
1
Ellipsoidal heads designed under K > 1.0 and all torispherical
heads made of materials having a specified minimum tensile strength
exceeding 70,000 psi (482 MPa) shall be designed using a value of
S equal to 20,000 psi (138 MPa) at room temperature and reduced
in proportion to the reduction in maximum allowable stress values
at temperature for the material as shown in the appropriate table
(see UG-23).
330
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 1-4 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1 1-4

FIG. 1-4 PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF TYPICAL HEADS

TABLE 1-4.1
VALUES OF FACTOR K
(Use Nearest Value of D /2h; Interpolation Unnecessary)

D /2h 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0
K 1.83 1.73 1.64 1.55 1.46 1.37 1.29 1.21 1.14 1.07 1.00

D /2h 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 ...
K 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.66 0.61 0.57 0.53 0.50 ...

where D 40
p p 2.22
2h 18
2

冤 冢 冣冥
1 D
Kp 2+
6 2h From Table 1-4.1, K p 1.14. Substituting in Eq. (1),
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Numerical values of the factor K are given in Table 200 ⴛ 40 ⴛ 1.14

tp p 0.33 in.
1-4.1. [2 ⴛ 13,750 ⴛ (1.00) − (0.2 ⴛ 200)]
Example 1. 2 Determine the required thickness t of
Example 2. 2 Determine the maximum allowable
a seamless ellipsoidal head, exclusive of provision for
working pressure P of a seamless ellipsoidal head for
corrosion for the following conditions:
the following conditions:
D p 40 in; h p 9 in; P p 200 psi; S p 13,750
D p 30 in.; h p 7.5 in.; total thickness p 1⁄2 in.
psi; E p 1.00.
with no allowance for corrosion; maximum operating
2
temperature p 800°F; E p 1.00.
This calculation is intended only to illustrate the use of the
formula herein. Other paragraphs in this Division may have to be From the appropriate table given in Subpart 1 of
satisfied to permit use of the full tabular stress value. Section II, Part D, S p 10,200 psi.

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 1-4 2004 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1 1-4

TABLE 1-4.2
VALUES OF FACTOR M
(Use Nearest Value of L / r ; Interpolation Unnecessary)

L/r 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50
M 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.13 1.15 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.22

L/r 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
M 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 1.36 1.39 1.41 1.44 1.46 1.48 1.50

L/r 9.5 10.00 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 162⁄31
M 1.52 1.54 1.56 1.58 1.60 1.62 1.65 1.69 1.72 1.75 1.77

NOTE:
(1) Maximum ratio allowed by UG-32(j) when L equals the outside diameter of the skirt of the head.

D 30 D p 30 in.; L p 24 in.; r p 2.00 in.; E p 1.00

p p 2.0
2h 15 (seamless head); total thickness p 0.5 in. with no
From Table 1-4.1, K p 1.0. Substituting in Eq. (1), allowance for corrosion; material conforms to SA-515
Grade 70; maximum operating temperature p 900°F.
2 ⴛ 10,200 ⴛ 1.0 ⴛ 0.5 From the appropriate table given in Subpart 1 of
Pp p 339 psi
[1 ⴛ 30 + (0.2 ⴛ 0.5)] Section II, Part D, S p 6500 psi.
(d) Torispherical Heads 1 L 24
p p 12.0
PLM 2SEt r 2.00
tp or Pp (3)
2SE − 0.2P LM + 0.2t From Table 1-4.2, M p 1.62. Substituting in Eq. (3),
PL o M 2 ⴛ 6500 ⴛ 1.0 ⴛ 0.5
tp Pp p 167 psi
2SE + P (M − 0.2) 24 ⴛ 1.62 + 0.2 ⴛ 0.5

or (e) Conical Heads

2SEt PD
Pp (4) tp
ML o − t (M − 0.2) 2 cos
(SE − 0.6P)

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where or

冢 冪 r冣
L 2SEt cos

M p 1⁄4 3 + Pp (5)
D + 1.2t cos

Numerical values of the factor M are given in Table PD o

tp
1-4.2. 2 cos
(SE + 0.4P)
Example 1. 2 Determine the required thickness t,
exclusive of allowance for corrosion, of a torispherical or
head for the following conditions: 2SEt cos

Pp (6)
D p 40 in.; L p 40 in.; r p 4 in.; P p 200 psi; D o − 0.8t cos

S p 13,750 psi; E p 1.00 (seamless head).
(f) Design of Heads With t/L < 0.002. The following 04
L 40 rules shall be used when the maximum design tempera-
p p 10
r 4 ture is less than or equal to the temperature limit
and from Table 1-4.2, M p 1.54. Substituting in Eq. given in Table 1-4.3. See U-2(g) for maximum design
(3), temperature exceeding the temperature limit given in
Table 1-4.3
200 ⴛ 40 ⴛ 1.54
tp p 0.45 in. (1) Torispherical Heads With t/L < 0.002. The
[2 ⴛ 13,750 ⴛ (1.00) − (0.2 ⴛ 200)]
minimum required thickness of a torispherical head
Example 2. 2 Determine the maximum allowable having 0.0005 ≤ t/L < 0.002 shall be larger of the
working pressure P of a torispherical head for the thickness calculated by the formulas in UG-32(e),
following conditions: 1-4(d), or by the formulas given below.

