1

WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

COAGULATION AND SEDIMENTATION

A. Plain Sedimentation or Settling – The process of subsidence and deposition of suspended

matter, water carried by gravity, accomplished by reducing velocity of liquid below the point where
it can transport the suspended material (usually denotes no use of coagulant or chemical aids).

Plain Sedimentation – useful as a process preliminary to further treatment to lighten load on

subsequent processes.

Advantages:

a. less variable quality of water applied to treatment units.

b. lower cost in cleaning of coagulation basins.
c. reduces chemical use in subsequent treatment.
d. no chemical lost in sludge.

Coagulation or Flocculation and Sedimentation usually denote improved settling with the aid of
coagulants, aids, and mechanical stirring devices.

B. Forces and Conditions Affecting Sedimentation:

a. force of gravity
b. size and specific gravity of settling particle
c. coagulation of settling particle.
d. depth and shape of basin.
e. viscosity and/or temperature of water.
f. presence of convection and other currents.
g. method of basin operation.
h. other phenomena like biological, electrical, etc.

C. Some Design Criteria used for Sedimentation Basins:

(a) Detention period & Flow-through period

Volume of basin divided by volumetric rate of flow. Detention period is the theoretical
time required to fill the basin at the given rate of flow. Flow-through period is the average
time required for a small amount of liquid to pass through the basin at a given rate of
flow. The flow-through period is less than the detention period and maybe determined
by dyes, chloride, or slurries. Detention Periods – 1 hour to several days (6-8 hours most
common).

(b) Efficiency of Displacement – ratio of flowing through period of detention period times
100. Basin efficiencies vary roughtly – 50% sometimes as high as 90%.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 2

(c) Velocity of flow equals volumetric rate divided by the Sedimentation basin vertical cross-
sectional area; shall not be greater than 1 fpm common values 0.1- 0.01 fpm

(d) Overflow rate – Ratio of surface area to volumetric flow in gpd/sq.ft. of area.

300 – 4000 gpd/sq.ft. for granular solids

800 – 2000 gpd/sq.ft. for slow settling solids
100 – 1200 gpd/sq.ft. for flocculent material.

(e) Length to Width Ratio.

Width not greater than 40 ft. – not less than ¼ of the length. Long narrow basin Preferable
but also more expensive.

(f) Other considerations:

a. depth – 10-18’ rectangular; 20-25’ circular

b. inlet and outlet devices
c. cover or roof.
d. cleaning provisions.
e. sludge storage capacity
f. number and capacityof basins.

D. Mixing – Time of mixing relatively short. – 1-5 minutes with velocities greater than 5 fps. types
of mixers include:

a. baffled channels
1. around the end
2. over and under
b. rotary flow basins
1. tangential
2. spiral
c. mechanical mixers or agitators
d. air agitators
e. hydraulic jump
f. Venturi meter tubes.
g. throttled valves.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 3

Function of the initial rapid mix or flash mix is to disperse the applied chemical or coagulant
throughout the water to be treated – necessity of which is obvious since chemical dose is
proportional to the entire flow.

E. Coagulation or Flocculation – Slow and gentle stirring motion to build up floc (30 – 60
minutes). Horizontal flow velocities 0.5 – 1.0 fps. A circulating twisting sweeping confusion
of the floc is best.

F. Baffled Basins: Water flows horizontally back and forth past baffles 2’ – 3’ apart.

Disadvantages:

1. less flexibility of control

2. greater head loss – 1-2 feet.
3. greater expense of construction.

G. Spiral or tangential flow basins: For circular shapes, diameters up to 40 ft. velocity 0.5-0.75
fps.

Disadvantages:

1. short circuiting.
2. flow variations affect agitation velocity
3. high peripheral velocity.
4. velocity not adjustable to suit flows

H. Mechanical Flocculation – Most common circular or rectangular tanks with paddles having
peripheral velocities - 1-2 fps.

Advantages include:

a. reduced coagulant dose 10-40%

b. Better flocculating formation
c. less filter washing.
d. lower cost of installation
e. control of speed makes it flexible
f. good current control
g. slow power and head loss requirement
h. ease of installation in existing plants

Disadvantages:

a. low velocity near paddle shaft

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 4

b. dead spaces at corners

c. need of equipment and maintenance
d. bad short circuiting

I. Types of Sedimentation Basins:

1. As to shape:
a. rectangular
b. square
c. circular
d. irregular shape

2. As to direction of flow:

a. vertical flow
b. horizontal flow
c. radial or outward flow

3. As to type of flow:

a. fill and drain (obsolete)

b. continuous flow

J. Commercial Package Basins:

1. Spiractor
2. Accelator
3. Precipitator

FILTRATION

A. Definition:

1. Water filtration is the process of passing water through some porous substances which
removes or retains some of its impurities.

B. Filtratering Materials Used:

1. Sand – most universally used material for filtering in either the slow or rapid process.
2. Mechanically crushed quartz.
3. Anthracite coal – very light and may remove objectionable taste and odor of water.
4. Magnetite – very easy to clean with the aid of electromagnets.
5. Coke – used in conjunction with taste and odor control.
6. Cinders – has limited use only.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 5

C. Classification according to Design or Operation:

1. Gravity Filters – open to atmospheric pressures – operates on differences of elevation.

Includes both Slow Sand Filter and Rapid Sand Filter.
2. Pressure Filters – operated in closed systems.
3. Vacuum Filters –open to atmosphere at surface and under in imposed vacuum on the effluent
side of the unit.

