RC 3of6 - Highway Engineering I

Highway Engineering
Habtamu Mebratu (M.Sc.)
Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Highway Engineering I
Habtamu Mebratu (M.Sc.)
Department of Road Construction Technology
January 2023

Yeka Subcity, Woreda 9, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: 011-646-4455, Fax: 011-646-5675/5678
E-mail: info@etu.edu.et, Website: http://www.etu.edu.et
Contents
Course Profile ......................................................................................................................................... 1
Detail Course Outline ............................................................................................................................. 3
Chapter 1 Highway Route Surveys and Location ................................................................................... 6
Lesson Plan ......................................................................................................................................... 6
1. Highway Route Surveys and the Location .......................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Transportation system ............................................................................................................ 8
1.1.2 Role of transportation engineer ........................................................................................... 10
1.1.3 Basic premise of a transportation system ............................................................................. 10
1.1.4 Major disciplines of transportation ...................................................................................... 11
1.2 Requirement for highway selection ............................................................................................ 14
1.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment .................................................................................... 15
1.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Location ............................................................................... 16
1.5 Route selection ............................................................................................................................ 30
1.6 The Stages of Highway Development ........................................................................................ 31
1.6.1 Planning ............................................................................................................................... 32
1.6.2 Project Development ............................................................................................................ 34
1.6.3 Final Design ......................................................................................................................... 35
1.6.4 Right-of-way, Construction, and Maintenance .................................................................... 37
Assessments .......................................................................................................................................... 39
1. Practical......................................................................................................................................... 39
2. Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 39
Objective Type Question .................................................................................................................. 39
Subjective Type Question ................................................................................................................. 41
Evaluation Table ................................................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 2 Functional Classification of Highways ................................................................................ 46
Lesson Plan ....................................................................................................................................... 46
2. Functional Classification of Highways ............................................................................................. 48
2.1 The Concept of Functional Classification ................................................................................... 48
2.2 Functional systems for rural areas .............................................................................................. 51
2.2.1 Rural Principal Arterial System ........................................................................................... 51
2.2.2 Rural Minor Arterial System................................................................................................ 52
2.2.3 Rural Collector System ........................................................................................................ 52
2.2.4 Rural Local Road System .................................................................................................... 53
2.2.5 Extent of Rural Systems ....................................................................................................... 53
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2.3 Functional Highway Systems in Urbanized Areas...................................................................... 54
2.4 Functional Classification as a Design Type ................................................................................ 57
2.5 AASHTO geometric design manual, 2002 ................................................................................. 58
2.6 ERA geometric design manual, 2002 ......................................................................................... 60
2.6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 60
2.6.2 Design standards .................................................................................................................. 61
2.6.3 Departures from Standards................................................................................................... 61
2.6.4 Road Functional Classification and Numbering .................................................................. 61
Assessments .......................................................................................................................................... 64
1. Theory ........................................................................................................................................... 64
Objective Type Question: ................................................................................................................. 64
Subjective Type Question ................................................................................................................. 66
Evaluation Table ................................................................................................................................... 67
References ............................................................................................................................................. 68
Chapter 3 Geometric Design of Highways ........................................................................................... 70
Lesson Plan ....................................................................................................................................... 70
3. The Geometric Design of Highways ................................................................................................. 72
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 72
3.2 Design criteria and controls ........................................................................................................ 73
3.2.1 Functional classification of roads......................................................................................... 73
3.2.2 Terrain .................................................................................................................................. 74
3.2.3 Design vehicle ...................................................................................................................... 77
3.2.4 Density and Character of Adjoining land use ...................................................................... 79
3.2.5 Design Traffic Volume ........................................................................................................ 79
3.2.6 Design Speed ....................................................................................................................... 81
3.2.7 Levels of service .................................................................................................................. 82
3.2.8 Highway Capacity ................................................................................................................ 83
3.2.9 Pedestrians ........................................................................................................................... 84
3.2.10 Bicycle Facilities ................................................................................................................ 85
3.2.11 Economics .......................................................................................................................... 85
3.2.12 Safety ................................................................................................................................. 85
3.2.13 Environment ....................................................................................................................... 87
3.3 Highway Cross Section Elements ............................................................................................... 88
3.4 Geometric Design Elements...................................................................................................... 104
3.4.1 Sight Distance .................................................................................................................... 104
3.4.2 Horizontal Alignment ........................................................................................................ 116
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3.4.3 Vertical Alignment ............................................................................................................. 133
3.4.3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 133
Assessments ........................................................................................................................................ 150
1. Practical....................................................................................................................................... 150
2. Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 150
Objective Type Question ................................................................................................................ 150
Subjective Type Question ............................................................................................................... 152
Evaluation Table ................................................................................................................................. 154
References ........................................................................................................................................... 155
Chapter 4 Intersections, Interchanges, and Terminals ........................................................................ 156
Lesson Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 156
4. Intersections, Interchanges, and Terminals ..................................................................................... 158
4.1 Intersections .............................................................................................................................. 158
4.1.1 General design considerations and objectives.................................................................... 158
4.1.2 Selection of Junction Type ................................................................................................. 160
4.1.3 At Grade Intersections ....................................................................................................... 161
4.2 Grade separations and Interchanges .......................................................................................... 163
4.3 Design Principles of At-Grade Intersections ............................................................................ 165
4.3.1 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections ................................................................................. 165
4.3.2 Roundabouts ...................................................................................................................... 167
4.4 Channelization of At-Grade Intersections................................................................................. 169
4.4.1 Directional islands.............................................................................................................. 171
4.4.2 Divisional islands ............................................................................................................... 172
4.4.3 Refuge Islands .................................................................................................................... 173
4.5 Sight Distance at Intersections .................................................................................................. 174
4.6 Traffic Controls......................................................................................................................... 177
4.7 Types of intersection control..................................................................................................... 178
4.8 Terminals .................................................................................................................................. 188
4.8.1 Parking facilities ................................................................................................................ 188
4.8.2 Truck Terminals ................................................................................................................. 190
Assessments ........................................................................................................................................ 192
1. Practical....................................................................................................................................... 192
2. Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 192
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References ........................................................................................................................................... 197
Chapter 5 Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram .................................................................. 198
5. Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram .............................................................................. 191
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 191
5.2 End Area Calculations .............................................................................................................. 192
5.3 Calculating Earthwork .............................................................................................................. 193
5.4 Computing Earthwork Volumes ............................................................................................... 194
5.5 Mass Haul Diagram .................................................................................................................. 198
5.6 Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram ............................................................... 203
5.7 Economical analysis.................................................................................................................. 206
Assessments ........................................................................................................................................ 210
1. Practical....................................................................................................................................... 210
2. Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 210
References ........................................................................................................................................... 216
Chapter 6 Drainage and Drainage Structures ...................................................................................... 217
Lesson Plan ..................................................................................................................................... 217
6. Drainage and Drainage Structures .................................................................................................. 218
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 218
6.1.1 Construction Considerations .............................................................................................. 218
6.1.2 Maintenance Considerations .............................................................................................. 219
6.1.3 Drainage Surveys ............................................................................................................... 219
6.1.4 Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 220
6.1.5 Stream Crossings ............................................................................................................... 220
6.1.6 Types of Data ..................................................................................................................... 221
6.2 Surface Drainage ....................................................................................................................... 224
6.2.1. Flood Estimation ............................................................................................................... 227
6.2.2. Hydraulic Design of surface Drainage Structures ............................................................. 230
6.3 Subsurface Drainage ................................................................................................................. 238
6.3.1 Longitudinal drains ............................................................................................................ 239
6.3.2 Transverse drains ............................................................................................................... 239
6.3.3 Horizontal Drains ............................................................................................................... 241
6.3.4 Drainage Blankets .............................................................................................................. 241
6.3.5 Well Systems: .................................................................................................................... 242
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Assessments ........................................................................................................................................ 253
1. Practical ....................................................................................................................................... 253
2. Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 253
References ........................................................................................................................................... 257
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Course Profile
Department Road Construction Technology
Course title Highway Engineering I

Highway Engineering I will cover basically the geometric design of highway
that includes: highway alignment of the road in connection with route survey,
classification of roads based on their characteristics, cross-sections
Course
description (including travel Lane widths, number of lanes, auxiliary lanes, and parking
and other related concepts), geometric design and elements of geometric
design. Project-based training is one of the training methods included in this
course.
1. Road alignment, classification of road
2. Selection of best route and highway alignment
3. Geometric design of highway
Course 4. Vertical alignment and cross-sections

5. Super-elevation and widening
objective
6. Earthwork and the quantities
7. Design principles of At-Grade intersection
8. Surface and subsurface drainage structures
9. Suitable signal timing for the intersection:
1.1 Understand basic terminology regarding geometric design of highway
1.2 Understand road alignment and classification of road
1.3 Acquire required knowledge regarding vertical alignment and cross-
sections
1.4 Know about super-elevation and widening
Learning 1.5 Understand the earthwork and quantities
outcomes 1.6 Understand the design principles of at-grade intersection
1,7 know the surface and subsurface drainage structures
2.1 Design geometric elements of highway
2.2 Perform a selection of route and highway alignment
2.3 Design suitable signal timing for the intersection
2.4 Perform Mass-haul diagram showing the movements of the earth-work
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2.5 Design Surface drainage structure
Pre-requisite Traffic engineering (RCTE 2023 and surveying II (SURT 3020
Target group 3rd year Road Construction Technology
2
Detail Course Outline
Required
Topics to be
Topics to be covered Outcome materials
Week covered
(2 lecture hours) s /equipment/devi
(3 lab hours)
ces
Chapter One: Highway Route Surveys and location
1.1 Introduction 1.1,.1. Internet,

1.2 Requirement for selecting 2, 2.2 Textbooks, PC,
highway and Maps
1 1.3 Factors controlling
alignment.
1.4 Engineering surveys for
highway location
Determine the 1.1, Total Station,
location and 1.2, Meter, string,
1.5 Route selection alignment of the 2.2 Internet,
1.6 The Stages of Highway proposed road Textbooks,
2 Development Maps, Lab,
Software (Civil
3D and Auto
Cad), PC
Chapter Two: Functional Classification of Highways
2.1 The Concept of 1.1, Textbook, PC,

Functional Classification 1.2, and Internet
2.2 Functional systems for 1.3,
rural areas
2.3 Functional Highway
Systems in Urbanized
3 Areas
2.4 Functional Classification
as a Design Type
2.5 AASHTO geometric
design manual, 2002
2.6 ERA geometric design
manual 2002.
Chapter Three: Geometric design of highways
4 3.1Introduction 1.2,1. Internet,