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 1-4 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1 1-5

TABLE 1-4.3 MAXIMUM METAL TEMPERATURE cpa

Table in Which Temperature, Re p c + r
Material is Listed °F
UCS-23 700 (f) Calculate the value of internal pressure
UNF-23.1 300 expected to produce elastic buckling, Pe.
UNF-23.2 150
UNF-23.3 900
Set
Pe p
UNF-23.4 600 C2Re 关共0.5Re冫r 兲 − 1兴
UNF-23.5 600
UHA-23 800 (g) Calculate the value of internal pressure
UHT-23 700 expected to result in yield stress at the point of maximum
stress, Py.
Syt
TABLE 1-4.4 VALUES OF KNUCKLE RADIUS, “r ” Py p
C2Re 关共0.5Re冫r 兲 − 1兴
D/2h r/D
(h) Calculate the value of internal pressure
3.0 0.10
2.8 0.11 expected to result in knuckle failure, Pck.
2.6 0.12
Pck p 0.6Pe, for Pe/Py ≤ 1.0
2.4 0.13
2.2 0.15 Pck p 0.408Py + 0.192Pe, for 1.0 < Pe/Py ≤ 8.29
2.0 0.17
1.8 0.20 Pck p 2.0Py , for Pe/Py > 8.29
1.6 0.24
1.4 0.29 (i) Calculate the value Pck/1.5. If Pck/1.5 is equal
1.2 0.37 to or greater than the required internal design pressure
1.0 0.50 P, then the design is complete. If Pck/1.5 is less than
GENERAL NOTE: Interpolation permitted for intermediate values.
the required internal design pressure P, then increase
the thickness and repeat the calculations.
(2) Design of Ellipsoidal Heads With t/L < 0.002.
(a) Calculate a coefficient, C1. The minimum required thickness of an ellipsoidal head
having 0.0005 ≤ t/L < 0.002 shall be larger of the
C1 p 9.31r/D − 0.086, for r/D ≤ 0.08
thicknesses calculated by the formulas in UG-32(d),
C1 p 0.692r/D + 0.605, for r/D > 0.08 1-4(c), or by the formulas in 1-4(f)(1). In using 1-4(f)(1)
formulas, the value of L is to be obtained from Table
(b) Calculate the elastic buckling stess, Se. UG-37 and the value of r is to be obtained from Table
Se p C1 E T (t/r) 1-4.4.

(c) Calculate a coefficient, C2.

1-5 RULES FOR CONICAL REDUCER
C2 p 1.25, for r/D ≤ 0.08 SECTIONS AND CONICAL HEADS
C2 p 1.46 − 2.6r/D, for r/D > 0.08 UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
(a) The formulas of (d) and (e) below provide for
(d) Calculate values of constants a, b, , and .
the design of reinforcement, if needed, at the cone-to-
a p 0.5D − r cylinder junctions for conical reducer sections and
conical heads where all the elements have a common
bpL−r
axis and the half-apex angle
≤ 30 deg. Subparagraph
 p arc cos (a/b), radians (g) below provides for special analysis in the design
of cone-to-cylinder intersections with or without rein-
 p 共冪Lt兲冫r
forcing rings where
is greater than 30 deg.
(e) Calculate values of c and Re. In the design of reinforcement for a cone-to-cylinder
If  is less than , then juncture, the requirements of UG-41 shall be met.
(b) Nomenclature
c p a冫关cos ( − )兴
ArL p required area of reinforcement at large end
If  is equal to or greater than , then of cone

333

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Ars p required area of reinforcement at small end TABLE 1-5.1

of cone VALUES OF ⌬ FOR JUNCTIONS AT THE LARGE
AeL p effective area of reinforcement at large end CYLINDER FOR ␣ ≤ 30 deg
intersection P/SsE1 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Aes p effective area of reinforcement at small end , deg 11 15 18 21 23
intersection
Es p modulus of elasticity of cylinder material P/SsE1 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.0091 ...
, deg 25 27 28.5 30 ...
Ec p modulus of elasticity of cone material
Er p modulus of elasticity of reinforcing ring NOTE:
material (1)  p 30 deg for greater values of P/SsE1.

