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CBSE
Physics
th
Class 11
Chapter - 11

Thermodynamics
System Heat capacity
Types of system
Specific heat capacity

Types of processes

Work done in isothermal expansion Latent heat

Work done in adiabatic expansion

Meyer's formula
Heat engine

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 Thermodynamics
It is the branch of science which deals with various forms of energy and their transformations.

 System
It is the part of universe which is chosen for our thermodynamic consideration.

 Surrounding
Complete universe excluding system is called surrounding.

 Types of system
1. Open system :
It is that system in which both matter and energy can be
exchanged between system and surrounding.

2. Closed system :
It is that system in which only energy can be exchanged
between system and surrounding not matter.

3. Isolated system :
It is that system in which neither matter nor energy can
be exchanged between system and surrounding.

 State function or State variable

These are those properties which depends on initial and final states and not on path. Example Pressure, volume,
temperature.

 Thermal equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium if its macroscopic variables (i.e. pressure, volume,
temperature, etc.) are not changing with time.

 Types of thermodynamic processes

1. Isothermal process :
It is that process which takes place at constant temperature.
 It follows Boyle's law.
 Δ𝑇 = 0
 It can take place slowly in vessel with perfectly conducting walls.

2. Adiabatic process :
It is that process which takes place at constant heat.
 It can take place quickly in isolated system having perfectly insulating walls.
 Δq = 0

3. Isobaric process :
It is that process which takes place at constant pressure.
 It follows Charle's law.
 ΔP = 0
 It can take place in open system.

4. Isochoric process :
It is that process which takes place at constant volume.
 It follows Gay lussac's law.

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 Δ𝑉 = 0
 It can take place in closed system whose volume is fixed and have perfectly conducting walls.

5. Quasi static process :

It is that process which takes place infinitely slow.

Q1. Identify the process.

Ans= 1. Isochoric
2. Adiabatic
3. Isothermal
4. Isobaric

Zeroth law in thermodynamics

If two systems A & B are in thermal equilibrium with another system C,
then System A & B must be in thermal equilibrium with each other also.

 Internal energy (U or E)
It is sum of all forms of energies present in a system. It depends on temperature. On increasing temperature,
internal energy also increases. It also changes when,

 Matter enters or leaves system

 Heat passes into or out of system
 If heat is given to system, then it is taken as negative
 If heat is lost by system, then it is taken as positive.
 Work is done on or by system
 Work done on system or work of compression is taken as negative
 Work done by system or work of expansion is taken as positive

 First law in thermodynamics

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another.
Or
Total energy of isolated system is always conserved.

Internal energy change (𝚫𝑼 𝒐𝒓 𝚫𝑬)

𝚫𝑼 = 𝒒 + 𝒘

Q2. Let 701J of heat is absorbed by system and 394J of work is done by system. Find internal energy change?
Ans= q = −701 𝐽 & 𝑤 = 394 𝐽
So, Δ𝑈 = 𝑞 + 𝑤 = −701 + 394 = −307 𝐽

 Isothermal process
It is that process which takes place at constant temperature.
Conditions
 Walls of container must be perfectly conductor.
 Process must be slow to provide time for exchange of heat.
𝑃𝑉 = Constant

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 Work done in isorthermal expansion

Consider n moles of ideal gas is present in a cylinder with piston of area '𝑎'.
Let gas expands and piston moves by 𝑑𝑥
So, work done is expanding gas
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃. 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉

Integrating both side

𝑉
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑉 2 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉
1
𝑉2 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑊= 𝑉1 𝑉
. 𝑑𝑉 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑒𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑃 = 𝑉
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑉 𝑉21
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇(ln 𝑉2 − ln 𝑉1 )
𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉1
𝑉2
𝑊 = 2.303𝑛𝑅𝑇 log
𝑉1
As for isothermal process,
𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 or =
𝑉1 𝑃2
𝑃1
So, 𝑊 = 2.303𝑛𝑅𝑇 log
𝑃2

 Adiabatic process
It is that process which takes place at constant heat.
Conditions
 Walls of container must be perfectly insulator.
 Process must be sudden, so there is no time for exchange of heat.
𝐶
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = Constant , Here 𝛾 = 𝐶𝑝
𝑉

 Work done in adiabatic expansion

Consider 1 moles of ideal gas is present in a insulating cylinder with piston of area '𝑎'.
Let gas expands and piston moves by 𝑑𝑥
So, work done is expanding gas
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃. 𝐴. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉

Integrating both side

𝑉
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑉 2 𝑃. 𝑑𝑉
1

𝐾
Now for adiabatic process, 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾 Or 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾 𝑉 −𝛾

𝑉2
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑉1
𝐾 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑉 1−𝛾 2
𝑊=𝐾
1−𝛾 𝑉
1
𝐾 1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑊= 1−𝛾 2
𝑉 − 𝑉1

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1 1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑊= 1−𝛾
𝐾𝑉2 − 𝐾𝑉1
1 1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑊= 𝑃 𝑉 𝛾 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝛾 𝑉1
1−𝛾 2 2
1
𝑊= 𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
1−𝛾 2 2
1
𝑊= 1−𝛾
𝑅𝑇2 − 𝑅𝑇1 For 1mol of ideal gas 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑅 𝑇2 −𝑇1
𝑊= 1−𝛾

 Non Cyclic process

It is that process which does not return to its original state after series of changes.