D. Classification according to Filter media used:

1. Granular Filter Media – sand or anthracite coal.

2. Filter-Aid filters - diatomaceous earth, wallastonite, expanded perlite, etc.

E. Theories of Filtration:

1. Physical

a. Mechanical straining
b. Sedimentation
c. Adsorption
d. Absorption

2. Chemical
a. Oxidation

3. Biological

a. Schmutzdecke or dirty skin - - slimy layer.

b. Contact with bacterial slime.
c. Struggle for existence of bacteria.

4. Biochemical

(a) Contact:

Decreased surface tension - - concentration of dissolved materials like acids and ammonia
attack by enzymes and living organisms, removal makes room for other substances, leaching
out of products of decomposition, adsorption of concentrating substances.

F. Slow Sand Filters:

1. Theory

a. Action is same as rapid sand filter.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 6

b. Highly efficient in removal of tastes and odors due to biological activity in filter which
modifies forms of nitrogen and destroys other organic matters.
c. Slow filtration rates gives bed a greater efficiency in removal of bacteria.
d. Schmutzdecke important in removing organic matter from water.

2. Filter beds are rectangular and covered each arranged in one or more rows depending on number
of units and shape of site.

a. Even smallest plants require at least 2 units so as to satisfy demand while one bed is being
cleaned.
b. Beds usually have a concrete side walls and bottoms.
c. Slow Sand Filter should always be covered to prevent biological growth in warm weather
and protect against ice formation in winter. Covers are frequently of the groined-arch type.
3. The Underdrain System usually consist of split tile laterals laid in coarse stone with lateral
spaced 8 to 12 feet apart, discharging into a main drain.
a. Main drain placed under filter bottom to save depth.
b. Underdrain system requires low velocities to maintain a low frictional resistance of at least
25% of friction losses occurring in sand when clean.

G. Parts of Slow Sand Filtration Plant.

1. Intake
2. Devices for placing water at necessary elevation consisting of pumps or gravity conduits.
3. Plain settling basins.
4. Filters
5. Cleanwater Storage basin.

H. Operation and Control:

1. Preparation of water before filtration usually consists of plain settling only.

2. In an ordinary slow sand filter no provision is made for the addition of any chemicals and no
coagulant is required.
3. Operated with constant depth of 4 feet of water on the surface of the sand. This level is
measured and maintained by an automatic device which regulates the rate of flow to the filter.
4. Rate of flow is maintained at 10 mgad with the most common rate of about 4 mgad.

Flow rates are controlled manually by hand-operated valves in accordance with flow
indication and recording instruments.

Since a coating of organic matter (bacterial slime) plays an important part in the straining
action of the filter mat, it usually requires several days during which the effluent is wasted
into the filter pipes.

5. A normal period of operation between cleanings should be 2 to 3 months or longer.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 7

Loss of head reaches a maximum of 4 to 6 ft. at which time it is necessary to put the filter
out of service and clean the bed.

6. The sand bed is cleaned by removing approximately 1 inch of sand from surface of bed.

The dirty sand placed in sand ejectors which removed it to the sand court outside the filter
for washing and storage.

After several cleanings and when the original depth of sand is nearing 24”, the filter is
restored by adding clean sand.

Beds are then refilled with filtered water from below until sand is covered completely to
prevent entrapping of air in the sand.

7. Results:

Principal purpose is removal of bacteria from water. Bacterial removal efficiency is 98

to 99% in raw water if not overloaded. Removes suspended and settleable matter not
removed in sedimentation basin and will have beneficial effect on odors a and tastes,
particularly when due to algae or suspended matter. Color removal is 20-25% efficient.

I. Essential parts of the Rapid Sand Filters:

1. Filter Tank :-

Filter tank – rectangular in plan and built of reinforced concrete frequently located above
clear water basin. Its size depends on capacity of filter plant and number of units desired.

2. Underdrain system to outlet and waste water line which has a dual function:

a. Collecting filtered water.

b. Distributing wash water evenly.

Friction loss should not exceed 25% of the frictional resistance of the clean sand.

3. Graded gravel and sand layers - - Filter Media.

4. Wash water troughs.
5. Inlet system.
6. Appurtenances including valves rate controllers, instrumentations, surface washing devices,
etc.

J. Factor in Design of Pipe Underdrains: - (After H.N. Jenks)

1. Length to diameter ratio should not exceed 60.

2. Perforations – ¼ to ½ inch round in diameter.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 8

3. Spacing of perforations is 3” for ¼” to 8” for ½”

4. Ratio of total area of perforations in underdrain system to total cross-sectional area of laterals
should not exceed0.5 for ½” and 0.25 for ¼”.
5. Ratio of total area of perforations to entire filter area is .002 to .003 square inch/sq. ft. of
filter.
6. Space lateral at 12” o.c.
7. Rate of washing is 6-36”/minutes. Trend in using coarser sand with higher rates of washing
and filtering.
8. Cross-sectional area of laterals greater than 2 times sum of areas of perforations.
9. Area of manifold feeding laterals 1.75 to 2 times sum of cross-sectional area of laterals.

K. Types of Underdrains:-

1. Perforated pipes – consists of central manifold to which are attached series of lateral pipes
perforated at lower portion.
2. Pipe and strainers - - similar to perforated pipes except that strainers with small opening are
inserted into lateral at regular intervals.
3. Ride and valley – consist of parallel ridges of concrete 8” to 12” o.c. with perforated brass
screen supported between ridges
4. Perforated plates – perforated metallic plates resting in piers.
5. Wheeler bottoms – has concrete floor in which inverted pyramidal depressions have been
cast and earthen balls and graded gravel placed over it.
6. False Bottoms – consist of furrows cast in concrete bottom and porous plates covering
furrows.