NOTE: The modulus of elasticity shall be taken from the applicable

Table TM in Section II, Part D. When a material is not listed in TABLE 1-5.2
the TM tables, the requirements of U-2(g) shall be applied. VALUES OF ⌬ FOR JUNCTIONS AT THE SMALL
CYLINDER FOR ␣ ≤ 30 deg
E1 p efficiency of longitudinal joint in cylinder. For
compression (such as at large end of cone), P/SsE1 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.02
E1 p 1.0 for butt welds. , deg 4 6 9 12.5
E2 p efficiency of longitudinal joint in cone. For P/SsE1 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.1251
compression, E2 p 1.0 for butt welds. , deg 17.5 24 27 30
f1 p axial load per unit circumference at large end
due to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure NOTE:
f2 p axial load per unit circumference at small end (1)  p 30 deg for greater values of P/SsE1.
due to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure
P p internal design pressure (see UG-21) (c) For a cone-to-cylinder junction, the following
QL p algebraical sum of PRL /2 and f1 values shall be determined at large end and again at
Qs p algebraical sum of PRs /2 and f2 the small end in order that both the large end and the
Rs p inside radius of small cylinder at small end small end can be examined:
of cone Determine P /Ss E1 and then determine  at the large
RL p inside radius of large cylinder at large end end and at the small end, as appropriate, from Tables
of cone 1-5.1 and 1-5.2.
Ss p allowable stress of cylinder material at design Determine k:
temperature
k p 1 when additional area of reinforcement is not
Sc p allowable stress of cone material at design
required
temperature
p y /Sr Er when a stiffening ring is required, butk
Sr p allowable stress of reinforcing ring material at
is not less than 1.0
design temperature
t p minimum required thickness of cylinder at (d) Reinforcement shall be provided at the junction
cone-to-cylinder junction of the cone with the large cylinder for conical heads
tc p nominal thickness of cone at cone-to-cylinder and reducers without knuckles when the value of 
junction obtained from Table 1-5.1, using the appropriate ratio
tr p minimum required thickness of cone at cone- P /Ss E1 , is less than
. Interpolation may be made in
to-cylinder junction the Table.
ts p nominal thickness of cylinder at cone-to-cylin- The required area of reinforcement shall be at least
der junction equal to that indicated by the following formula when

p half-apex angle of cone or conical section, deg. QL is in tension:
 p angle indicating need for reinforcement at cone-
冢 冣
kQL RL 
to-cylinder junction having a half-apex angle ArL p 1− tan
(1)
Ss E1


≤ 30 deg. When  ≥
, no reinforcement
is required at the junction (see Tables 1-5.1 At the large end of the cone-to-cylinder juncture,
and 1-5.2), deg. the PRL /2 term is in tension. When f1 is in compression
y p cone-to-cylinder factor and the quantity is larger than the PRL /2 term, the
p Ss Es for reinforcing ring on shell design shall be in accordance with U-2(g). The calcu-
p Sc Ec for reinforcing ring on cone lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not

334

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 1-5 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1 1-6

exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2). ratio times the longitudinal stress at the surfaces.
The effective area of reinforcement can be determined (2) (Membrane longitudinal stress) + (discontinuity
in accordance with the following formula: longitudinal stress due to bending) shall not be greater
than SPS [see UG-23(e)].
AeL p (ts − t) 冪 RL ts + (tc − tr ) 冪 RL tc /cos
(2)
The angle joint (see 3-2) between the cone and
Any additional area of reinforcement which is required cylinder shall be designed equivalent to a double butt-
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 RL ts from the welded joint, and because of the high bending stress,
junction of the reducer and the cylinder. The centroid there shall be no weak zones around the angle joint.
of the added area shall be within a distance of 0.25 The thickness of the cylinder may have to be increased
ⴛ 冪 RL ts from the junction. to limit the difference in thickness so that the angle
(e) Reinforcement shall be provided at the junction joint has a smooth contour.
of the conical shell of a reducer without a flare and
the small cylinder when the value of  obtained from
Table 1-5.2, using the appropriate ratio P /Ss E1 , is less 1-6 SPHERICALLY DISHED COVERS
than
. (BOLTED HEADS)
The required area of reinforcement shall be at least (a) Circular spherical dished heads with bolting
equal to that indicated by the following formula when flanges, both concave and convex to the pressure and
Qs is in tension: conforming to the several types illustrated in Fig. 1-6,
shall be designed in accordance with the formulas
冢 冣
kQs Rs 
Ars p 1− tan
(3) which follow.
Ss E1