3.2 Design Controls and 3,1.4, Textbooks, PC,
3
Criteria 2.1 and Maps.
3.21 Functional
classification of roads
3.2.2 Terrain
3.2.3 Design vehicle
3.2.4 Density and
Character of Adjoining land
use
3.2.5 Design Traffic
Volume
3.2.6 Design speed
5 3.3 Highway Cross-Section Cross-sections 1.2,1. Internet,
Elements typical for 3,1.4, Textbooks, PC,
construction and 2.1 and Maps
earth-work
computations of the
new road
6 3.4Elements of Geometric De Detailed design of 1.2,1. Maps, Software
sign SSD and PSD Sight 3,1.4, (Civil 3D and
3.4.1 Sight Distance Distance 2.1 Auto Cad),
3..4.1.1 Stopping Sight Compass, Set-
Distance square, and PC
3.4.1.2 Passing sight
distance
7 3.4.2 Horizontal Alignment  Detailed design 1.2,1. Maps, Software
of horizontal 3,1.4, (Civil 3D and
alignment (plan) 2.1 Auto Cad),
 Super-elevation Compass, Set-
and widening square, and PC
details for road
8 3.4.3 Vertical Alignment Detailed design of 5.1.2, Maps, Software
vertical alignment 5.1.3, (Civil 3D and
(profile) 5.1.4, Auto Cad),
5.2.1 Compass, Set-
square, and PC
9 Mid-semester Exam
Chapter Four: Intersections, Interchanges
10 4.1 Intersections Determine suitable 5.1.2, PC, Software

4.2 Grade separation and signal timing for the 5.1.3, (Sidera
Interchanges intersection 5.1.4, intersection),
5.1.6, Internet.
4
4.3 Design principles of At- 5.2.3
Grade Intersection
4.4 Channelization of At-
Grade Intersections
11 4.5 Sight Distance at 1.2,1.
Intersections 3,1.4,
4.6 Traffic Controls 1.6,
4.7 Types of intersection 2.3
control
4.8 Terminals
4.8.1 Parking Facility
4.8.2 Truck Terminals
Chapter Five: Earthwork and Quantities
12 5.1 Earthworks quantities 5.1.2, Internet,

5.2 End Area Calculations 5.1.3, Textbooks, PC
5.3 Calculating Earthwork 5.1.4, and Maps
5.4 Computing earthwork 5.1.5,
volumes 5.2.4
13 5.5 Mass-haul diagram Mass-haul diagram 1.2,1. Internet,

5.6 Balancing earthwork showing the 3,1.4, Textbooks, PC,
using the mass haul movements of the 1.5, Maps, Total
diagram earth-work 2.4 station, meter,
String, PC,
Civil 3D
software,
Chapter Six: Drainage Structures
14 6.1 Importance of Drainage Surface drainage 1.2,1.3 Internet,

6.2 Surface Drainage structure ,1.4,1. Textbooks, PC and
6.2.1 Flood Estimation 5,1.7, Maps
6.2.2 Hydraulic Design of 2.5
Surface Drainage Structures
15 6.3 Subsurface drainage

6.3.1 Design of
Subsurface Drainage
6.3.1.1 Determination
of Discharge Quantity
16 Final-examination period:
5
Chapter 1 Highway Route Surveys and Location
Lesson Plan
1. Learning objectives
• Be able to road alignment, classification of road
• Be able to select of best route and highway alignment.
• Understand geometric design of highway
• Understand vertical alignment and cross sections
• Understand super elevation and widening
• Understand earthwork and the quantities
• Understand design principles of At-Grade intersection
• Understand surface and subsurface drainage structures
• Understand suitable signal timing for the intersection.

2. Motivation
Outputs through Question and Answer; repetitive discussion and instruction of the
essential components of highway, geometric design of a highway components, and
volume computation of highway earthwork; Individual access to inroad software.
3. Expectations or Outcomes
 Identify alternative routes and select technically feasible routes based on the Multi-
Criteria Analysis
 Understand the different geometric design control criteria’s and their impact on
geometric design decisions.
 Perform both Horizontal and Vertical geometric design of a given highway project
 Perform super-elevation; sight distance and road widening design of a given highway
project
 Determine the earthwork volume of a given highway project and be able to determine
the economical hauling distance.
 Be familiarized with Local and International Geometric Design Standards and
Manuals including ERA, AACRA, AASHTO
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4. Equipment
• Desktop or laptop computer with an internet connection.
• Software (Civil 3D and Auto Cad)
• Maps
• Total Station, Meter and string

5. Practice contents/Activities/Safety
 Brief introduction of route selection
 Various types of microprocessor
 Determine the location and alignment of the proposed road.
 Tool setup
 Always remind students of safety precautions.
6. Assessments
• What are the main principles of the route selection process?
• What are the guidelines that have to be followed for alignment and route location
selection?
• How can you install inroad software?
7. Clean-up
 After finishing practice, all tools and equipment utilized in the practice shall be
returned back to the proper Lab place.
 Clean up the work bench and practice lab.
8. Independent practice/Follow-up activities
Learning through assignment
9. Review/Reflection
Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure, and previous reflected
opinions.
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1. Highway Route Surveys and the Location
Importance of Transportation
Mobility is a basic human need. From times immemorial, everyone has traveled either for food
or leisure. A closely associated need is the transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit
or finished goods for consumption. Transportation fulfills these basic needs of humanity.
Transportation plays a major role in the development of human civilization. For instance, one
could easily observe the strong correlation between the evolution of human settlement and the
proximity of transport facilities. Also, there is a strong correlation between the quality of
transport facilities and the standard of living, because of which society places a great
expectation on transportation facilities. In other words, the solution to transportation problems
must be analytically based, economically sound, socially credible, environmentally sensitive,
practically acceptable, and sustainable. Alternatively, the transportation solution should be safe,
rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and eco-friendly for both men and materials.
1.1.1 Transportation system
In the last couple of decades, transportation systems analysis has emerged as a recognized
profession. More and more government organizations, universities, researchers, consultants,
and private industrial groups around the world are becoming truly multi-modal in their
orientation and are opting for a systematic approach to transportation problems.
1.1.1.1 Diverse characteristics
The characteristics of the transportation system that make it diverse and complex are listed
below:
 Multi-modal: Covering all modes of transport; air, land, and sea for both passenger and
freight.
 Multi-sector: Encompassing the problems and viewpoints of government, private
industry, and the public.
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 Multi-problem: Ranging across a spectrum of issues that includes national and
international policy, planning of regional systems, the location and design of specific
facilities, carrier management issues, and regulatory, institutional, and financial policies.
 Multi-objective: Aiming at national and regional economic development, urban
development, environmental quality, and social quality, as well as service to users and
financial and economic feasibility.
 Multi-disciplinary: Drawing on the theories and methods of engineering, economics,
operations research, political science, psychology, other natural, and social sciences,
management and law.
1.1.1.2 Study context
The context in which transportation systems are studied is also very diverse and is mentioned
below:
 Planning range: Urban transportation planning, producing long-range plans for 5-

25years for multi- modal transportation systems in urban areas, as well as short-range
programs of action for less than five years.
 Passenger transport: Regional passenger transportation deals with inter-city passenger

transport by air, rail, and highway and is possible with new modes.
 Freight transport: Routing and management, choice of different modes of rail and truck.
 International transport: issues such as containerization and inter-modal co-ordination.
1.1.1.3 Background: A changing world
The strong interrelationship and the interaction between transportation and the rest of society,
especially in a rapidly changing world, are significant to a transportation planner. Among them,
four critical dimensions of change in the transportation system can be identified; which form
the background to developing the right perspective.
 Change in the demand: When the population, income, and land-use pattern changes, the
pattern of demand changes; both in the amount and spatial distribution of that demand.
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 Changes in technology: As an example, earlier, only two alternatives (bus transit and
rail transit) were considered for urban transportation. But now, new systems like LRT,
MRTS, etc., offer a variety of alternatives.
 Change in operational policy: A variety of policy options designed to improve

efficiency, such as incentives for car-pooling, bus fares, road tolls, etc.
 Change in values of the public: Earlier, all beneficiaries of a system were monolithically
considered as users. Now, not one system can be beneficial to all. Instead, one must
identify the target groups like rich, poor, young, work trips, leisure etc.
1.1.2 Role of transportation engineer
In spite of the diversity of problem types, institutional contexts and technical perspectives,
there is an underlying unity: a body of theory and a set of basic principles to be utilized in
every analysis of transportation systems. The core of this is the transportation system analysis
approach. The focus of this is the interaction between the transportation and activity systems
of a region. This approach is to intervene, delicately and deliberately, in the complex fabric of
society to use transport effectively in coordination with other public and private actions to
achieve the goals of that society. For this, the analyst must have a substantial understanding of
the transportation systems and their interactions with activity systems, which requires an
understanding of the basic theoretical concepts and available empirical knowledge.
1.1.3 Basic premise of a transportation system
The first step in the formulation of a system analysis of transportation systems is to examine
the scope of analytical work. The basic premise is the explicit treatment of the total
transportation system of a region and the interrelations between transportation and
socioeconomic context. They can be stated as:
P1 The total transportation system, must be viewed as a single multi-modal system.
P2 Considerations of transportation systems cannot be separated from considerations of the

social, economic, and political systems of the region.
This follows the following steps for the analysis of transportation systems:
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 S1 Consider all modes of transportation
 S2 Consider all elements of transportation like people, goods, carriers (vehicles), paths
in the network facilities through which vehicles are going, the terminal, etc.
 S3 Consider all movements of passengers and goods for every O-D pair.
 S4 Consider the total trip for every flow for every O-D over all modes and facilities. As
an example, consider the study of intra-city passenger transport in metro cities.
 Consider all modes: i.e. rail, road, buses, private automobiles, trucks, new modes like
LRT, MRTS, etc.
 Consider all elements like direct and indirect links, vehicles that can operate terminals,
transfer points, intra-city transit like taxis, autos, and urban transit.
 Consider the service provided for access, egress, transfer points, and mid-block travel,
etc.
Once all these components are identified, the planner can focus on elements that are of real
concern.
1.1.4 Major disciplines of transportation
Transportation engineering can broadly consist of four major parts:
(1) Transportation Planning