L. Filter Media:

1. The gravel bed acts as foundation for the sand and aid in distributing wash water
uniformly. It is placed in 5 to 6 layers totaling 18” with finest size on top. Some common
specifications for gravel are : it shall be

a. hard
b. durable
c. rounded
d. Weigh about 100 pounds/cubic foot.
e. free from flat, thin, or long pieces
f. contain no loam, sand clays, shale or other foreign materials.

2. Sand should be free from dirt, hard and resistant and preferably of quartz or quartzite:

a. effective size – 0.35 to 0.5 mm.

b. uniformity coefficient – 1.35 to 1.5 mm.
c. Thickness of sand layer – 24” to 36”

M. Wash Water Troughs:

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 9

1. Since wash water should not travel more than 3 ft. laterally, the troughs are never spaced
more than 6 feet apart
2. They are constructed of concrete, steel and are of various cross-sections. The U-shaped
bottoms with vertical sides are common for troughs.
3. The edge of wash water troughs shall be about 30” above the sand.
4. Types of wash trough arrangement :

a. cantilevered
b. U-shaped type
c. single unit
d. double unit
e. double filter

N. Appurtenances:

1. Rate controllers are devices for maintaining a constant rate of filtration through the filter.
They are placed in the effluent pipe and automatically maintain a uniform rate as the head
loss increases.

2. Loss of head gages are devices by means of which frictional head loss of water passing
through the filter may be determined. They are useful in indicating the condition of the filter
and the necessity of washing.

3. Valves are placed beneath the operating table between the rows of filters, in a pipe gallery
where various pipes to and from individual filters connect to the headerlines.

O. Rapid Sand Filter Operating Difficulties:

1. Air Binding – caused by the presence of excessive amount of air dissolved in water
escaping into the sand to form bubbles, resulting from negative head, increase of water
temperature as it passes thru the bed, and oxygen released by algaes.

Some remedies are: avoid excessive negative head, algae control, remedying conditions of
supernaturated water with air, and precautions against water warning as it passes through the
plant.

2. Mud Accumulations – Formation of mud balls in the sand layer – is the greatest filter
operating difficulty, reducing the capacity and efficiency of the filter.

Some remedies are: regular use of adequate surface wash, removal of mud balls by rakes
while bed is washed and use of caustic soda 300 pounds to an mgd filter.

3. Sand Incrustation – occur as a result of heavy lime treatment of water whereby CaCO3
crystalizes causing enlargement of sand grains.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 10

Some remedies are: carbonation, sulfuric acid solution – for dark brown coating of mineral
manganese in sand, and caustic soda- if manganese coating is in organic states.

P. Laboratory control records, and Permissible Filter Plant Loads.

1. A water treatment plant should have a laboratory adequate in size and equipped to make
bacteriological, chemical, and physical tests.
2. Some routine daily tests include:

a. water temperature
b. turbidity
c. alkalinity
d. color
e. hardness
f. residual chlorine
g. B. Coli
h. bacterial count at 37 degrees C. and also at 20 degrees C.

3. Daily record should be kept to show the following :

a. test results
b. amount of water filtered
c. hours of operation
d. amount of wash water used
e. total amount of chemical used
f. other miscellaneous data

4. Some permissible bacterial loads on filter :

a. B. Coli index of raw water less than or equal

b. turbidity
c. alkalinity

Q. Advantages of slow over rapid filters:

1. requires less skilled operation

2. less amount of head consumed
3. more reliable in bacterial removal
4. lower operating costs
5. Best adapted to waters low in color, turbidity and bacterial count.

Advantages rapid over slow sand filters:

1. lower first cost

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 11

2. requires smaller area of land

3. cleaner effluent – less color – sparkling
4. smaller amount of sand
5. more adjustable to changes in raw water quality.

R. The Filter Washing Process: Requires about 5 minutes although bed will be out operation for
10-15 minutes.

1. close influent valve

2. close effluent valve
3. open waste-water valve to sewer
4. open wash-water valve
5. close wash valve
6. close waste-water valve to sewer
7. open influent valve
8. open effluent valve

S. Comparison between slow and rapid sand filters:

Features Slow Sand Rapid Sand

1. Name English Mechanical or American

2. History London filters 1889 1895 experiments
Albany filters 1899 Little Falls filter 1903
is well designed Fuller-design
3. Preliminary Treatment none, sometimes Coagulation, Sedimentation
coagulation and aeration
4. Rates 2.5 – (3) – 6 mgad 100 – (125) – 150 mgad
5. Subdivision of units Few but larger Many small size units,
sizes up to 1 acre 0.1 - .01 acres
6. Filtering Material 12”-18” gravel 12” gravel (3/4-2”)
3’-6’ sand 24” - 36” sand
7. Sand E.S. 0.25 – 0.35 mm. .35 - .60 mm.
8. Uniformity coefficient 2.0 – 2.5 – 3.0 1.5
9. Loss of Head 0.2 initial, 4-7 ft. 4”-6” initial, 9’-12’
final final
10. Cleaning scraping and washing reverse flow-every
inside and outside filter 24 hrs. 18-24-48
1-3 months inches wash
11. Amount of wash 0.2% - 0.6% filtered water 1 - 4 - 6% of filtered water
12. Theory of Filtration straining, sedimentation straining, sedimentation
biological, biochemical chemical
13. Bacterial removal Uniformly good good but irregular unless
well suprvised

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 12

Features Slow Sand Rapid Sand

14. Color removal 30% less than 5 ppm. or

sometimes zero
15. Turbidity clear but clogs readily brilliant
16. Odor and Tastes few more frequent
17. Iron reduced removed sometimes

T. Pressure filters are based on same principle as gravity type rapid sand filters but the underdrains,
gravel and sand are placed in cylindrical tanks and water is passed through the filters under
pressure. Unlike the gravity-type filters, the coagulated water is usually applied directly to filter
without mixing flocculation or conditioning. They are used almost exclusively on swimming
pools, small water supplies, and for industrial purposes.