(b) The symbols used in the formulas of this para-
At the small end of the cone-to-cylinder juncture, graph are defined as follows:
the PRs /2 term is in tension. When f2 is in compression
t p minimum required thickness of head plate after
and the quantity is larger than the PRs /2 term, the
forming
design shall be in accordance with U-2(g). The calcu-
L p inside spherical or crown radius
lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not
r p inside knuckle radius
exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2).
P p internal pressure (see UG-21) for the pressure
The effective area of reinforcement can be determined
on concave side, and external pressure for the
in accordance with the following formula:
pressure on convex side [see UG-28(f)]
Aes p 0.78 冪 Rs ts [(ts − t) + (tc − tr) /cos
] (4) S p maximum allowable stress value (see UG-23)
T p flange thickness
Any additional area of reinforcement which is required Mo p the total moment determined as in 2-6 for
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 Rs ts from the heads concave to pressure and 2-11 for heads
junction, and the centroid of the added area shall be convex to pressure; except that for heads of
within a distance of 0.25 冪 Rs ts from the junction. the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (d), HD and
( f ) Reducers not described in UG-36(e)(5), such as hD shall be as defined below, and an additional
those made up of two or more conical frustums having moment Hr hr (which may add or subtract)
different slopes, may be designed in accordance with (g). shall be included where
(g) When the half-apex angle
is greater than 30 Hr p radial component of the membrane
deg (0.52 rad), cone-to-cylinder junctions without a load in the spherical segment acting
knuckle may be used, with or without reinforcing rings, at the intersection of the inside of the
if the design is based on special analysis, such as flange ring with the center line of the
the beam-on-elastic-foundation analysis of Timoshenko, dished cover thickness
Hetenyi, or Watts and Lang. See U-2(g). When such p HD cot 1
an analysis is made, the calculated localized stresses hr p lever arm of force Hr about centroid
at the discontinuity shall not exceed the following of flange ring
values. HD p axial component of the membrane load
(1) (Membrane hoop stress) + (average discontinu- in the spherical segment acting at the
ity hoop stress) shall not be greater than 1.5S, where inside of the flange ring
the “average discontinuity hoop stress” is the average p 0.785 B 2 P
hoop stress across the wall thickness due to the disconti- hD p radial distance from the bolt circle to
nuity at the junction, disregarding the effect of Poisson’s the inside of the flange ring

335
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 1-6 2004 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1
FIG. 1-6 SPHERICALLY DISHED COVERS WITH BOLTING FLANGES
1 p angle formed by the tangent to the
center line of the dished cover thick-
ness at its point of intersection with the
flange ring, and a line perpendicular to
the axis of the dished cover
冢 冣
B concave side, and 2-11 for pressure on convex side.
p arc sin
2L + t
NOTE: Since Hr hr in some cases will subtract from the total
moment, the moment in the flange ring when the internal pressure
is zero may be the determining loading for flange design.
A p outside diameter of flange
B p inside diameter of flange
C p bolt circle, diameter
(c) It is important to note that the actual value of
the total moment Mo may calculate to be either plus
or minus for both the heads concave to pressure and
the heads convex to pressure. However, for use in all
of the formulas which follow, the absolute values for
both P and Mo are used.
(d) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (a):
(1) the thickness of the head t shall be determined
by the appropriate formula in UG-32 for pressure
on concave side, and UG-33(a)(1) for pressure on
convex side;
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1-6
(2) the head radius L or the knuckle radius r shall
comply with the limitations given in UG-32;
(3) the flange shall comply at least with the require-
ments of Fig. 2-4 and shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of 2-1 through 2-7 for pressure on
(Within the range of flange standards listed in Table
U-3, the flange and drillings may conform to the
standards, and the thickness specified therein shall be
considered as a minimum requirement.)
(e) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (b)
(no joint efficiency factor is required):
(1) head thickness
(a) for pressure on concave side,
5PL
tp (1)
6S
(b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick-
ness shall be determined based on UG-33(c) using the
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
outside radius of the spherical head segment;
(2) flange thickness for ring gasket
Tp
冪 冤 冥
Mo A + B
SB A − B
(2)
Not for Resale
 1-6 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1 1-7

(3) flange thickness for full face gasket where

冪 冢 冣
PL C + B
冤 冥
P B (A + B)(C − B ) Qp
T p 0.6 (3) 4S 3C − B
S A−B

NOTE: The radial components of the membrane load in the spherical (6) the required flange thickness shall be T as
segment are assumed to be resisted by its flange. calculated in (2), (3), (4), or (5) above, but in no case
less than the value of t calculated in (1) above.
(Within the range of flange standards listed in Table
(g) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (d)
U-3, the flange and drillings may conform to the
(no joint efficiency factor is required):
standards, and the thickness specified therein shall be
(1) head thickness
considered as a minimum requirement.)
(a) for pressure on concave side,
( f ) Heads of the type shown in Fig. 1-6 sketch (c)
(no joint efficiency factor is required): 5PL
tp (9)
(1) head thickness 6S
(a) for pressure on concave side, (b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick-
ness shall be determined based on UG-33(c) using the
5PL outside radius of the spherical head segment;
tp (4)
6S (2) flange thickness
(b) for pressure on convex side, the head thick- TpF+ 冪 F2 + J (10)
ness shall be determined based on UG-33(c) using the
outside radius of the spherical head segment; where
(2) flange thickness for ring gasket for heads with
round bolting holes Fp
PB 冪 4L2 − B 2
8S (A − B)
TpQ+
冪 1.875Mo (C + B)
SB (7C − 5B )
(5) and