(2) Geometric Design
(3) Pavement Design
(4) Traffic Engineering
A brief overview of the topics is given below: Transportation planning deals with the
development of a comprehensive set of action plans for the design, construction, and operation
of transportation facilities.
1.1.4.1 Transportation planning
Transportation planning essentially involves the development of a transport model that will
accurately represent both the current as well as future transportation system.
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1.1.4.2 Geometric design
Geometric design deals with the physical proportioning of other transportation facilities, in
contrast with the structural design of the facilities. The topics include the cross-sectional
features, horizontal alignment, vertical alignment and intersections. Although there are several
modes of travel, like road, rail, air, etc., the underlying principles are common to a great extent.
Therefore, emphasis will normally be given to the geometric design of roads.
1.1.4.3 Pavement analysis and design
Pavement design deals with the structural design of roads, bituminous and concrete, commonly
known as “flexible pavements” and “rigid pavements” respectively. It deals with the design of
paving materials, the determination of the layer thickness, and construction and maintenance
procedures. The design mainly covers structural aspects, functional aspects, and drainage.
Structural design ensures the pavement has enough strength to withstand the impact of loads,
functional design emphasizes the quality of riding, and the drainage design protects the
pavement from damage due to water infiltration.
1.1.4.4 Traffic engineering
Traffic engineering covers a broad range of engineering applications with a focus on the safety
of the public, the efficient use of transportation resources, and the mobility of people and goods.
Traffic engineering involves a variety of engineering and management skills, including design,
operation, and system optimization. In order to address the above requirement, the traffic
engineer must first understand the traffic flow behavior and characteristics through extensive
collection of traffic flow data and analysis. Based on this analysis, traffic flow is controlled so
that the transport infrastructure is used optimally as well as with good service quality. In short,
the role of a traffic engineer is to protect the environment while providing mobility, to preserve
scarce resources while ensuring economic activity, and to assure the safety and security of
people and vehicles, through both acceptable practices and high-tech communications.
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1.1.4.5 Other important disciplines
In addition to the four major disciplines of transportation, there are several other important
disciplines that have evolved in the past few decades. Although it is difficult to categorize them
into separate well defined disciplines because of the significant overlap, it may be worth the
effort to highlight the importance given by the transportation community. They can be
enumerated as below:
 Public transportation: Public transportation, or mass transportation, deals with the study
of the transportation system that meets the travel needs of several people by sharing a
vehicle. Generally, this focuses on urban travel by bus and rail transit. The major topics
include characteristics of various modes; planning, management, and operations; and
policies for promoting public transportation.
 Financial and economic analysis of transportation facilities requires large capital

investments. Therefore, it is imperative that whoever invests money should get the
returns. When the government invests in transportation, its objective is not often
monetary returns, but social benefits. The economic analysis of transportation projects
tries to quantify the economic benefits, which includes savings in travel time, fuel
consumption, etc. This will help the planner in evaluating various projects and to
optimally allocating funds. On the contrary, private sector investments require
monetary profits from the projects. Financial evaluation tries to quantify the return
from a project.
 Environmental impact assessment of the depletion of fossil fuels and the degradation
of the environment has been a severe concern of planners in the past few decades.
Transportation, in spite of its benefits to society, is a major contributor to the above
concern. The environmental impact assessment attempts to quantify the environmental
impacts and tries to evolve strategies for the mitigation and reduction of the impacts
due to both construction and operation. The primary impacts are fuel consumption, air
pollution, and noise pollution.
 Accident analysis and reduction, one of the silent killers of humanity, is transportation.
Several statistics show that more people are killed due to transportation than great wars
and natural disasters. This discipline of transportation looks at the causes of accidents,
from the perspectives of humans, roads, and vehicles, and formulates plans for their
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reduction.
 Intelligent transport systems, with the advent of computers, communication, and

vehicle technology, are possible these days to operate transportation systems more
effectively with a significant reduction in the adverse impacts of transportation.
Intelligent transportation systems offer better mobility, efficiency, and safety with the
help of state –of- the- art-technology.
In addition, disciplines specific to various modes are also common. This includes railway
engineering, port and harbor engineering, and airport engineering.
1.2 Requirement for highway selection
The overall quality and appearance of a road will be determined by the quality of alignment
design (horizontal and vertical) and its relationship to the surrounding environment.
The position or the layout of the center line of a road on the ground is known as alignment. A
horizontal alignment is the layout of a road on a horizontal plane, and a vertical alignment is
the layout of a road on vertical planes. A horizontal alignment consists of straight paths and
curves, and on a vertical alignment there are vertical curves and grades.
A new road should be aligned carefully as improper alignment would mean either a capital loss
initially in construction or a loss in cost of maintenance and vehicle operation or both.
The basic requirement of an ideal alignment between two terminals is that it should be short,
easy, safe, and economical.
Short: It is desirable to have the shortest path between two terminals. A straight alignment
would be the shortest, though there may be several practical assumptions which would cause
deviation from the shortest path.
Easy: The alignment will be easy for construction, maintenance, and operation.
Safety: The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance (from the point
of stability and foundation problems). It should also be safe for traffic operations (related to
geometric features).
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Economical: This refers to the total cost of construction, maintenance, and operation. All these
factors should be given consideration before working on the economics of each alignment.
1.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
The factors controlling a highway alignment include:-
a) Obligatory points: - these are control points governing the alignment of the road. They may
be categorized into two groups.
(1) Point through which the alignment has to pass.
For example: chosen bridge sites, intermediate towns between terminals etc.
(2) Point through which the alignment should not pass.
For example: very costly structures, highly developed, expensive land areas,
man-made and natural cultural heritage (tourist sites), marshy-low-lying land
subjected to flooding, hilly terrain (danger of landside).
b) Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Origin and destination study
should be carried out in the area and the desire for the new road to be aligned should keep in
view the traffic flow pattern and future trends.
c) Geometric design: Design factors like gradient, radius of curve, and sight distance govern
the final alignment of the road. All these factors should be within the limit of allowable design
values, which is governed by the traffic speed to be expected on the road.
d) Economy: Construction, maintenance, and operation costs should be considered. For

instance, if high embankment and deep cutting are avoided, there will be a decrease in the
initial cost of construction.
e) Other considerations: These include drainage considerations, attractiveness of road sides,

etc.
For alignments on hill roads, the following additional important points have to be taken into
consideration:
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Stability: When alignment has to be made in hilly terrain, special care should be taken to align
the road along the side of the hill which is stable. One of the most common problems
encountered on hill roads is landslides.
Drainage: Numerous hillside drains should be provided for adequate drainage facilities across
the road. But since the cross-drainage structures are costly, attempts should be made to align
the road in such a way that the number of cross-drainage structures is kept to a minimum.
Geometric standards: Different geometric standards are followed on hill roads with reference
to gradient, curves, and speed, and these consequently influence the sight distances and other
related features.
Resistance length: The resisting length of a road may be calculated from the total work to be
done on more loads along the route, taking the horizontal length, the actual difference in levels
between two stations, and the sum of the effective rise and fall in excess of the floating gradient.
In brief, the resisting length of alignment should be kept as low as possible.
1.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Location
Route surveying is of fundamental importance as it provides the basis for many engineering
design decisions and subsequent cost estimates, as well as the basis for cost and technically
effective reproduction of the design at the construction stage.
Detailed survey requirements shall be prepared, including, as a minimum, the following aspects:
 Purpose of survey
 Features to be identified.
 Time requirements (data collection time frame)
 Level of accuracy.
 Data band width
 Datum’s and control points to be used
 Project environment description
 Statutory (government control mark and/or cadastral legal requirements)
Other relevant aspects may include, land acquisition requirements, environmental or
sociological attributes, survey control availability, or data collection associated with road
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furniture or utility maintenance management. Particular attention shall be required to conform
to legal requirements regarding access to government or private land and any requirements in
relation to engineering surveys, which may encompass the establishment of survey marks and
coordination of cadastral boundaries.
In a highway route survey, the following engineering surveys were conducted to select the best
route out of the alternatives.
(1) Reconnaissance Survey

(2) Preliminary Survey
(3) Final Location Survey
(4) Construction Layout Survey
1) Reconnaissance surveys
Road design, construction, and maintenance require an approach depending on terrain. The
shortest road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest, or most economical option for
construction and maintenance. Frequently, topography, slope stability, flood hazards, and
erosion potential are likely to be the most significant controls in the choice of the most suitable
alignment and design of cross section.
Before commencing with the selection of route corridors, the controlling requirements of the
route need to be defined. These may include the following:
 What are the constraints with regard to the ending points of the road? Must these be at
existing junctions in villages or towns? Are such junctions inadequate from the
standpoint of skew or right of way? Do economic considerations such as the amount of
earthwork limit the alignment?
 Through which village must the route pass? Must the route pass directly through these
villages, or can link roads connect the villages? If so, what are the implications for the
villages in terms of lost trade?
 If major rivers are to be crossed, what are the possible crossing locations, given the
constraints of topography and geology? What are the economics of alternative bridge
sites with corresponding road geometries?
 What is the desired design speed and design standard? How does this standard fit the
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terrain in terms of geometric parameters such as gradients and horizontal and vertical
curves?
The desk study comprises a review of published and unpublished information concerning the
physical, economic, and environmental characteristics of a study area. Some of the data that
may be required for the desk studies is obtained from the following sources:
 Published literature covering a range of topics, including road construction and

maintenance case histories and geological, economic, and environmental reviews.
 Topographical maps
 Geological maps, agricultural soil maps, and other natural resource maps; and
 Aerial photography
In the initial reconnaissance survey (desk study), an examination of a relatively large area
between the terminal points was conducted for the purpose of determining broad corridors
through which the alignment may pass. This survey should be aided by available maps and
stereoscopic aerial photographs.
The probable alignment can then be located on the collected map by the following details on
the map:
 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