Disadvantages are : high cost, inefficient operation, relatively poor quality of result obtained.

U. Roughing Filters:

Also known as scrubbers and are coarse-grained filters operated at high rates to prepare water
for further treatment. It is no longer used; replaced by micro-strainers.

V. Infiltration Galleries:

Consists of conduits having perforated or open walls through which water passes after having
first percolated through natural bed of sand and gravel. Water collected maybe bacteriologically
undesirable and needs controlled chlorination.

W. Double Filtration:

Consist of filtration of water through two or more slow sand filters in series or through a rapid
sand filter and then through a slow sand filter or rapid sand filter. It is useful primarily in
increasing capacity of existing slow sand filter plants where the available land area is restricted.

DISINFECTION

A. Definitions:

1. Bactericide -- anything that destroys bacteria ( not necessarily spores)

2. Disinfectant -- chemical agent that destroys disease germs.
3. Sterilization -- destruction of all living organisms, pathogenic or not.
4. Germicides -- chemical compounds or anything to kill micro-organisms, exclusive of
spores. Ultraviolet radiation and oligodynamic silver are also germicidal.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 13

5. Sanitizing -- rendering an article clean of any aesthetically objectionable material plus

removal of contamination.
6. Antiseptic -- either germicidal or bactericidal – prevent bacterial multiplication.

B. Purpose:

The primary aim of water disinfection is to kill bacteria and thus prevent waterborne disease.

C. Methods of disinfection or destroying organisms:

1. Physical Action – direct application of force or energy which destroys organisms : -

a. Heat – by boiling, for household use only

b. Ultraviolet Rays – rays are absorbed by protoplasm of the cell producing death by
oxidation of the enzymes. Advantages are: (a) no taste or odors in water (b) no danger of
overdosage.

c. Disadvantages : (a) more costly than using chlorine

d. for small private water supplies and bottling works only.
e. Ultrasonic or Microwaves -- not commercially used for water.
f. Vibrations.

2. Poisons which react with cell to form toxic substances and kill by either chemical poisoning
or disruptive structural changes within the cell.

a. Silver -- extremely effective, slow acting, no tastes or odor, but ineffective for waters
with organic matter.
b. Caustic Lime -- for water with pH of 10 or over.

3. Oxidizing Agents :

a. KMNO4 – slow acting, expensive, effective in low pH.

a. Ozone – (O3) – is an unstable gas that tends to break down into normal oxygen
containing two atoms of oxygen per molecule. In the process of breaking down, it
releases nascent oxygen which is active in oxidizing the organic matter and in killing
bacteria present in the water.

Advantages: no disinfecting chemical remains in the water, odor, taste, and color are
removed, inexpensive process.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 14

Disadvantages: cost greater than chlorination, apparatus required is complicated,

absence of residual chemical provides no safeguard against subsequent
contamination.

b. Bromine – Iodine and other halogens.

c. Hydrogen Peroxide – unstable, no taste and odor residual, difficult to maintain.
d. Chlorine – cheapest and most common.

4. Mechanical Action – which remove but do not destroy organisms and placing them in less
favorable environment :

a. centrifuging
b. filtration
c. coagulation and sedimentation.

D. Mechanism of chlorine disinfection:

1. Little is known about it – for sometime it was thought that disinfection may be due to the
liberation of nascent oxygen from the hypochlorous acid (HOCL) but this theory has lost
support due to the fact that chloramines which is also a disinfectant contain no oxygen.
2. It is now believed that disinfecting section is probably due to inactivation of cell glucose,
metabolizing system by oxidation of enzymes. Thus chlorine destroys by uniting with
material of cell (cell-enzyme combination), attacking it and blocking future activity.
3. Hypochlorus acid and hypochlorites are specifically toxic to bacteria in ways that are distinct
from oxidation. Just what this toxic to bacteria in ways that is distinct from oxidation. Just
what this toxic reaction is has been the subject of various speculation and theories. Some
recent work (Green and Stumff) indicate that the primary reaction is one between chlorine
and d a certain enzyme essential for bacterial reproduction.