冢 SB 冣 冢A − B冣
where Mo A+B
Jp

冢 冣
PL C + B
Qp
4S 7C − 5B (h) These formulas are approximate in that they do
not take into account continuity between the flange
(3) flange thickness for ring gasket for heads with ring and the dished head. A more exact method of
bolting holes slotted through the edge of the head analysis which takes this into account may be used if
it meets the requirements of U-2.
TpQ+
冪 1.875Mo (C + B)
SB(3C − B)
(6)

where 1-7 LARGE OPENINGS IN

CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
冢 冣
PL C + B
Qp
4S 3C − B 1-7(a) Openings exceeding the dimensional limits
given in UG-36(b)(1) shall be provided with reinforce-
(4) flange thickness for full-face gasket for heads
ment that complies with the following rules. Two-
with round bolting holes
thirds of the required reinforcement shall be within the

冪 3BQ (C − B) following limits:

TpQ+ Q2 + (7)
L 1-7(a)(1) parallel to vessel wall: the larger of
three-fourths times the limit in UG-40(b)(1), or equal
where to the limit in UG-40(b)(2);

冢 冣
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PL C + B 1-7(a)(2) normal to vessel wall: the smaller of

Qp
4S 7C − 5B the limit in UG-40(c)(1), or in UG-40(c)(2).
1-7(b) Openings for radial nozzles that exceed the
(5) flange thickness for full-face gasket for heads
limits in UG-36(b)(1)
with bolting holes slotted through the edge of the head
1-7(b)(1) and which also are within the range

冪 3BQ (C − B) defined by the following limits shall meet the require-

TpQ+ Q2 + (8)
L ments in (b)(2), (3), and (4) below:

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 1-7 2004 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1 1-7

FIG. 1-7-1

(a) vessel diameters greater than 60 in. (mm) strength reduction ratio requirements of UG-41 need

I.D.;
(b) nozzle diameters which exceed 40 in. (mm)
I.D. and also exceed 3.4冪 Rt; the terms R and t are
defined in Figs. 1-7-1 and 1-7-2;
(c) the ratio Rn /R does not exceed 0.7; for
nozzle openings with Rn /R exceeding 0.7, refer to (c)
below and/or U-2(g).
The rules are limited to radial nozzles in cylindrical
shells that do not have internal projections, and do not
include any analysis for stresses resulting from exter-
nally applied mechanical loads. For such cases U-2(g)
shall apply.
1-7(b)(2) The membrane stress Sm as calculated
by Eq. (1) or (2) below shall not exceed S, as defined
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
not be applied, provided that the allowable stress ratio
of the material in the nozzle neck, nozzle forging,
reinforcing plate, and/or nozzle flange divided by the
shell material allowable stress is at least 0.80.
NOTE: The bending stress Sb calculated by Eq. (5) is valid and
applicable only at the nozzle neck-shell junction. It is a primary
bending stress because it is a measure of the stiffness required to
maintain equilibrium at the longitudinal axis junction of the nozzle-
shell intersection due to the bending moment calculated by Eq. (3).
Case A (See Fig. 1-7-1)
Sm p P 冢 R(Rn + tn + 冪Rmt) + Rn(t + te + 冪Rnmtn)
As 冣 (1)
Case B (See Fig. 1-7-1)

冢 冣
in UG-37 for the applicable materials at design condi-
R(Rn + tn + 冪Rmt) + Rn(t + 冪Rnmtn)
tions. The maximum combined membrane stress Sm Sm p P (2)
and bending stress Sb shall not exceed 1.5S at design As
conditions. Sb shall be calculated by Eq. (5) below.
1-7(b)(3) Evaluation of combined stresses from Cases A and B (See Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2)
internal pressure and external loads shall be made in
R3n
accordance with U-2(g).
1-7(b)(4) For membrane stress calculations, use
Mp 冢
6
+ R Rne P冣 (3)

the limits defined in Fig. 1-7-1, and comply with the a p e +t / 2 (4)
strength of reinforcement requirements of UG-41. For
bending stress calculation, the greater of the limits Ma
Sb p (5)
defined in Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2 may be used. The I

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 --`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1-7 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1
FIG. 1-7-2
1-7(b)(5) Nomenclature. Symbols used in Figs. 1-
7-1 and 1-7-2 are as defined in UG-37(a) and as
follows:
As p shaded (cross-hatched) area in Fig. 1-7-1, Case
A or Case B
I p moment of inertia of the larger of the shaded
areas in Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2 about neu-
tral axis
a p distance between neutral axis of the shaded
area in Fig. 1-7-1 or Fig. 1-7-2 and the inside
of vessel wall
Rm p mean radius of shell
Rnm p mean radius of nozzle neck
e p distance between neutral axis of the shaded
area and midwall of the shell
Sm p membrane stress calculated by Eq. (1) or (2)
Sb p bending stress at the intersection of inside of
the nozzle neck and inside of the vessel shell
along the vessel shell longitudinal axis
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1-7
Sy p yield strength of the material at test tempera-
ture, see Table Y-1 in Subpart 1 of Section
II, Part D
1-7(c) It is recommended that special consideration
be given to the fabrication details used and inspection
employed on large openings; reinforcement often may
be advantageously obtained by use of heavier shell
plate for a vessel course or inserted locally around the
opening; welds may be ground to concave contour and
the inside corners of the opening rounded to a generous
radius to reduce stress concentrations. When radio-
graphic examination of welds is not practicable, liquid
penetrant examination may be used with nonmagnetic
materials and either liquid penetrant or magnetic particle
inspection with ferromagnetic materials. If magnetic
particle inspection is employed, the prod method is
preferred. The degree to which such measures should
be used depends on the particular application and the
severity of the intended service. Appropriate proof
339
Not for Resale
 1-7 2004 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1 1-8