 Where the road has to cross a row of hills, there is the possibility of crossing through a
mountain path.
 Approximate location of bridge sites.
 When a road is connected between two stations, one at the top and the other at the
bottom of a hill, an alternate route can be suggested, keeping in view the permissible
grades.
After preliminary office work, a site visit must be made to the road. Where terrain constraints
make such a visit problematic, a flight can be made over the terrain and all potential routes can
be directly examined from the air.
A potential route corridor has been identified from desk study analysis, and then a field survey
is usually employed to verify interpretations, to help determine the preferred corridor, and to
identify factors that will influence the feasibility of design concepts and cost comparison.
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The second phase of the reconnaissance survey is concerned with the inspection of each
alternative corridor to determine the most feasible route or routes based on certain fundamental
criteria. In this phase, a field survey party inspects fairly broad land along the proposed
alternative routes. The details that should be collected by the survey party include:
 Valley, ponds, lakes, marshland, ridges, hills, permanent structures and other
obstructions along the route.
 Gradients, length of gradient and radius of curves of alternate alignment
 Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood levels
 Number of soil types along the route
 Sources of construction materials
 When the road passes through hills or mountainous terrain, additional data regarding
geological formation, type of rocks, depth of strata, seepage flow, etc. may be observed
so as to decide the stability of slopes for the highway alignment.
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when it is vast and the terrain is difficult, may
be done by aerial surveys. In general, during the reconnaissance survey, the following
information should be determined
 Terrain classification
 The location of the topography constraints, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock outcrops,
and any other features.
 Slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial slopes
(cutting for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region)
 Slope stability and the location of pre-existing land slides
 Rock types, geological structures, deep orientations, rock strength, and rip ability
 Percentage of rock in excavation
 Material sources, presence and distribution
 Water sources
 Soil type and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and colluviums is
useful at this stage)
 Soil erosion
 Slope drainage and ground water conditions
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 Drainage stability and location of shifting channels and bank erosion
 Land use and its likely effect on drainage, especially through irrigation.
 Likely foundation conditions for major structures
 Approximate bridge spans and the size and frequency of culverts
 Flood level and river training/protection requirements
 Environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts, and socio-
economic considerations
 Possibility of using any existing road alignments, including local realignment;
 Information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed corridors,
including the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics, slope, vegetation,
erosion and scouring.
From the details collected during the reconnaissance survey, the proposed alignment is
evaluated against the following basic criteria to determine the most feasible alignment.
 What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally, the shortest distance is
preferable.
 What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally, the least severe
grade alternative is preferred. However, the minimum grade may be the inverse to the
shortest length route.
 Which alternative most closely follows an existing road or track? This makes survey
and construction easier and may indicate the route of the least earthworks.
 Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through, for
instance, rolling terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower vehicle operating
and maintenance costs, and less severe horizontal curves than a route through
mountainous terrain.
 Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an alignment
minimizes the need for drainage structures.
 Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition? Which alignment minimizes
the need to demolish buildings and houses?
 What is the total number of bridges required for each alternative? What is the total
aggregate length of these bridges?
 Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding area?
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 Which route has the least overall project cost, including design, construction,
maintenance, and operating costs?
2) Preliminary surveys
The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information necessary in
connection with road alignment. It consists of running an accurate traverse line along the route
already recommended as a result of a reconnaissance survey in order to obtain sufficient data
for the final location. The main objectives are
 To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after reconnaissance and collect
all necessary details of topography and drainage.
 To compare the different proposals in view of the requirement for good alignment.
 To estimate the quantity of earth work, material, and other construction aspects and to
work out the cost of an alternate proposal
 To finalize the best alignment from all considerations, It may be carried out by:
a. Modern rapid approach by aerial survey, taking the required aerial photographs and using
photo-interpretation techniques to obtain the necessary topographic and other maps, including
details of soil and geology. This is done on a strip of land along the centerline.
b. Conventional approach in which a survey party carries out surveys using the required field
equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographic and other data and carrying out soil
surveys.
Procedure of conventional method
 Primary traverse: following the line recommended in the reconnaissance, the primary
traverse is established.
 Topographical features: after establishing a centerline, the topographical features are
recorded.
 Leveling: is carried out to give center line profiles and typical cross- sections.
 Hydrological and drainage data: are collected so as to estimate the type, number, and
approximate size of cross drainage structures and also the vertical alignment of the road
based on the hydrological and drainage data.
 Soil surveys: Is an essential part of the preliminary survey as a suitability of the
proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey data. The soil survey
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conducted at this stage helps in working out details of earth work, slope suitability of
material, drainage requirement, pavement types and approximate thicknesses.
After collecting the data from the preliminary survey, various alternate proposals for the
alignment, a comparative study was made. The points considered include economy and all
other requirements for road alignment. Finally, the most suitable alignments are selected from
the various alternatives.
3) Final Location Surveys

The purpose of the final location survey is to fix the center line of the selected alignment in the
field and to collect additional data for the design and preparation of the working drawing. If
the preliminary survey has been done properly, the data collection work during the final
alignment survey will be limited.
A detailed ground survey along the length of the proposed road should use the most up-to-date
equipment such as total stations or GPS to examine the road alignment and cross sections and
any bridge sites that are considered necessary to complete the detailed design and estimation
of quantities.
The following are the general surveying works that will be accomplished during final location
surveys:
(1) Pegging the centerline
The center line is pegged with reference to the preliminary traverse if conventional surveying
methods were used in the preliminary survey or with reference to the control points if aerial
survey methods were used.
(2) Center line leveling
Profiles are taken along the centerline at each station and all at intermediate points where there
is any significant change in the slope of the ground.
(3) Cross-section leveling
Cross section leveling should be taken to the required width at each station and points of
significant change in the slope of the ground.
(4) Intersection roads
The direction with respect to the pegging centerline of all intersecting roads should be measured.
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A profile and cross-section of the intersecting roads should be taken for some distance on both
sides.
(5) Ditches and streams
A highway route may cross permanent and intermittent streams and ditches. During the final
location surveying, detailed surveying information should be taken, including profiles and
cross section leveling. This helps with the location and construction of bridges, culverts, and
ditches.
4) Drawing and Reports