E. Chlorine Compounds Used:

1. Bleaching powder (chlorinated lime, chloride of lime) produced by feeding chlorine and
lime into rotating drum. About 60%-70% CaOC2 the active ingredient. It losses strength
rapidly in moist air; losses 1%/month in closed containers. Application is by dissolving and
feeding in the form of a solution of 0.5 25% Cl2. The solution deposits sludge of CaCO3 and
inert materials.
2. Calcium Hypochlorite, Ca (Ocl) 2 FTH, Perchloron – manufacture is more complex than
bleaching powder, commercial product about 70% available chlorine, applied as solution. 1-
3.
a. also yields sludge
b. not so hygroscopic as bleaching powder
c. dry feed difficult although practicable
d. costs more but allows storage and higher strength per pound and also stable

3. Sodium Hypochlorite (NaCCl) – manufactured by electrolysis of brines. Produces an

alkaline sodium hypochlorite solution containing either 3-5% or 10-16% by weight of

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 15

available chlorine. Practical yield – 1 lb. chlorine from 8 pounds NaCl2 using up to 400-500
ampere- hrs. 70-90% effective. Maybe purchased from manufacturer or made directly at
plants, latter method seldom used now. Available only for large plants which prefer liquid
chlorine. Good for isolated region with cheap electric power. Application of dilution is by
solution feeders. Advantages are: simple dosing equipment, no sludge, high inert percentage
but it cannot be shipped far economically and loses strength when stored.
4. Chlorine Dioxide – new method – bactericidal properties may be as great or greater that
chlorine, important in waters of high alkalinity, used for waters with phenol troubles, active
oxidizing agent 2-1/2 more available chlorine than chlorine gas.
5. Chlorine-Ammonia: Used where water gives chlorinous taste and odor.

F. Factors affecting disinfection efficiency:

1. time contact
2. concentration of organisms
3. concentration of disinfectant
4. temperature
5. nature of disinfectant

G. Four Methods of determining residual chlorine:

1. Orthotolidine – most widely used, not foolproof since some substances in water like nitrite,
ferric compounds, manganic compounds, organic iron compounds, lignocelluloses and algae
tend to increase the apparent content of chlorine.
2. Iodometric Method – for water of residual chlorine greater than 1 ppm. Colorimetric method
of Iodometric chlorine determination is also available.
3. Amperometric Method – only procedure known that will differentiate between free chlorine
and free chlorine combined with nitrogenous compounds. The test is known as Laux “flash”
test and is a form of colorimetric test having standardized colors. Not applicable in presence
of oxidized manganese.
4. Drop-Dilution test – rapid field method where chlorine concentration are greater than 10
ppm. as in water0main sterilization.

H. Types of Chlorine Treatment

1. Prechlorination – implies application of chlorine ahead of the filters but not in such amount
that it may be called superchlorination. Usual dose applied before the sedimentation process
in such amount that a residual of 0.05 to 0.1 ppm. will go to the filters. Advantages are: -
reduction of bacterial load on the filters, increased factor of safety, better color removal in
certain instances, increased factor of safety, better color removal in certain instances,
increased filter runs, control of plankton in basins and filters, deferred putrifaction of settling
– basin sludge, elimination of tastes and odors.
2. Double or Multiple Chlorination – refers to application of chlorine at two or more points
in the purification process. Advantages: - lightening filter load, maintenance of two

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 16

chlorinating plants serves as a factor of safety, tastes and odors are reduced, algae and slime
are avoided in coagulating basin and filters, coagulation is aided.

3. Superchlorination – adding a larger amount of chlorine than is required for sterilizing alone.
It is used occasionally in destroying tastes and odors/

4. Dechlorination – is removal of excess chlorine from the water before distribution to

consumer. It is accomplished by applying:
a. sodium thicoulphate
b. sodium bisulphate
c. sulphur dioxide
d. by treating with magnesium metal
e. prolonged storage particularly with exposure to sunlight
f. by aeration
g. by use of activated carbon
h. by use of potassium permanganate

5. Break-Point Chlorination – if chlorine is applied to water until a residual appears and the
dose of chlorine is increased, the residual will increase and continue to increase as more
chlorine is added, until a point is reached at which the residual dips or “breaks” and beyond
this point it continues to rise. The break point chlorination of water is the point on the applied-
residual chlorine curve at which all, or nearly all, the residual is free chlorine. Application of
chlorine at, or slightly higher than break-point concentration will remove tastes and odors,
will have adequate bactericidal effect, and will leave the desired chlorine residual.

6. Chlorine – Ammonia Treatment – Application of ammonia to water prior to addition of

chlorine has the advantages of:

a. the prevention of taste, particularly those due to phenols.

b. the control of micro-organisms in settling basins, filters and distribution system, due to
the possibility of dosing heavily with chlorine and carrying of high chlorine residuals
without the production of tastes.
c. stronger bacterial effect
d. longer periods of persistence of the bactericidal effect
e. reduction of chlorine requirements
f. a reducing action which renders its effects independent of the presence of organic
matter.
g. loss irritation of the eyes and nose, resulting in its use in swimming pools.
h. operators, no longer fearing to overdose with chlorine, will feed an adequate dose.
i. freedom from danger of overdosage

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 17

AERATION

A. Definition

Aeration in water works practice is the process whereby air is brought into intimate contact with
water as a means or adjunct to the improvement of the water quality. Some of the objectives of
aeration are:

1. Removal of objectionable tastes and odors due to:

a. Essential oils of algae and other living organisms.
b. Decomposing organic matter.
c. Hydrogen sulfide (very effective removal)
d. Chlorination
e. Taste due to Iron and Manganese (indirectly by oxidation and precipitation,
2. Removal of Dissolved Gases:
a. Carbon dioxide
b. Hydrogen sulfide
c. Chlorine in excess of that required for disinfection
d. SO2 used for de-chlorination
3. Changing pH by removal of CO2 (mostly for corrosion control)
4. Addition of Gases:
a. Oxygen to remove flat taste.
b. Ozone in disinfection or odor control.