testing may be advisable in extreme cases of large E1 p efficiency of longitudinal joint in cylinder. For
openings approaching full vessel diameter, openings of compression (such as at small end of cone),
unusual shape, etc. E1 p 1.0 for butt welds.
E2 p efficiency of longitudinal joint in cone. For
compression, E2 p 1.0 for butt welds.
1-8 RULES FOR REINFORCEMENT OF Ec p modulus of elasticity of cone material
CONE-TO-CYLINDER JUNCTION Er p modulus of elasticity of stiffening ring material
UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Es p modulus of elasticity of shell material
(a) The formulas of (b) and (c) below provide for Ex p Ec , Er , or Es
the design of reinforcement, if needed, at the cone-to-
cylinder junctions for reducer sections and conical heads NOTE: The modulus of elasticity shall be taken from the applicable
Table TM in Section II, Part D. When a material is not listed in
where all the elements have a common axis and the the TM tables, the requirements of U-2(g) shall be applied.
half-apex angle
≤ 60 deg. Subparagraph (e) below
provides for special analysis in the design of cone-to- f1 p axial load per unit circumference at large end
cylinder intersections with or without reinforcing rings due to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure
where
is greater than 60 deg. f2 p axial load per unit circumference at small end
In the design of reinforcement for a cone-to-cylinder due to wind, dead load, etc., excluding pressure
juncture, the requirements of UG-41 shall be met. I p available moment of inertia of the stiffening
The nomenclature given below is used in the formulas ring cross section about its neutral axis parallel
of the following subparagraphs: to the axis of the shell
A p factor determined from Fig. G and used to I ′ p available moment of inertia of combined shell-
enter the applicable material chart in Subpart cone or ring-shell-cone cross section about its
3 of Section II, Part D neutral axis parallel to the axis of the shell.
AeL p effective area of reinforcement at large end The nominal shell thickness ts shall be used,
intersection and the width of the shell which is taken as
Aes p effective area of reinforcement at small end contributing to the moment of inertia of the
intersection combined section shall not be greater than
ArL p required area of reinforcement at large end 1.10 冪 Dts and shall be taken as lying one-
of cone half on each side of the cone-to-cylinder junc-
Ars p required area of reinforcement at small end tion or of the centroid of the ring. Portions
of cone of the shell plate shall not be considered as
As p cross-sectional area of the stiffening ring contributing area to more than one stiffen-
AT p equivalent area of cylinder, cone, and stiffening ing ring.
ring, where
CAUTIONARY NOTE: Stiffening rings may be subject to lateral
L L ts L c tc
ATL p + + As for large end buckling. This should be considered in addition to the requirements
2 2 for Is and I ′s [see U-2(g)].
L s ts L c tc
ATS p + + As for small end Is p required moment of inertia of the stiffening
2 2
ring cross section about its neutral axis parallel
B p factor determined from the applicable material to the axis of the shell
chart in Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D for I ′s p required moment of inertia of the combined
maximum design metal temperature [see shell-cone or ring-shell-cone cross section
UG-20(c)] about its neutral axis parallel to the axis of
DL p outside diameter of large end of conical section the shell
under consideration
If the stiffeners should be so located that the maximum
Do p outside diameter of cylindrical shell (In conical
permissible effective shell sections overlap on either
shell calculations, the value of Ds and DL
or both sides of a stiffener, the effective shell section
should be used in calculations in place of Do
for that stiffener shall be shortened by one-half of each
depending on whether the small end Ds , or
overlap.
large end DL , is being examined.)
Ds p outside diameter at small end of conical section k p 1 when additional area of reinforcement is not
under consideration required

340
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 1-8 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1 1-8

p y /Sr Er when a stiffening ring is required, but TABLE 1-8.1

k is not less than 1.0 VALUES OF ⌬ FOR JUNCTIONS AT THE LARGE
L p axial length of cone CYLINDER FOR ␣ ≤ 60 deg
Lc p length of cone between stiffening rings mea- P/SsE1 0 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.02
sured along surface of cone, in. (mm). For , deg 0 5 7 10 15
cones without intermediate stiffeners,
P/SsE1 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.125 0.15
, deg
Lc p 冪L 2
+ (RL − Rs ) 2 21 29 33 37 40