The data, after necessary investigation and final location, is sent to the design office where it
is suitably processed with regard to the geometric design, drainage structures, and pavement
design. Highway working drawings should be accomplished with reports and specifications of
the design, as well as estimates of bill of quantities.
A drawing for road construction includes the following:-
(1) Site plan
(2) Plan and profile.
(3) Typical road sections
(4) Mass-haul diagram
(5) Details of structures
5) Construction Layout Survey
Preparation and scope
The construction layout is an instrument survey. It provides the alignment, grades, and
locations that guide the construction operations. The construction operations include clearing,
grubbing, stripping, drainage, rough grading, finishing grading, and surfacing. The command
must keep the surveyors sufficiently ahead of the construction activity in both time and distance
to guarantee uninterrupted progress of the construction effort. Note the following suggested
distances:
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 Keep a centerline established 1,500 feet or 450 meters ahead of clearing and
grubbing.
 Keep rough grade established and slope stakes set at 1,000 feet or 300 meters ahead
of stripping and rough grading.
 Set stakes to an exact grade, 500 feet or 150 meters ahead of finishing grading and
surfacing.
Alignment
The surveyor must place the alignment markers ahead of the crews engaged in the various
phases of construction. The surveyor may do a hasty alignment, marked by flags and rods,
suitable for guiding the clearing and grubbing operations. However, a deliberate location of the
centerline is necessary for the final grading and surfacing operations.
The surveyor marks the curves and minor structures concurrently with the layout of the
centerline. A major structure such as tunnels or bridges involves a site survey. The general
demarcation of the site boundaries is carried on with the establishment of the route alignment.
The layout of the site proper is a separate survey.
Setting grade stakes
Grade stakes indicate the exact grade elevation of the construction force. The surveyor consults
the construction plans to determine the exact elevation of the subgrade and the distance from
the centerline to the edges of the shoulder.
Preliminary Subgrade Stakes
The surveyor sets preliminary subgrade stakes on the centerline and other grade lines, as
required. First, the surveyor determines the amount of cut or fill required at the centerline
station. The amount of cut or fill is equal to the grade rod minus the ground rod.
The grade rod is equal to the height of the instrument minus the subgrade elevation at the station.
The ground rod is the foresight reading at the station. If the result of this computation is a
positive value, it indicates the amount of cut required. If it is negative, it indicates the amount
of fill.
For example, given a height of instrument (HI) of 115.5 feet, a subgrade elevation of 108.6 feet,
and a ground rod reading of 3.1 feet, the grade rod = 115.5 feet - 108.6 = + 6.9 and cut or fill
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= 6.9 - 3.1 = + 3.8, indicating a cut of 3.8 feet. The surveyor records the result in the field notes
and on the back of the grade stake as C 38 (figure below, example a).
Sometimes, it is necessary to mark stakes for the nearest whole or half foot to assist the earth
moving crew. In the example given, the surveyor would measure up to 0.2 feet on the stake
and mark it as in the figure below, example b.
If for this stake, a fill of 3.8 feet was required, the surveyor would measure it up 0.3 feet and
mark the stake as in the figure below, example c.
The figure below, example d, shows a case where the actual subgrade alignment could be
marked on the stake. The number under the cut or fill represents the distance the stake is from
the road centerline. The surveyor normally makes rod readings and computations to the nearest
0.1 foot or 0.01 meter.
During rough grading operations, the construction crew determines the grades for the edges of
the traveled roadway, roadbed, and ditch lines. However, if the road is to be super-elevated or
is in rough terrain, the survey crew must provide stakes for all grade lines. These would include
the centerline, the edge of the traveled roadway, the edges of the roadbed, and possibly, the
centerline of the ditches. The surveyor sets those stakes by measuring the appropriate distance
off the centerline and determining the amount of cut or fill as outlined. The surveyor offsets
the stakes along the traveled roadway, roadbed, and ditches to avoid their being destroyed
during grading operations. The construction foreman, not the surveyor, makes the decision as
to how many and where grade stakes are required.
Final Grade Stakes
Once the rough grading is completed, the surveyor sets the final grade stakes (blue tops). The
elevation of the final grade is determined and the value of the grade rod reading is computed.
The surveyor uses a rod target to set the grade rod reading on the rod.
The rod is held on the top of the stake. The stake is driven into the ground until the horizontal
crosshair bisects the target and the top of the stake is at final grade. The surveyor marks the top
of the stake with a blue lumber crayon to distinguish it from other stakes.
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Figure 1.1: Grade Stakes
The surveyor should provide blue tops on all grade lines. However, the final decision as to
what stakes are required lies with the construction foreman. To set a final grade, the surveyor
normally makes rod readings and computations to 0.01 feet or 0.001 meters.
Special Cases
Where grade stakes cannot be driven, as in hard coral or rock areas, the surveyor must use
ingenuity to set and preserve grade markings under existing conditions. Often, such markings
are made on the rock itself with a chisel or a lumber crayon.
Setting slope stakes
Slope stakes indicate the intersection of cut or fill slopes with the natural ground line. They
indicate the earthwork limits on each side of the centerline.
Level Section
When the ground is level transversely to the centerline of the road, the cut or fill at the slope
stake will be the same as at the center, except for the addition of the crown. On fill sections,
the distance from the center stake to the slope stake is determined by multiplying the center cut
by the ratio of the slope (for example, horizontal distance to vertical distance) of the side slopes
and adding one half the width of the roadbed. On cut sections, the surveyor can find the distance
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from the center stake to the slope stake by multiplying the ratio of slope by the center cut and
adding the distance from the centerline to the outside edge of the ditch.
In either case, if the ground is level, the slope stake on the right side of the road will be the
same distance from the centerline as the one on the left side of the road. On super-elevated
sections, the surveyor must add the widening factor to determine the distance from the
centerline to the slope stake. This is because the widening factor is not the same for both sides
of the road, and the slope stakes will not be the same distance from the centerline.
Cut Section
The cut section in the figure below has the level set up with an HI of 388.3 feet. The subgrade
elevation at this centerline station is set at 372.5 feet on a 23- feet roadbed with 1.5:1 side
slopes, 4- feet shoulders, and 7- feet ditches.
The “grade rod” is the difference between these two elevations of 388.3 - 372.5 = + 15.8 feet.
The rodman now holds the rod on the ground at the foot of the center grade stake and obtains
a reading of 6.3 feet, a “ground rod.” The recorder subtracts 6.3 from the grade rod of 15.8,
which gives + 9.5 feet or a center cut of 9.5 feet. On slope stakes, the cut or fill and the distance
from the centerline are written facing the center of the road. The backs of the slope stakes show
the station and the slope ratio to be used. The recorder estimates the trial distance by
multiplying the cut at the centerline (9.5) by the slope ratio (1.5) and adding the distance from
the centerline to the outside edge of the ditch (22.5). 9.5 x 1.5+ 22.5= 36.8 (to the nearest tenth
of a foot)
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Figure 1.2: Setting slope stake
The rodman now moves to the right at right angles to the centerline, the trial distance (36.8
feet). The rod is held at A and a reading of 9.1 is obtained, which, when subtracted from the
grade rod of 15.8, gives a cut of 6.7 feet. The recorder then computes what the distance from
the centerline to A should be.
This is done by multiplying the cut of 6.7 by the slope ratio and adding one-half the roadbed
width, which gives 32.6 feet.
However, the distance to A was measured as 36.8 feet instead of 32.6, so the position at A is
too far from the centerline. Another trial is made by moving the rod to 32.6 feet from the
centerline (B), where a reading of 8.9 is made.
The cut at B is now 15.8- 8.9= +6.9, and the calculated distance from the center is 6.9 x 1.5 +
22.5 = 32.8 feet. The distance actually measured is 32.8 feet. Therefore, B is the correct location
of the slope stake and is marked C69.
Since moving the rod one or two tenths of a foot would not materially change its reading,
greater accuracy is unnecessary.
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After a few trials, the rodman locates the slope stake on the left in a similar manner. The
instrument man verifies the figures by computation. When placed on the ground, the stakes
will appear as in the figure below.
Figure 1.3: Marking slope stake
Fill Section (HI above grade elevation)
The figure below illustrates a fill with the HI of the level set up above the subgrade elevation
of the 31-foot roadbed. In this case, the grade rod will always be less, numerically, than the rod
readings on the ground. The grade rod in this problem is +2.8; the rod reading at the center
stake is 6.5; and the difference is 2.8-6.5= -3.7 feet. The minus sign indicates a center fill. The
rodman finds the positions of the slope stakes by trial, as previously explained.
Figure 1.4: Slope staking (HI above grade elevation)
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Fill Section (HI below grade elevation)
The figure below illustrates a fill with the HI of the level below the grade elevation of the future
roadbed. Therefore, the grade rod has a negative value. Adding the negative ground rod to the
negative grade rod will give a greater negative value for the fill. For example, at the center
stake, the fill equals (-2.40 meters) + (-2.35 meters) or -4.75 meters. Otherwise, this case is
similar to the preceding ones.
Figure 1.5: Slope staking (HI below grade elevation)
1.5 Route selection
In general, the aim of the alignment selection process is to find a location for the new road that
will result in the lowest total construction, land, traffic, and environmental costs. Before an
attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway improvement, data must be
available regarding traffic desires and needs of the planning intentions within the area to be
traversed, and estimates of the future physical characteristics of the highway itself: Location
surveys involving geologic and photogrammetric skills provide the basic information for
structural design, as well as the economic analysis that has a considerable influence on the final
location of the highway.
Steps in route location:
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 Know the terminal points of the scheme.
 From the study of a map of the area, identify and locate:
 National Parks
 Any ancient relics, castles, and the likes?
 Existence of monasteries
 Mining sites
 Existing transport facilities
 Other public facilities (electricity, water)
 Location of construction materials
 Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on pertinent
details of topography, climate, soil, vegetation, and any other factors.
 Based on the information collected in the previous two steps, select a corridor.
 Identify a number of possible centerlines within the corridor.
 Make a preliminary design for the possible alternative alignments and plot them on a
base map.
 Examine each of the alternative alignments with respect to grade, volume of earthwork,
drainage, crossing structures, etc. to select the best alternative route.
 Make the final design and location of the best alternative route.
1.6 The Stages of Highway Development
Highway design is only one element in the overall highway development process. Historically,
detailed design occurs in the middle of the process, linking the preceding phases of planning
and project development with the subsequent phases of right-of-way acquisition, construction,
and maintenance. It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design,
that designers and communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final
design features of the project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during the
detailed design phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier stages of
planning and project development.
Although the names may vary by state, the five basic stages in the highway development
process are: planning, project development (preliminary design), final design, right of way, and
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construction. After construction is completed, ongoing operation and maintenance activities
continue throughout the life of the facility.
Figure 1.6: Stages of Highway Development
1.6.1 Planning
The initial definition of the need for any highway or bridge improvement project took place
during the planning stage. This problem occurs at the state, regional, or local level, depending
on the scale of the proposed improvement. This is the key time to get the public involved and
provide input into the decision-making process. The problems identified usually fall into one
or more of the following four categories:
 The existing physical structure needs major repair/replacement (structure repair).
 Existing or projected future travel demands exceed available capacity, and access to
transportation and mobility needs to be increased (capacity).
 The route is experiencing an inordinate number of safety and accident problems that
can only be resolved through physical and geometric changes (safety).
 Developmental pressures along the route make a reexamination of the number, location,
and physical design of access points necessary.
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Whichever problem (or set of problems) is identified, it is important that all parties agree that
the problem exists, pinpoint what the problem is, and decide whether or not they want it fixed.
For example, some communities may acknowledge that a roadway is operating above its
capacity but do not want to improve the roadway for fear that such action will encourage more
growth along the corridor. Road access may be a problem, but a community may decide it is
better not to increase access,
Increased public involvement in highway planning and development is essential to success.
Figure 1.7: The Highway Planning Stage
Factors to Consider During Planning
It is important to look ahead during the planning stage and consider the potential impact that a
proposed facility or improvement may have while the project is still in the conceptual phase.
During planning, key decisions are made that will affect and limit the design options in
subsequent phases. Some questions to be asked at the planning stage include:
 How will the proposed transportation improvement affect the general physical character
of the area surrounding the project?
 Does the area to be affected have unique historical or scenic characteristics?
 What are the safety, capacity, and cost concerns of the community?
Answers to such questions are found in planning level analysis as well as in public involvement
during planning.
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Figure 1.8: Factors to consider in planning
1.6.2 Project Development
After a project has been planned and programmed for implementation, it moves into the project
development phase. At this stage, the environmental analysis intensifies. The level of
environmental review varies widely, depending on the scale and impact of the project. It can
range from a multiyear effort to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement (a comprehensive
document that analyzes the potential impact of proposed alternatives) to a modest
environmental review completed in a matter of weeks. Regardless of the level of detail or
duration, the product of the project development process generally includes a description of the
location and major design features of the recommended project that is to be further designed
and constructed, while continually trying to avoid, minimize, and mitigate environmental
impact.
The basic steps in this stage include the following:

(1) Refinement of purpose and need
(2) Development of a range of alternatives (including the "no build" and traffic
management system [TMS] options)
(3) Evaluation of alternatives and their impacts on the natural and built
environments
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(4) Development of appropriate mitigation
In general, decisions made at the project development level help to define the major features
of the resulting project through the remainder of the design and construction process. For
example, if the project development process determines that an improvement needs to take the
form of a four lane divided arterial highway, it may be difficult in the design phase to justify
providing only a two-lane highway. Similarly, if the project development phase determines that
an existing truss bridge cannot be rehabilitated at a reasonable cost to provide the necessary
capacity, then it may be difficult to justify keeping the existing bridge without investing in the
cost of a totally new structure.
1.6.3 Final Design
After a preferred alternative has been selected and the project description has been agreed upon
as stated in the environmental document, the project can move into the final design stage. The
product of this stage is a complete set of plans, specifications, and estimates (PS&Es) of the
required quantities of materials, ready for the solicitation of construction bids and subsequent
construction. Depending on the scale and complexity of the project, the final design process
may take from a few months to several years.
The need to employ imagination, ingenuity, and flexibility comes into play at this stage, within
the general parameters established during planning and project development. Designers need
to be aware of design related commitments made during project planning and project
development, as well as proposed mitigation. They also need to be cognizant of the ability to
make minor changes to the original concept developed during the planning phase that can result
in a "better" final product.
The interests and involvement of affected stakeholders are critical to making design decisions
during this phase, as well. Many of the same techniques employed during earlier phases of the
project development process to facilitate public participation can also be used during the design
phase.
The following paragraphs discuss some important considerations of design, including:
 Developing a concept
 Considering the scale and
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 Detailing the design
(1) Developing a Concept
A design concept gives the project a focus and helps to move it toward a specific direction.
There are many elements in a highway, and each involves a number of separate but interrelated
design decisions. Integrating all these elements to achieve a common goal or concept helps the
designer in making design decisions.
Some of the many elements of highway design are
 Number and width of travel lanes, median type and width, and shoulders
 Traffic barriers
 Overpasses or bridges
 Horizontal and vertical alignment and affiliated landscapes
(2) Considering scale