B. Types of Aerators

1. Gravity Aerators
a. Inclined plane or cascade
b. Perferated trays with or without contact media such as coke, stone or gravel.
2. Pressure Aerators (sprays or fountains)
a. with orifices
b. with nozzles – plain, rifled, centrifugal or volute, impinging, floating, whirling (simplex
type), venture control.
3. Injection Aerators – air blown into water as bubbles.
a. Perforated pipes.
b. Diffusers
c. Air lift pumps
4. Proprietary Devices
a. Aero-mix
b. Cavitator
c. Diffusair
d. Others
5. Others
a. Inka
b.Simplex Brush

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 18

C. Theory of Aeration:

The concentration of gases in a liquid will come to equilibrium with the atmosphere with which the
liquid is in contact in accordance with Henry’s Law. So that if a water containing gases is placed in
contact with an atmosphere other than that with which it is in equilibrium, an exchange of gases
between the water and the atmosphere immediately starts and will continue until equilibrium is
reached. The solution may absorb or give up gases depending on whether it is supersaturated or
under saturated. – SOLUBILITY THEORY

D. Solution of Gases:

The rate at which a gas will be absorbed in water depends on the following factors:

1. Degree of under-saturation of water with respect to the gas, or saturation deficit.

2. Temperature
3. Extent of intermingling of water and gas; i.e., the extent to which intimate contact is
achieved and to which immobile films are prevented at the gas-water interface.
4. Total amount of solution depends on time of contact.

E. Aesthetic Consideration:

Aeration is usually associated with purification. Sometimes aerators are placed only for
psychological effects. At times it is justified also for no other reason than to enhance the
attractiveness of the water treatment plant.

F. Factors determining effectiveness of Aerators:

1. Temperature of the water.

2. Saturation deficit or surplus of gas in water.
3. Area of contact surface per unit volume of water. Diffusion breaks air in bubbles; nozzles
into droplets.
4. Time of contact – cascades or slot trays instead of straight fall, bubbles instead of drops.
5. Turbulence of water at contact surface – Increase diffusion rate by decreasing film,
scrubbing, stones or cokes.

G. Waterfall vs. Diffusion Aerators:

1. Waterfall is favored in practice because of its aesthetic value to plant. In theory, diffusion is
better because time of contact is greater in a rising bubble than in a falling drop.
2. 80% of aerators are water in air type. Approximately 50% of installations are used for
removing tastes and odors.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 19

H. Operation Problems:

1. Corrosion

In some instances the introduction of dissolved oxygen by aeration makes the water more corrosive.
Aeration to remove CO2 before softening and iron removal at Lansing, Michigan, increased red
water troubles in home hot water systems. Removal of CO2 by lime instead of aeration relieved the
problem.

2. Odor Removal

Many plants report that aeration is only partially effective on algae odors; some report no removal
at all with aeration. Some few plants reported that aeration actually increased the threshold odor
value in the water.

3. Contaminants

Aeration of well waters as the only treatment may actually cause contamination of the supply. In
West Palm Beach, Florida, aeration apparently was contributory to chronomids laying eggs on the
water surface in the basins with the result that the hatching bloodworms appeared in the consumer’s
taps. Aeration was discontinued. One plant employing a spray aerator with a discharge height of 12
to 14 feet showed coliform organisms in the plant effluent although the influent contained none.

4. Cost:

Power to operate aerators of all types increase operating cost. Calculations for one plant indicate that
for 80% efficiency it cost $0.39 per M.G. to remove 1 ppm. of CO2. Such operating costs should
always be compared to the cost of chemicals for the same job. In this case, chemical removal of 1
ppm. would cost approx. $0.09 per M.G. When aeration is solely for taste and odor removal, it may
be found that small increases in chem. dosage will produce the same or even better results at little
more cost than for aeration.

WATER SOFTENING

A. Fundamental Principles and Definitions:

1. Water is said to be hard when it requires plenty of soap to produce a lather, and soft if it
lathers freely.
2. The hardness of most water supplies is due to four compounds which are held in solution,
via;

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 20

a. Calcium bicarbonate (solution of limestone, CaCO3, in waters containing CO2)

b. Magnesium bicarbonate (solution of magnesite, MgCO3, in waters containing CO2)
c. Calcium sulphate (in the form, CaSC4, 2H2O, is known as gypsum)
d. Magnesium sulphate (in the form, MgSO4, 7H2O, is known as Epsom salts)
3. Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness is associated with the presence of calcium, and
magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
4. Permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness – is due to presence of calcium, and
magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
5. Water softening is the process of rendering hard water soft by changing calcium and
magnesium compounds from a soluble to insoluble form, and then removing the insoluble
compounds by sedimentation and filtration or by an exchange process which consists in
replacing the calcium and magnesium with sodium.

B. Purposes of Water Softening:

1. Conservation of soap.
2. Reduction of work in the laundry.
3. Prevention of the formation of scales in steam boilers.
4. Preparation of water for domestic and industrial uses.
5. Increases efficiency of filtration.
6. Aids in the removal of color, iron, and manganese.
7. Produce non-corrosive waters.
8. Improves the cooking of foods and is desirable for other domestic purposes.
9. Increases the efficiency of bacterial reduction when filtration follows softening.

C. Two General methods of softening water are: lime Soda Process, Zeclite or Base
Exchange.

1. Lime-Soda Process – this process consists of the following steps:

a. addition of softening and coagulating chemicals and followed by thorough mixing of the
chemicals with water.
b. slow agitation for 30 to 60 minutes to allow completion of the chemical reaction.
c. Settling – takes place rapidly at higher temperatures.
d. Carbonation – water may be recarbonated to restore the carbonate balance after the
sedimentation.
e. Filtration.