 Cyclic process
It is that process which returns to its original state after series of changes.
 Work done in PV graph is equal to area of loop.

Q3. Find work done in following PV-graph. (Exercise Q9)

Ans= Here 𝐷𝐹 = 300𝑐𝑚3 = 300 × 10−6 𝑚3
and 𝐹𝐸 = 3𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 3 × 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎
= 3.039 × 105 𝑃𝑎
So work done = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐸𝐹
1
= × 𝐹𝐸 × 𝐷𝐹
2
1
= × 300 × 10−6 × 3.039 × 105
2
= 45.58 J

 Heat Engine
It is a mechanical device which converts heat energy into mechanical work.
It absorb 𝑄1 heat from source and rejects 𝑄2 heat to reservoir.

Work done by heat engine 𝑊 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

𝑄 𝑊 𝑇
And efficiency 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑄2 Or 𝜂=𝑄 Or 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑇2
1 1 1

 Second law in thermodynamics

1. Kelvin-Plank statement
It is impossible to construct a heat engine which would absorb heat from source and convert 100% of heat
into work

2. Clausius statement
It is impossible to design a self acting machine unaided by any external agency, which would transfer heat
from a body at a lower temperature to another body at higher temperature.

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 Refrigearator
It is a mechanical device which transfer heat from colder objects to higher surrounding.
It absorb 𝑄2 heat from objects inside and rejects 𝑄1 heat to surrounding.

Work done by refrigerator 𝑊 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

𝑄2 𝑊 𝑇2
And co-efficient of performance 𝛽 = 1− Or 𝛽 = Or 𝛽 =1−
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑇1

 Heat capacity (s)

It is amount of heat required to raise temperature of whole body through unit degree.
𝑄
𝑠 = Δ𝑇 Its SI unit is 𝐽 𝐾 −1 .

 Specific heat capacity (s)

It is amount of heat required to raise temperature of unit mass of substance through unit degree.
𝑄
𝑠 = 𝑚 Δ𝑇 Its SI unit is 𝐽 𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 .
 Specific heat capacity of water is 4.186J which is considered as 1calorie.

 Molar heat capacity (s)

It is amount of heat required to raise temperature of unit mol of substance through unit degree.
𝑄
𝑠 = 𝑛 Δ𝑇 Its SI unit is 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 .

 It is calculated at two different conditions, at constant pressure (𝐶𝑃 ) and at constant volume (𝐶𝑉 ).
Meyer's formula 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
𝐶𝑃
Cleary, 𝐶𝑃 > 𝐶𝑉 & =𝛾
𝐶𝑉
 Derivation of meyer's formula is given at end of chapter

 Water equivalence (w)

It is mass of water which would absorb or evolve same amount of heat as is by body in changing temperature by
same range.
𝑤=𝑚𝑠

 Latent Heat (𝚫𝒇𝒖𝒔 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝚫𝒗𝒂𝒑 𝑯)

It is amount of heat required to change state of unit mass of substance without changing its temperature. It
SI unit is 𝐽𝐾𝑔−1 .
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

Q4. Calculate heat given to rise temperature of 60g of Al from 35℃ to 55℃ ?
[Molar heat capacity of Al is 24 J/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ]
60 20
Ans= Moles of Al 𝑛 = 27 = 9
change in temp Δ𝑇 = 55 − 35 = 20℃
20
So heat given will be 𝑄 = 𝑛 𝑠 Δ𝑇 = 9 × 24 × 20 = 1066.7 J

Q5. Calculate heat given to 1mol water at 10°𝐶 to convert into ice at −10°𝐶.
[Given 𝐶𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 36.8𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 °𝐶 −1 ; 𝑆𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 75.3𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 °𝐶 −1 ; Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 = 6.03𝐾𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 ]
Ans= Let 𝑄1 heat is absorb to decrease temperature of 1mol water from 10℃ 𝑡𝑜 0℃.
𝑄1 = 𝑛𝐶Δ𝑇 = 1 × 75.3 × 10 = 753 J
Let 𝑄2 heat is absorb to change 1mol water into ice at 0℃.

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𝑄2 = 𝑛 × Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 = 1 × 6 = 6.03𝐾𝐽 = 6030 J
Let 𝑄3 heat is absorb to decrease temperature of 1mol ice from 0℃ 𝑡𝑜 − 10℃.
𝑄3 = 𝑛𝐶Δ𝑇 = 1 × 36.8 × 10 = 368 J
So total heat absorbed 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 753 + 6030 + 368 = 7151 J

Q6. Calculate the heat required to convert 3 kg of ice at –12 °C kept in a calorimeter to steam at 100 °C at
atmospheric pressure. Given specific heat capacity of ice = 2100𝐽𝑘𝑔–1 𝐾 –1 , specific heat capacity of water
= 4186𝐽𝑘𝑔–1 𝐾 –1 , latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.35 × 105 𝐽𝐾 –1 and latent heat of steam = 2.256 × 106 𝐽𝐾 –1