People driving in a car see the world on a much different scale than people walking down the
street. This large discrepancy in the design scale for a car versus the design scale for people
has changed the overall planning of our communities. For example, it has become common in
many suburban commercial areas for a shopper to get in the car and drive from one store to the
next. Except in the case of strip malls, stores are often separated by large parking lots and
usually have no safe walkways for pedestrians. This makes it difficult to get around any other
way but by car. This type of design scale is in sharp contrast to pre-automobile commercial
areas that commonly took the form of "main streets," where walking from one store to the next
was the norm.
Trying to accommodate users of the road who have two different design scales is a difficult
task for designers. However, designers must always consider the safety of pedestrian and non-
vehicular traffic, along with the safety of motorists. Both are users of the road. In many road
designs, pedestrian needs are considered only after the needs of motorized vehicles. Not only
does this make for unsafe conditions for pedestrians, it can also drastically change how a
roadway corridor is used. Widening a roadway that once allowed pedestrian access to the two
sides of the street can turn the roadway into a barrier and change the way pedestrians use the
road and its edges.
36
The design element with the greatest effect on the scale of the roadway is its width, or cross
section. The cross section can include a clear zone, a shoulder, parking lanes, travel lanes,
and/or a median. The wider the overall roadway, the larger its scale: however, there are some
design techniques that can help to reduce the perceived width and, thus, the perceived scale of
the roadway. Limiting the width of pavement or breaking up the pavement is one option. In
some instances, four-lane roadways may look less imposing by designing a grass or planted
median in the center.
(3) Detailing the design

Particularly during the final design phase, it is the details associated with the project that are
important. Employing a multidisciplinary design team ensures that important design details are
considered and those are compatible with community values. Often, it is the details of the
project that are most recognizable to the public. A multidisciplinary design team can produce
an aesthetic and functional product when the members work together and are flexible in
applying guidelines.
1.6.4 Right-of-way, Construction, and Maintenance
Once the final designs have been prepared and the needed right-of-way has been purchased,
construction bid packages are made available, a contractor is selected, and construction is
initiated. During the right-of-way acquisition and construction stages, minor adjustments in the
design may be necessary. Therefore, there should be continuous involvement of the design
team throughout these stages. Construction may be simple or complex and may require a few
months to several years. Once construction has been completed, the facility is ready to begin
its normal sequence of operations and maintenance.
Even after the completion of construction, the character of a road can be changed by
inappropriate maintenance actions. For example, the replacement of sections of guardrail
damaged or destroyed in crashes commonly utilizes whatever spare guardrail sections may be
available to the local highway maintenance personnel at the time. The maintenance personnel
may not be aware of the use of a special guardrail design to define the "character" of the
highway. When special design treatments are used, ongoing operation and maintenance
procedures acknowledging these unusual needs should be developed.
37
Table 1.1: Five basic stages in highway planning and development
Stages Description of Activity

Planning Identification of transportation needs and program
projects to be built within financial constraints.
Project The transportation project is more clearly defined.
Development Alternative locations and design features are developed
and an alternative is selected.
Design The design team develops detailed design and
specifications.
Right-of- Land needed for the project is acquired.
way
construction Selection of contractor, who then builds the project
38
Assessments
1. Practical
 Install the necessary software necessary for inroad.
 Determine the location and alignment of the proposed road.
 Route Surveying
 Map Study
2. Theory
Objective Type Question
(1) Which of the following indicates the objective of the road survey?
a) Specific gravity
b) Density
c) Pavement design
d) Detailed layout of road way
Answer: b
(2) Which of the following must be considered while laying an alignment?
a) Tectonic plate movements

b) Terrain
c) Line of sight
d) Population
Answer: d
(3) Which of the following is not a stage of the road line survey procedure?
a) Marine survey
b) Reconnaissance survey
c) Selection of good alignment
39
d) Preliminary survey
Answer: a
(4) Engineering survey in which the centerline of the road is transferred to the ground in
a) Preliminary survey
b) Map survey
c) Reconnaissance survey
d) Final location and detailed surveys
Answer: d
(5) The surveys for highway alignment are completed in how many stages?
a) Four
b) Three
c) Two
d) One
Answer: a
40
Subjective Type Question
(1) What are the various guidelines that have to be followed for alignment and route
location selection? Discuss each factor briefly.
(2) What are the three different stages of the route location survey? Discuss each factor
briefly.
(3) What are the main principles of the route selection process?
(4) It is a line established during the preliminary survey which is normally located close to
the expected horizontal alignment.
41
(5) What is the proper order of the five basic stages in the highway development process?
42
Evaluation Table
Evaluation Score* Remark
Test 1
Test 2
Result
Evaluation Class Assignment
1
Class Assignment
2
Understanding on
the route location
survey
Work Performance
Evaluation
Attitude
Complete task
Time used
Time (180 Min.)
(1 per 10 min.)
Total /45
* Score (5-point rating): Excellent 5, Good 4, Fair 3, Bad 2, Worst 1
43
References
[1] Nicholas J. Gerber and Lester A. Hole (2015), Traffic and Highway Engineering, 5th ed.
Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning
[2] Rogers, M. (2003), Highway Engineering, Blackwell Science Ltd.
[3] Wright, P.H. and Karen, D. (2003), Highway Engineering, 7th edition, Wiley
[4] ERA (Ethiopian Roads Authority) (2013), Geometric design Manual.
44
45
Chapter 2 Functional Classification of Highways
Lesson Plan
2. Motivation
Criteria Analysis
 Understand the different geometric design control criteria and their impact on
project
46
4. Equipment
• Desktop or Laptop computer with internet connection.
• Maps
 Brief introduction to route selection
 Tool setup
6. Assessments
selection?
7. Clean-up
Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measures, and previous reflected
opinions
47
2. Functional Classification of Highways
2.1 The Concept of Functional Classification
The function of a highway is to provide a facility that allows the movement of vehicles.
Different types of facilities are needed for various vehicle travel movements. To differentiate
between the types of highways, functional classifications have been developed so that
engineers, administrators, and the general public can communicate about highways.
It is obvious that not all roads should be built to the same standards. The fact that gravel roads
and super highways exist side-by-side in developed countries proves this statement. This imp
lies that there are ways to differentiate standards for the various types of roads. The basis for t
his decision is a classification system that can be used to define what standards are appropriat
e for a given road.
This is not as easy as it sounds, as there are several classification systems that are in use in dif
ferent countries, by different highway users such as engineers, the general public, and road ad
ministrators.
Roads are categorized in terms of their actual or intended uses within the network as a whole.
These categories define their design, adoption, and management standards, regardless of whi
ch local authority is responsible for any particular road.
48
Figure 2.1: Hierarchy of Movement
The failure to recognize and accommodate by suitable design each of the different trip stages
of the movement hierarchy is a prominent cause of highway obsolescence. Conflicts and
congestion occur at interfaces between public highways and private traffic-generating facilities
when the functional transitions are inadequate. Examples are commercial driveways that lead
directly from a relatively high-speed arterial into a parking aisle without intermediate
provisions for transition deceleration and arterial distribution or, more seriously, freeway ramps
that lead directly into or from large traffic generators such as major shopping centers.
Inadequate acceptance capacity of the distributor or internal circulation deficiencies within the
traffic absorber may lead to traffic backing up onto the freeway. A successful internal design
that provides facilities to accommodate all the intermediate functions between the high-speed
freeway and the terminal parking facility will alleviate such a situation.
49
In the case of the freeway leading to a large traffic generator, deceleration from rapid movement
on the freeway occurs on the exit ramp. Distribution to various parking areas is then
accomplished by primary distribution-type roads or lanes within the parking facility. These
roads or lanes supplant the distributor arterial function. Collector-type roads or lanes within the
parking facility may then deliver segments of the entering flow to the parking bays. The parking
aisle, in leading to individual parking space terminals, then becomes the equivalent of an access
street. Thus, the principal functions within the hierarchical movement system are recognizable.
In addition, each functional category is also related to a range of vehicle speeds.
The same principles of design are also relevant to terminal facilities that adjoin distributor
arterials or collectors. The functional design of the facility includes each movement stage, with
internal circulation in the terminal design to accommodate the order of movement. The need to
design for all stages of the movement hierarchy varies with the size of the traffic generator. For
relatively small generators, two or more stages may be accommodated in the same internal
facility. For larger traffic generators, each movement stage should have a separate functional
facility.
To determine the number of design components needed, the customary volumes of traffic
handled by public streets in different functional categories can be compared. The volume range
on private internal facilities can be related to the comparable range on public streets. These
volumes may not be directly comparable, inasmuch as the physical space available within a
private facility is smaller and the operational criteria are necessarily quite different. However,
the same principles of flow specialization and movement hierarchy can be applied.
Some further examples may demonstrate how the principles of movement hierarchy are related
to a logical system of classification of traffic generation intensity. At the highest practical level
of traffic generation, a single generator fills an entire freeway, and for this condition,
intermediate public streets could not be inserted between the generator and the freeway, so the
various movement stages should be accommodated internally with appropriate design features.
At the next level of traffic generation, a single traffic generator could fill a single freeway lane.
It is then appropriate to construct a freeway ramp for the exclusive use of the generator without
intervening public streets. At still smaller volumes, it becomes desirable to combine the traffic
from several generators with additional traffic before the flow arrives at a freeway entrance
ramp. The road performing this function then becomes a collector facility, accumulating these
small flows until a traffic volume that will fill the freeway ramp is reached.
50
Similar principles can be applied at the distributor’s arterial level of service. If a given traffic
generator is of sufficient size, an exclusive intersection driveway for that generator is justified.
In other cases, an intermediate collector street should combine smaller traffic flows until they
reach a volume that warrants an intersection along the distributor. The same theory can be
applied with regard to the criteria for direct access to the collector street. A moderately sized
traffic generator usually warrants a direct connection to the collector without an intermediate
access street. However, in a district of single-family residences, a local access street should
assemble the traffic from a group of residences and lead it into a collector street at a single
point of access. In practice, direct access to arterials and collectors should be provided from
commercial and residential properties, particularly in established neighborhoods.
In short, each element of the functional hierarchy can serve as a collecting facility for the next
higher element, but an element should be present only where the intermediate collection is
needed to satisfy the spacing needs and traffic volume demands of the next higher facility. By
defining the spacing needs and traffic volume demands for a system element, it is possible to
determine which cases should use the full system and in which cases intermediate elements
may be bypassed.
2.2 Functional systems for rural areas
Rural roads consist of facilities outside of urban areas. The names provided for the recognizable
systems are principal arterials (roads), minor arterials (roads), major and minor collectors
(roads), and local roads.
2.2.1 Rural Principal Arterial System
The rural principal arterial system consists of a network of routes with the following service
characteristics:
(1) Corridor movement with trip length and density suitable for substantial
statewide or interstate travel.
(2) Movements between all, or virtually all, urban areas with populations of over
50,000 and a large majority of those with populations of over 25,000.
(3) Integrated movement without stub connections except where unusual
51
geographic or traffic flow conditions dictate otherwise (e.g., international
boundary connections or connections to coastal cities).
In the more densely populated states, this class of highway includes most (but not all) heavily
traveled routes that might warrant multilane improvements in the majority of states; the
principal arterial system includes most (if not all) existing rural freeways.
The principal arterial system is stratified into the following two design types: (1) freeways and
(2) other principal arterials.
2.2.2 Rural Minor Arterial System
The rural minor arterial road system, in conjunction with the rural principal arterial system,
forms a network with the following service characteristics:
(1) Linkage of cities, larger towns, and other traffic generators (such as major resort areas)
those are capable of attracting travel over similarly long distances.
(2) Integrated interstate and inter-county service.
(3) Internal spacing is consistent with population density, so that all developed areas of the
state are within reasonable distances of arterial highways.
(4) Corridor movements consistent with items (1) through (3) with trip lengths and travel
densities greater than those predominantly served by rural collector or local systems.
Minor arterials therefore constitute routes, the design of which should be expected to provide
for relatively high travel speeds and minimum interference to through movement.
2.2.3 Rural Collector System
The rural collector routes generally serve travel of primarily intra-county rather than statewide
importance and constitute those routes on which (regardless of traffic volume) predominant
travel distances are shorter than on arterial routes. Consequently, more moderate speeds may
be typical. To define rural collectors more clearly, this system is sub-classified according to
the following criteria: ·
 Major Collector Roads. These routes
52
1) serve county seats not on arterial routes, larger towns not directly served by the
higher systems, and other traffic generators of equivalent intra-county
importance, such as consolidated schools, shipping points, county parks, and
important mining and agricultural areas,
2) link these places with nearby larger towns or cities, or with routes of higher
classifications,
3) Serve the more important intra-county travel corridors. ·
 Minor Collector Roads. These routes should
1) be spaced at intervals consistent with population density to accumulate traffic