2. Types of Plant Operation:

a. Continuous type plant – continuous application of chemicals during the hour the plant
is in operation. The construction cost is less than other type – most municipal plants are
of this type.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 21

b. Intermittent type – consists in batch or fill-and-draw operation in wooden, steel, or

concrete tanks of any convenient shape, from which sludge is withdrawn either by
gravity in a conical or pyramidal-shaped bottom or by mechanical scrapers from flat-
bottom tanks.
c. Conventional type plant – when chemically treated water is mixed and settled in separate
tanks.
d. Sludge Blanket type – when the softening chemicals are added so that the softening
reactions occur in the presence of a large quantity of previously formed sludge, and
clarification is promoted because of upward filtration of the coagulated or softened
water through the sludge blanket.

3. Disposal of sludge accumulated in the lime-soda process:

a. Discharge into a stream providing sufficient dilution and carrying capacity to prevent
the formation of sludge banks or the discoloration of the river.
b. Temporary storage to permit discharge into the stream during high-water period.
c. The filling of depressions or excavations, as old quarries.
d. The discharge into the city sewers, through the sewage treatment plant.
e. Drying the sludge and using it for liming the soil.
f. Reburning for the production of lime.
g. Use as a filler for paints.

D. Zeolite (base-change) Process:

A Zeolite is a chemical compound so imperfectly bound together that its composition will change
depending upon the concentration of chemicals in solution in its presence. Types of Zeolites include
natural greensand and synthetic sodium zeolites:

1. Characteristics desirable in a zeolite include:

a. High operating exchange value, which minimizes the size of the required equipment.
b. Freedom from aggressive attack by the water being treated.
c. Freedom from injury when overrun.
d. Low salt requirements for regeneration.
e. Availability and low first cost.
f. Durability to resist the wear of re-washing.
g. Freedom from the effects of turbidity, iron, manganese, or other substances.
h. A grain of proper size, neither so fine as to cause too great a loss of head in operation, or
in backwashing, nor so coarse as noticeably to diminish its change value.
2. Softening capacity of zeolites:
a. Less if water is excessively hard.
b. Less if it contains large quantities of sodium salts.
c. Less if it contains an excess of magnesium salts.
3. Zeolite water softening units – resembles an ordinary mechanical sand filter with zeolite
substituted for sand and differs from water filter unit in the following points:

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 22

a. Sand filters are used to remove from water impurities that are in suspension, and zeolite
softeners soften water by chemical action, i.e., sand is used as strainer medium whereas
zeolite mineral is used as a chemical contact medium.
b. Zeolite softeners must be equipped for introducing, removing and rinsing brine from the
unit.
c. The depth of the zeolite mineral in a softener ordinarily is greater than the sand in a
filter. Filter sand usually is placed to a depth of from 24 to 30 inches whereas the depth
of zeolite mineral is from 30 to 75 inches.
d. area of openings in under drainage system is greater in sand filters than in zeolite
softeners.

E. Use of synthetic organic detergents, the so-called sulphonated oil soaps offsets the
disadvantages of hard water; rapidly gaining in popularity.

F. Chemicals used in water softening:

1. Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2

2. Quicklime (CaO)
3. Caustic soda
4. Calgon – sodium hexametaphosphate

G. Comparison of lime-soda and Zeolite process:

Advantages of the lime-soda process:

1. Suitable for turbid, chalybeate, and acid water where zeolite cannot be used.
2. The effluent contains lower total solids than that from zeolite softening.
3. Control of corrosion prevention is comparatively simple.
4. May be more economical.
5. Has bactericidal effect.
6. Maybe better foe excessively hard waters particularly those high in magnesium hardness,
and for water high in sodium.
7. Easily added to an existing filter plant.
8. Freedom from patent complications.
9. Freedom from danger of loss or disintegration of material.

H. Advantages of the Zeolite Process:

1. Freedom from sludge.

2. Free from danger of excess chemicals in the effluent.
3. Independent of change in quality of raw water.
4. No deposits in the distribution system.
5. The chemicals involved are easy to handle.
6. Highly skilled labor unnecessary.
7. Any desired reduction of hardness is attainable.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 23

8. Repumping is unnecessary by the by the use of pressure softener.

9. Small space is required.
10. Almost completely automatic.

AUXILIARY WATER TREATMENT

A. Corrective treatment of corrosive waters: There are two general methods available for
reducing the corrosiveness of water:

1. Dissolved-oxygen removal – Two methods used by industrial plants on a small scale:

a. Deactivation – consists in heating water to reduce solubility of oxygen and then passing
it over steel scrap which unites with the oxygen to form rust.
b. Deaeration – water is heated to just below boiling to free the oxygen and then allowed to
trickle over a series of copper trays to liberate the gas. Both methods require heat and are
expensive. This may also be accomplished by vacuum where water is introduced into the
top of an enclosed steel tower then allowed to trickle downward over bundles of wood
laths, while maintaining a 28.5 in. vacuum inside the tower by means of vacuum pump –
95% oxygen removal and remaining oxygen removed by dose of sodium sulphite, a
reducing agent.

2. pH Adjustment – the chemical adjustment of water to reduce corrosiveness is for dual

purpose of:
a. Rising of pH value of water.
b. Stabilizing protective coating on the interior surfaces of metal pipes.

3. Methods of chemical adjustments:

a. Adding lime or soda ash or caustic soda.
b. Using CO2 – if water is oversaturated with CaCO3.
c. Aeration and contact treatment through marble or limestone beds.
d. Use of calgon (sodium hexametaphosphate).