P/SsE1 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 Note (1)

LL p design length of a vessel section taken as the , deg 47 52 57 60
largest of the following:
(a) the center-to-center distance between NOTE:
(1)  p 60 deg for greater values of P/SE.
the cone-to-large-shell junction and an adjacent
stiffening ring on the large shell;
(b) the distance between the cone-to-large- angle
≤ 60 deg. When  ≥
, no reinforce-
shell junction and one-third the depth of head ment is required at the junction (see Table
on the other end of the large shell if no other 1-8.1).
stiffening rings are used.
(b) Reinforcement shall be provided at the junction
Ls p design length of a vessel section taken as the
of the cone with the large cylinder for conical heads
largest of the following:
and reducers without knuckles when the value of 
(a) the center-to-center distance between
obtained from Table 1-8.1 using the appropriate ratio
the cone-to-small-shell junction and adjacent
P /Ss E1 is less than
. Interpolation may be made in
stiffening ring on the small shell;
the Table.
(b) the distance between the cone-to-small-
The required area of reinforcement shall be at least
shell junction and one-third the depth of head
equal to that indicated by the following formula when
on the other end of the small shell if no other
QL is in compression:
stiffening rings are used.

冢 冣 冥
kQL RL tan
PRL − QL 
P p external design pressure
QL p algebraical sum of PRL /2 and f1
ArL p
Ss E1 冤1 − 1⁄4
QL

(1)

Qs p algebraical sum of PRs /2 and f2

RL p outside radius of large cylinder
Rs p outside radius of small cylinder
Sc p allowable stress of cone material at design
temperature
Sr p allowable stress of stiffening ring material at
design temperature
Ss p allowable stress of cylinder material at design
temperature
t p minimum required thickness of cylinder at
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
At the large end of the cone-to-cylinder juncture,
the PRL /2 term is in compression. When f1 is in tension
and the quantity is larger than the PRL /2 term, the
design shall be in accordance with U-2(g). The calcu-
lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not
exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2).
The effective area of reinforcement can be determined
in accordance with the following formula:
AeL p 0.55冪 DL ts (ts + tc /cos
) (2)

cone-to-cylinder junction [see UG-28(c)]

tc p nominal thickness of cone at cone-to-cylinder
junction
tr p minimum required thickness of cone at cone-
to-cylinder junction
ts p nominal thickness of cylinder at cone-to-cylin-
der junction
y p cone-to-cylinder factor
p Ss Es for stiffening ring on shell
p Sc Ec for stiffening ring on cone

p one-half the included (apex) angle of the cone
at the center line of the head
 p value to indicate need for reinforcement at
cone-to-cylinder intersection having a half-apex
Any additional area of stiffening which is required
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 RL ts from the
junction of the reducer and the cylinder. The centroid
of the added area shall be within a distance of 0.25
ⴛ 冪 RL ts from the junction.
When the cone-to-cylinder or knuckle-to-cylinder
juncture is a line of support, the moment of inertia
for a stiffening ring at the large end shall be determined
by the following procedure.
Step 1. Assuming that the shell has been designed
and DL , LL , and t are known, select a member to be
used for the stiffening ring and determine cross-sectional
area ATL . Then calculate factor B using the following

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 1-8 2004 SECTION VIII — DIVISION 1
formula. If FL is a negative number, the design shall
be in accordance with U-2(g):
冢A 冣
FL D L
B p 3 ⁄4
TL
where
FL p PM + f1 tan

−RL tan
LL RL2 − Rs2
Mp + +
2 2 3RL tan

Step 2. Enter the right-hand side of the applicable
material chart in Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D for
the material under consideration at the value of B
determined by Step 1. If different materials are used
for the shell and stiffening ring, use the material chart
resulting in the larger value of A in Step 4 below.
Step 3. Move horizontally to the left to the
material / temperature line for the design metal tempera-
ture. For values of B falling below the left end of the
material / temperature line, see Step 5 below.
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart
and read the value of A.
Step 5. For value of B falling below the left end
of the material / temperature line for the design tempera-
ture, the value of A can be calculated using the formula
A p 2B / Ex . For value of B above the material /
temperature line for the design temperature, the design
shall be either per U-2(g) or by changing the cone or
cylinder configuration, stiffening ring location on the
shell, and /or reducing the axial compressive force to
reduce the B value to below or at the material/tempera-
ture line for the design temperature. For values of B
having multiple values of A, such as when B falls on
a horizontal portion of the curve, the smallest value
of A shall be used.
Step 6. Compute the value of the required moment
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of inertia from the formulas for Is or I′s. For the
circumferential stiffening ring only,
ADL2 ATL
Is p
14.0
For the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone section,
ADL2 ATL
I ′s p
10.9
Step 7. Determine the available moment of inertia
of the ring only I or the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone I ′.
Step 8. When the ring only is used,
I ≥ Is
and when the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone is used,
I ′ ≥ I ′s
342
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1-8
If the equation is not satisfied, a new section with
a larger moment of inertia must be selected, and the
calculation shall be done again until the equation is
met.
The requirements of UG-29(b), (c), (d), (e), and (f )
and UG-30 are to be met in attaching stiffening rings
to the shell.
(c) Reinforcement shall be provided at the junction
of the conical shell of a reducer without a flare and
the small cylinder. The required area of reinforcement
shall be at least equal to that indicated by the following
formula when Qs is in compression:
kQs Rs tan