from local roads and bring all developed areas within reasonable distances of
collector roads;
2) provide service to the remaining smaller communities; and
3) Link the locally important traffic generators with their rural hinterland.
2.2.4 Rural Local Road System
The rural local road system, in comparison to collectors and arterial systems, primarily provides
access to land adjacent to the collector network and serves travel over relatively short distances.
The local road system comprises all rural roads not classified as principal arterials, minor
arterials, or collector roads.
2.2.5 Extent of Rural Systems
The functional criteria for road systems have been expressed herein primarily in qualitative
rather than quantitative terms. Because of varying geographic conditions (e.g., population
densities, spacing between and sizes of cities, and densities and patterns of road networks),
criteria on sizes of population centers, trip lengths, traffic volumes, and route spacing do not
apply to all systems in all states. However, the results of classification studies conducted in
many states show considerable consistency (when expressed in percentages of the total length
of rural roads) in the relative extents of the functional systems.
53
In states having more extensive total road networks relative to their population density, the
lower values are applicable. The range of percentages of rural collectors represents the total
length of both major and minor collector roads and applies to the statewide rural roadway total.
The percentages in particular counties may vary considerably from the statewide average.
Areas having an extensive regular grid pattern of roads usually have a smaller percentage of
collectors than areas within which geographic conditions have imposed a restricted or less
regular pattern of road development.
Table 2.1: Typical Distribution of Rural Functional Systems
Systems Percentage of Total Rural

Road Length
Principal arterial system 2–4%
Principal arterial plus minor 6–12%, with most States falling

arterial system in 7–10% range
Collector road 20–25%
Local road system 65–75%
2.3 Functional Highway Systems in Urbanized Areas
The four functional highway systems for urbanized areas are: urban principal arterials (streets),
minor arterials (streets), collectors (streets), and local streets. The differences in the nature and
intensity of development in rural and urban areas warrant corresponding differences in urban
system characteristics relative to the correspondingly named rural systems.
Urban Principal Arterial System
In every urban environment, one system of streets and highways can be identified as unusually
significant in terms of the nature and composition of travel it serves. In small urban areas
(population under 50,000), these facilities may be very limited in number and extent, and their
54
importance may be derived primarily from the service provided through travel. In urbanized
areas, their importance also derives from service to rurally oriented traffic, but equally, and
even more importantly, from service to major circulation movements within these urbanized
areas.
The urban principal arterial system serves the major centers of activity in urbanized areas, the
highest traffic volume corridors, and the longest trip desires, and carries a high proportion of
the total urban area travel even though it constitutes a relatively small percentage of the total
roadway network. The system should be integrated both internally and between major rural
connections.
The principal arterial system carries most of the trips entering and leaving the urban area, as
well as most of the through movements bypassing the central city. In addition, significant intra-
area travels, such as between central business districts and outlying residential areas, between
major inner-city communities, and between major suburban centers, is served by this class of
facility. Frequently, the principal arterial system carries important intra-urban as well as
intercity bus routes. Finally, in urbanized areas, this system provides continuity for all rural
arterials that intercept the urban boundary.
Because of the nature of the travel served by the principal arterial system, almost all fully and
partially controlled access facilities are usually part of this functional class. However, this
system is not restricted to controlled-access routes. To preserve the identification of controlled-
access facilities, the principal arterial system should be stratified as follows:
1) interstate,
2) other freeways, and
3) Other principal arterials (with partial or no control of access).
The spacing of urban principal arterials is closely related to the trip-end density characteristics
of particular portions of the urban areas. Although no firm spacing rule applies in all or even
in most circumstances, the spacing between principal arterials (in larger urban areas) may vary
from less than 1.6 km in the highly developed central business areas to 8 km or more in the
sparsely developed urban fringes.
For principal arterials, service to abutting land is subordinate to travel service to major traffic
movements. Only facilities within the subclass of other principal arterials are capable of
55
providing any direct access to land, and such service should be purely incidental to the primary
functional responsibility of this class of roads.
Urban Minor Arterial Street System
The minor arterial street system interconnects with and augments the urban principal arterial
system. It accommodates trips of moderate length at a somewhat lower level of travel mobility
than principal arterials do. This system distributes travel to geographic areas smaller than those
identified with the higher system.
The minor arterial street system includes all arterials not classified as principal. This system
places more emphasis on land access than the higher system does and offers lower traffic
mobility. Such a facility may carry local bus routes and provide intercommunity continuity but
ideally does not penetrate identifiable neighborhoods. This system includes urban connections
to rural collector roads where such connections have not been classified as urban principal
arterials for internal reasons.
The spacing of minor arterial streets may vary from 0.2 to 1.0 km in the central business district
to 3 to 5 km in the suburban fringes, but is normally not more than 2 km in fully developed
areas.
Urban Collector Street System
The collector street system provides both land access service and traffic circulation within
residential neighborhoods and commercial and industrial areas. It differs from the arterial
system in that facilities on the collector system may penetrate residential neighborhoods,
distributing trips from the arterials through the area to their ultimate destinations. Conversely,
the collector street also collects traffic from local streets in residential neighborhoods and
channels it into the arterial system. In the central business district, and in other areas of similar
development and traffic density, the collector system may include the entire street grid. The
collector street system may also carry local bus routes.
Urban Local Street System
The local street system comprises all facilities not in one of the higher systems. It primarily
permits direct access to abutting lands and connections to the higher order systems. It offers
56
the lowest level of mobility and usually contains no bus routes. Service to through-traffic
movement is usually deliberately discouraged.
Length of Roadway and Travel on Urban Systems
Table 2.2 contains the typical distribution of travel volume and length of roadway for the
functional systems for urbanized areas. Systems developed for urbanized areas using the
criteria herein usually fall within the percentage ranges shown.
Table 2.2: Typical Distribution of Urban Functional Systems
Systems Range
Travel Volume (%) Length (%)
Principal arterial system 40-65 5-10
Principal arterial plus minor 65-80 15-25

arterial system
Collector road 5-10 5-10
Local road system 10-30 65-80
2.4 Functional Classification as a Design Type
This text has utilized the functional classification system as a design type of highway. Two
major difficulties arise from this usage. The first major problem involves freeways. A freeway
is not a functional class in itself but is normally classified as a principal arterial. It does,
however, have unique geometric criteria that demand a separate design designation apart from
other arterials. Therefore, a separate chapter on freeways has been included along with chapters
on arterials, collectors, and local roads and streets. The addition of the universally familiar term
“freeway” to the basic functional classes seems preferable to the adoption of a complete
separate system of design types.
The second major difficulty is that, in the past, geometric design criteria and capacity levels
have traditionally been based on a classification of traffic volume ranges. Under such a system,
57
highways with comparable traffic volumes are constructed to the same criteria and provide
identical levels of service, although there may be considerable differences in the functions they
serve.
Under a functional classification system, design criteria and level of service vary according to
the function of the highway facility. Volumes serve to further refine the design criteria for each
class.
Arterials are expected to provide a high degree of mobility for the longer trip length. Therefore,
they should provide a high operating speed and level of service. Since access to abutting
property is not their major function, some degree of access control is desirable to enhance
mobility. The collectors serve a dual function in accommodating the shorter trip and feeding
the arterials. They should provide some degree of mobility and also serve abutting property.
Thus, an intermediate design speed and level of service is appropriate. Local roads and streets
have relatively short trip lengths, and, because property access is their main function, there is
little need for mobility or high operating speeds. This function is reflected by the use of a lower
design speed and level of service.
The functional concept is important to the designer. Even though many of the geometric design
values could be determined without reference to the functional classification, the designer
should keep in mind the overall purpose that the street or highway is intended to serve. This
concept is consistent with a systematic approach to highway planning and design.
The first step in the design process is to define the function that the facility is to serve. The
level of service needed to fulfill this function for the anticipated volume and composition of
traffic provides a rational and cost-effective basis for the selection of design speed and
geometric criteria within the ranges of values available to the designer. The use of functional
classification as a design type should appropriately integrate the highway planning and design
process.
2.5 AASHTO geometric design manual, 2002
Highway classification refers to the process by which roadways are classified into a set of
subsystems; described below, based on the way each roadway is used.
(1) Interstate, freeway and expressway
58
 Interstate: Interstates are the highest classification of arterials and are designed and
constructed for mobility and long-distance travel. Roadways in this category are
officially designated as Interstate by the Secretary of Transportation and are considered
Principal Arterials.
 Freeways & Expressways: Roadways in this category with full access control look
similar to Interstates. By definition, freeways are characterized by full access control
with access points limited to on/off ramps and no at grade intersections. Expressways
are more common in rural settings, where at grade intersections are permitted to varying
degrees depending on context. In general, these types of roadways favor mobility over
access, with this being truer for freeways than expressways.
(2) Arterial Highways