4. Methods of determining when water is in equilibrium with CaCO3:

a. Chemical test with the aid of CaCO3 – requires several days.
i. If after contact the pH and alkalinity of water is unchanged, water is in equilibrium
with CaCO3.
ii. if pH and alkalinity increased – water is corrosive to CaCO3.
iii. if pH and alkalinity decreased – water supersaturated with CaCO3.
b. Computation from water analysis – using Langelier’s Index.

B. Tastes and Odor Control:

1. There are four true taste sensations:

a. Sour or acid, associated with hydrogen ions.
b. Sweet, found in sugars and associated with hydroxyl.
c. Salty, produced by chlorides, nitrates, and sulphates.

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 24

d. Bitter, associated with alkaloids.

2. Sources of Odors:
a. Essential oils from plankton.
b. Decaying vegetation.
c. Sulphur gases in ground water.
d. Chlorine.
e. Phenolic wastes from dye plants, phenol-manufacturing plants, coke-oven plants, gas
plants, wood-distillation plants, tar and oil refineries.
f. Nonphenolic wastes from papermills, tanneries, beet sugar mills, canneries, starch plants,
sewage-treatment plants.
g. Chlorine combined with substances listed in b, e, and f.

3. Measurement of Odors:

4. Odor-producing substances are volatile, and it is the gaseous molecule that produces the
sensation of smell in the olfactory region of the nose. The only means of measuring the
concentration of such substances is through the strength of the odor produced and the human
nose is the measuring instrument. The smallest amount of substance required to produce an
odor, usually measured in terms of its concentration in air is called the Threshold odor value.
The threshold point is obtained by diluting the sample with odor-free water until the odor is
just discernible. The ratio of the volume of the diluted sample to the undiluted sample is
called the threshold number or odor intensity.

5. Methods of Control:
a. Ammonia, chlorine, chlorine dioxide
b. Powdered activated carbon
c. Prechlorination
d. Aeration
e. Copper sulphate treatment of reservoirs
f. Superchlorination followed by dechlorination
g. Potassium permanganate
h. Granular activated carbon
i. Bleaching powder
j. Ozone

C. Iron Removal

1. Iron – iron is soluble in water only in ferrous state and frequently occurs as bicarbonate which
is dissolved from peaty soils and from sulphides of iron. Iron in natural water receiving
industrial water may be in ferric of ferrous condition, soluble, colloidal or insoluble. The
USPHS standard limit for iron is C.3ppm.

2. Dissolved iron compounds can be removed from waters by:

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 25

a. Aeration – either with or without filtration and is most extensively used method of
removal especially when iron is present as bicarbonate alone. Operation is easy and
without any requirement of chemical control. Oxygen is required for oxidation in an
amount of 0.14 parts per part iron and with pH range of over 6.5.
b. Filtration alone is effective due to biologic action dependent on growth of organism on
filter sand.
c. Filtration or sedimentation or both.
d. Carbon dioxide removal.
e. Zeolite action – involves oxidation and filtration and not base-exchange. It is applicable
mainly to clear waters not containing excessive amounts of iron or Mn.
f. Other methods.

3. Some disadvantages of Iron when present in water:

a. Causes discoloration in laundry and plumbing fixtures.
b. Promotes growth of iron bacteria or chrenotrix.
c. Promotes corrosion.
d. Imparts taste to water.
e. Objectionable to most industrial users.

D. Manganese Removal:

1. Manganese generally occurs in natural water as manganous bicarbonate. Some

disadvantages are: its presence in water causes formation of brown spots in laundered
goods and on paper on process of manufacture, adversely affect fermentation process,
causes spoty color in dye work. 5 ppm Mn. impart taste to water.
2. Mn. can be removed by:
a. Manganous hydroxide oxidized to manganous oxide then removed by filtration.
b. Chlorination followed by sedimentation and filtration.
c. Filtration through manganese zeolite.
d. Contact beds using pyrolusite (native manganic ocide) followed by aeration.
e. Application of potassium permanganate in addition to coagulant preceding filtration.
f. Application of copper and lime, maintaining the pH at 10, for coagulation.

E. Removal of Silica:

Dissolved silica when present in water causes formation of hard heat insulating scales which
are difficult to remove in steam boilers, colloidal silica removed by using metallic hydroxide
or oxide.

F. Flourides:

Discussed previously, when present in public water supplies in excess of 1.5 ppm causes
fluorosis – it can be removed by:

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR
 26

1. Overtreatment with lime to a causticity of about 2 grains per gallon in the presence of
sufficient magnesium called Scott Process. This procedure is expensive and requires
competent chemical control.
2. Smiths – Water contact with specially prepared ground bone. Two grams bones reduce
flouring in 500 cc. water from 6 to 0.9 ppm which is a lower concentration than that causing
melting of teeth. It is cheap and applicable to both household and municipal installation
without expert control.
3. Fink and Lindsay – proposed passing water through a bed of activated alumina – (not applied
to public water supplies) used for small domestic and private water supplies.

G. Removal of Dissolved metals, gases and color:

Traces of such dissolved metals in water as zinc, lead, copper, and tin can are removed by
zeolite method using kenselite and zepholite.

H. Color which is caused by colloidal particles in water can be removed by:

1. Adsorption
2. Chemical precipitation
3. Coagulation followed by filtration
4. Bleaching by sunlight in open reservoir
5. Chlorination

I. Dissolved gases removed by:

1. Boiling
2. Decompression
3. Addition of chemicals
4. Aeration

FLORDELIZA C. VILLASENOR