Ars p (3)
Ss E1
At the small end of the cone-to-cylinder juncture,
the PRs /2 term is in compression. When f2 is in tension
and the quantity is larger than the PRs /2 term, the
design shall be in accordance with U-2(g). The calcu-
lated localized stresses at the discontinuity shall not
exceed the stress values specified in 1-5(g)(1) and (2).
The effective area of reinforcement can be determined
in accordance with the following formula:
Aes p 0.55冪 Ds ts [(ts − t) + (tc − tr) /cos
] (4)
Any additional area of stiffener which is required
shall be situated within a distance of 冪 Rs ts from the
junction, and the centroid of the added area shall be
within a distance of 0.25 冪 Rs ts from the junction.
When the cone-to-cylinder or knuckle-to-cylinder
juncture is a line of support, the moment of inertia
for a stiffening ring at the small end shall be determined
by the following procedure.
Step 1. Assuming that the shell has been designed
and Ds, Ls, and t are known, select a member to be
used for the stiffening ring and determine cross-sectional
area ATS. Then calculate factor B using the following
formula. If Fs is a negative number, the design shall
be in accordance with U-2(g):
冢A 冣
Fs D s
B p 3⁄4
TS
where
Fs p PN + f2 tan

Rs tan
Ls RL2 − Rs2
Np + +
2 2 6Rs tan

Step 2. Enter the right-hand side of theapplicable
material chart in Subpart 3 of Section II, Part D for
the material under consideration at the value of B
determined by Step 1. If different materials are used
Not for Resale
 --`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- 1-8 MANDATORY APPENDIX 1
for the shell and stiffening ring, use the material chart
resulting in the larger value of A in Step 4 below.
Step 3. Move horizontally to the left to the
material / temperature line for the design metal tempera-
ture. For values of B falling below the left end of the
material / temperature line, see Step 5 below.
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart
and read the value of A.
Step 5. For values of B falling below the left end
of the material / temperature line for the design tempera-
ture, the value of A can be calculated using the formula
A p 2B / Ex . For value of B above the material /
temperature line for the design temperature, the design
shall be either per U-2(g) or by changing the cone or
cylinder configuration, stiffening ring location on the
shell, and /or reducing the axial compressive force to
reduce the B value to below or at the material /
temperature line for the design temperature. For values
of B having multiple values of A, such as when B
falls on a horizontal portion of the curve, the smallest
value of A shall be used.
Step 6. Compute the value of the required moment
of inertia from the formulas for Is or I ′s .
For the circumferential stiffening ring only,
ADs2 ATS
Is p
14.0
For the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone section,
ADs2 ATS
I ′s p
10.9
Step 7. Determine the available moment of inertia
of the ring only I or the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone I ′.
Step 8. When the ring only is used,
I ≥ Is
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1-8
and when the shell-cone or ring-shell-cone is used:
I ′ ≥ I ′s
If the equation is not satisfied, a new section with
a larger moment of inertia must be selected, and the
calculation shall be done again until the equation is met.
The requirements of UG-29(b), (c), (d), (e), and (f )
and UG-30 are to be met in attaching stiffening rings
to the shell.
(d) Reducers not described in UG-36(e)(5), such as
those made up of two or more conical frustums having
different slopes, may be designed in accordance with (e).
(e) When the half-apex angle
is greater than 60
deg. (1.1 rad), cone-to-cylinder junctions without a
knuckle may be used, with or without reinforcing rings,
if the design is based on special analysis, such as
the beam-on-elastic-foundation analysis of Timoshenko,
Hetenyi, or Watts and Lang. See U-2(g). The effect
of shell and cone buckling on the required area and
moment of inertia at the joint is to be taken into
consideration in the analysis. When such an analysis
is made, the calculated localized stresses at the disconti-
nuity shall not exceed the following values.
(1) (Membrane hoop stress) + (average discontinu-
ity hoop stress) shall not be greater than 1.5S.
(2) (Membrane longitudinal stress) + (discontinuity
longitudinal stress due to bending) shall not be greater
than SPS [see UG-23(e)], where the “average discontinu-
ity hoop stress” is the average hoop stress across the
wall thickness due to the discontinuity at the junction,
disregarding the effect of Poisson’s ratio times the
longitudinal stress at the surfaces.
343
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