Q7. During jogging a person produces heating at rate 14.5 × 103 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑖𝑛. If 1kg sweat requires 5.8 × 105 𝑐𝑎𝑙 heat
to evaporate, find amount of sweat evaporates per min?
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 14.5×10 3
Ans= Mass of sweat evaporates per min = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡
= 5.8×10 5
= 2.5 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 25𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛

Q8. A copper block of mass 2.5 kg is heated in a furnace to a temperature of 500℃ and then placed on a large ice
block. What is the maximum amount of ice that can melt ? (Specific heat of copper= 0.39 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ; heat of fusion
of water = 335 𝐽𝑔−1 )
Ans= Copper block placed on ice will finally cools down to 0℃.
So heat lost by copper 𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑠 Δ𝑇 = 2500 × 0.39 × 500 = 487500 𝐽
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 487500
Now mass of ice melt; 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 335
= 1455.2𝑔 = 1.455𝐾𝑔

Q9. A geyser heats water flowing at the rate of 3.0 litres per minute from 27 °C to 77 °C. If the geyser operates on a
gas burner, what is the rate of consumption of the fuel if its heat of combustion is 4.0 × 104 J/g ? [Ex Q1]
Ans= For every minutes,
Mass of water flowing 𝑚 = 3𝑘𝑔 = 3000𝑔
Specific heat capacity 𝑠 = 4.2 𝐽 𝑔−1 ℃−1
Change in temp Δ𝑇 = 77 − 27 = 50℃

So heat used
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑠 Δ𝑇 = 3000 × 4.2 × 50 = 6.3 × 105 𝐽/𝑚𝑖𝑛

6.3×10 5
Hence rate of consumption of fuel = = 15.75𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
4×10 4

Q10. Sphere of 0.047 kg aluminium is placed for sufficient time in a vessel containing boiling water, so that the
sphere is at 100°C. It is then immediately transfered to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter containing 0.25 kg water at
20°C. The temp of water rises and attains a steady state at 23°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
Specific heat capacities of water & copper are 𝑠𝑤 = 4.18 × 103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 & 𝑠𝑐 = 0.386 × 103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
Ans= Initial temp of 𝐴𝑙 = 100℃ & steady temp = 23℃. So temp change Δ𝑇 = 77℃
Now heat lost by 𝐴𝑙 𝑄1 = 𝑚 𝑠 Δ = 0.047 × 𝑠 × 77

And total heat gained by calorimeter = heat gained by water + heat gained by copper
= 𝑚𝑤 𝑠𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐 𝑠𝑐 . Δ𝑇
= 0.25 × 4.18 × 103 + 0.14 × 0.386 × 103 × 3
= 3.297 × 103

Now heat lost of 𝐴𝑙 = Heat gained by calorimeter

0.047 × 𝑠 × 77 = 3.297 × 103
3.297×10 3
𝑠= 0.047×77
= 0.911 × 103 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1

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Q11. When 0.15 kg of ice at 0°C is mixed with 0.30 kg of water at 50°C in a container, the resulting temperature is
6.7 °C. Calculate the heat of fusion of ice. (𝑠𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4186 J kg–1 K–1)
Ans= Heat lost by water = 𝑚 𝑠 Δ𝑇 = 0.3 × 4186 × 50 − 6.7 = 54376.14 J

Heat gained by ice = Heat to melt ice + Heat to increase temp

= 𝑚 × Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 + 𝑚 𝑠 Δ𝑇
= 0.15 × Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 + 0.15 × 4186 × 6.7
= 0.15 × Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 + 4206.93

Now heat gained = heat lost

0.15 × Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 + 4206.93 = 54376.14
54376 .14−4206.93
Δ𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐻 = 0.15
= 3.34 × 105 J kg −1

Q12. Explain why [Ex Q3]

(a) Two bodies at different temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 if brought in thermal contact do not necessarily settle to the
mean temperature (𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )/2.
(b) The coolant in a chemical or a nuclear plant (i.e., the liquid used to prevent the different parts of a plant from
getting too hot) should have high specific heat.
(c) Air pressure in a car tyre increases during driving.
Ans= (a) When two bodies comes in contact, heat flows hotter to colder body till their temperature becomes equal.
Bodies can settle to mean temperature only when both have same thermal capacities.

(b) If coolant has higher specific heat capacity, then there will e small increase in temperature. Thus parts in plants
gets prevented from getting too hot.

(c) During driving, tyre gets heat up due to friction. Thus pressure in tyre increases as pressure is proportional to
temperature according to gas lussac law.

 Derivation of meyer's formul

According to first law of thermodynamics,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊

Now at constant volume, 𝑑𝑉 = 0, So; 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 0

Hence 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 ....1

Now For 1mole of substance 𝑑𝑄 = 1 × 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 ....2

From equa 1 & 2

𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑈 ...3

Now at constant pressure,

𝑑𝑄 ′ = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
1 × 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 (From equa3)
𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 − 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 ....4

Now for 1 mole of gas 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇

So; 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑑𝑇

Put in equa4
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅

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