 Principal Arterial Highways
Principal Arterials serve a large percentage of travel between cities and activity centers.
Principal arterials are typically roadways with high traffic volumes and are the frequent
route for intercity buses and trucks. Principal Arterials provide a high degree of mobility
and carry a high percentage of travel for long distance trips, including those that go
directly through or bypass activity centers.
 Minor Arterial Highways
Minor arterial highways interconnect with and augment the principal highway system.
In urban areas, minor arterial highways are usually included in the Federal aid urban
system (FAUS)
(3) Collector Roads
Collector roads primarily serve trips of intra country rather than state wide importance.
Travel speeds and volumes are lower than on arterial roadways, but are still high relative
to local roads.
 Major Collectors- Serve important intra country traffic corridors and provide
service to major country traffic generators. These roads will usually be included in
the Federal-aid- secondary (FAS) system.
59
 Minor Collectors- Serve smaller place and towns and connect locally important
traffic generators. These roads usually will not be on Federal aid system
(4) Local Roads

The local street and road system comprises all roads not included in the higher classificati
ons. These streets and roads provided direct access to abutting land and permitted access t
o the roads of higher classification.
Local roads account for the largest percentage of roadways in terms of mileage and are ty
pically designed to discourage through traffic. A local road or residential street primarily s
erves as access to a farm, residence, business, or other abutting property. Some such roads
properly include geometric design and traffic control features more typical of collectors a
nd arterials to encourage the safe movement of through traffic.
2.6 ERA geometric design manual, 2002
2.6.1 Introduction
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is designed
to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road cross-section
and horizontal and vertical alignment. Appropriate standards and combinations of geometric
design elements should fulfill the following objectives:
 Topography, land use, and physical features

 Environmental considerations
 Road safety considerations
 Road function and control of access
 Traffic volume and capacity
 Design speed and other speed controls
 Design vehicle and vehicle characteristics
 Economic and financial considerations
 Alternative construction technologies
60
2.6.2 Design standards
The design standards to be used for roads of various traffic volumes (AADT) are summarized
in the several following tables. Of these, design standards relating to road functional
classification and traffic volumes, illustrate the split between paved and unpaved standards.
Ethiopian Roads Authority’s ten design standards, reflecting the government policy of design
flexibility and emphasis on labor-based techniques. These standards apply to divided highways,
trunk and link roads, main access and collector roads, and feeder roads.
2.6.3 Departures from Standards
It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate
from these standards. An example of a departure from standard is the inclusion of a switchback
or the use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer departs from a
standard, he must obtain written approval from ERA. The designer shall submit the following
information to ERA:
 The number, name, and description of the road.

 The facet of design for which a departure from standards is desired;
 A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the Departure
from Standards
 The reason for the departure from standards, and
 Any mitigation has to be applied in the interests of safety.
The designer must submit all major and minor departures from standards to the design and
research division manager for evaluation. If the proposed departures from standards are
acceptable, the departures from Standards will be submitted to the general manager for final
approval.
2.6.4 Road Functional Classification and Numbering
The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes.
The following are the functional classes with their descriptions.
61
(1) Trunk Roads (Class I)
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked
with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. They are numbered with an "A" prefix: an example is the
Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads have a present AADT ≥1000, although they can have
volumes as low as 100 AADT.
(2) Link Roads (Class II)
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must
be linked with each other by link roads. A typical link road has over 400 - 1000 first year
AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT. They are numbered with a "B"
prefix. An example of a typical link road is the Woldiya Debre Tabor- Woreta Road (B22),
which links, for instance, Woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir Dar on Road A3.
(3) Main Access Roads (Class III)
Centers of provincial importance must be linked between themselves by main access roads.
First year AADTs are between 30 and 1,000. They are numbered with a "C" prefix.
(4) Collector Roads (Class IV)
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a more important center, or to higher
class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year AADTs are between 25 and 400. They
are numbered with a "D" prefix.
(5) Feeder Roads (Class V)
Any road link to a minor center, such as a market or local location, is served by a feeder road.
First year AADTs are between 0-100. They are numbered with an "E" prefix and are presented
in Appendix A. Roads of the highest classes; trunk and link roads, have as their major function
to provide mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The
roads of the intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and
access. The classification and description of all existing trunk, link, and main access roads
within the country, including road name, distance, type of road, and road numbering.
62
63
Assessments
1. Theory
Objective Type Question:
(1) When consideration of functional classified highway systems is an important part of

understanding issues related to
a) Land planning
b) Highway corridor evaluation
c) Geometric design features
d) All
Answer: d
(2) The roads that connect the district headquarters to an important city of another state are
called ___________
a) National Highway
b) State Highway
c) Major district road
d) Other district road
Answer: b
(3) Are arterial roads a classification of which type of road?
a) Rural roads
b) Urban Rods
c) National highway
d) State highway
Answer: b
(4) The Ethiopia road authority functional classified the roads based on ______________
64
a) Location
b) Function
c) Location and function
d) Annual daily traffic
Answer: c
65
(1) How does the functional classification of a road affect its geometric design?
Describe briefly
(2) What are the functional classification systems of roads based on the AASHTO
manual?
(3) What is the role of functional classification of roads in the design process?
(4) What are the major differences between arterial highways and freeways?
(5) What are the functional classification systems of roads based on the ERA manual?
(6) Why is functional classification important?
66
Evaluation Table
Test 1
Test 2
Result
1
Class Assignment
2
Understanding on
the functional
classification of
Work road
Evaluation
Performance
Attitude
Time used
Time (180 Min.)
(1 per 10 min.)
Total /50
67
References

[2] U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (1989), Highway
Functional Classification: Concepts, Criteria, and Procedures, Washington, D.C.
[3] AASHTO (2004), A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
[4] Nicholas J.Garber, Lester A.Hoel (2009), Traffic and Highway Engineering, Fifth edition,
[5] AACRA (Addis Ababa city Roads Authority) (2002), Pavement Design Manual, latest
edition.
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Chapter 3 Geometric Design of Highways
Lesson Plan
• Be able to road alignment, classification of road.
• Be able to select the best route and highway alignment.
• Understand the geometric design of highway.
• Understand vertical alignment and cross sections.
• Understand super elevation and widening.
• Understand earthwork and the quantities.
• Understand design principles of At-Grade intersection.
• Understand surface and subsurface drainage structures.
2. Motivation
essential components of a highway, geometric design of highway components, and
volume computation of highway earthwork; Individual access to inroad software
 Using the Multi-Criteria Analysis, identify alternative routes and select technically
feasible routes.
 Understand the different geometric design control criteria and their impact on geometric
design decisions.
 Perform horizontal and vertical geometric design for a specific highway project.
 Design a highway project's super-elevation, sight distance, and road widening.
 Determine the earthwork volume of a given highway project and be able to determine
 Understand local and international geodetic design standards and manuals such as ERA,
AACRA, and AASHTO.
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4. Equipment
• Desktop or Laptop computer with an internet connection.
• Software (Civil 3D and Auto Cad).
• Maps
• Total Station, meter and string
 A brief introduction to route selection
 Tool setup
6. Assessments
 What are the main principles of geometric design?
 What are the guidelines that have to be followed for horizontal and vertical
alignment?
 How can you install inroad software?
7. Clean-up
 After practice, all tools and equipment used in the practice must be returned to their
proper lab location.
 Clean up the work bench and practice lab.
Learning through Assignment
opinions.
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3. The Geometric Design of Highways
3.1 Introduction
The geometric design of a roadway necessitates the determination of specific design elements
and the fixation of standards concerning various components. It is dictated by economics and
other limitations to satisfy the requirements of traffic in designing geometric elements, which
include roadway vertical and horizontal alignment; cross sections; stopping and passing sight
distances; number of lanes; lane width; median type (if any) and width; lateral and vertical
clearances; intersections; length of acceleration and deceleration lanes; need for truck climbing
lanes for steep grades; curve radii required for turning vehicles, etc.
When one considers the diversity of vehicles, in terms of performance and physical dimensions,
and the interaction of these characteristics with the many elements comprising the design of
the roadway, it is clear that proper highway design is a complex procedure that requires
numerous compromises. Moreover, it is important for design guidelines to evolve over time in
response to changes in vehicle performance and dimensions and evidence collected regarding
the effectiveness of existing highway design practices (e.g., the relationship between accident
rates and various roadway design characteristics).
In the geometric design of highways, the following points should be considered:
 Volume and composition of traffic in the design year

 Faulty geometric designs are costly to rectify.
 The designs must be consistent and compatible with one another.
 The design should embrace all aspects of geometry, including signs, markings, lighting,
etc.
 The road should be considered as an element of the total environment so that its location
and design enhance rather than degrade the environment.
 The design should minimize initial and ongoing costs.
 Safety should be built into the design.
 All road users should be able to use the facility.
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3.2 Design criteria and controls
Once a route has been selected for a new highway, or a decision has been made to perform
major work on an existing facility, the next step is to establish design controls. The choice of
design standards and criteria is influenced by the following factors:
 The functional classification of the road

 The nature of the terrain
 The designed vehicle
 The traffic volume is expected on the road
 The design speed
 The adjacent land use density and characteristics
 Vehicle size and performance
 Safety
 Right of way impacts and costs associated with it.
 Economic and environmental considerations.
All these factors usually vary along a route of some length; the design does not have to be
constant for the whole length of the road. On the contrary, changes in the design are usually
required to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the above factors, whilst
maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
The following text describes some factors affecting design controls and criteria.
3.2.1 Functional classification of roads
(1) Trunk Roads
Centers of international importance and roads terminating at international boundaries are linked
with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. Trunk roads have an AADT of 1000, although they can have
volumes as low as 100 AADT.
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(2) Link Roads
Centers of national or international importance, such as principal towns and urban centers, must
be linked with each other by link roads. A typical link road has over 400–1000 first year AADT,
although values can range between 50–10,000 AADT.
(3) Access Roads
Centers of provincial importance must be linked to each other by access roads. First-year
AADTs are between 30 and 1000.
(4) Collector roads
Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to more important roads, or to higher
class roads must be linked by collector roads. First-year AADTs are between 25 and 400.
(5) Feeder roads
A road link to a minor center, such as a market or local location, is served by a feeder road.
The first year’s AADTs are between 0-100.
The primary function of higher-class roads, such as trunk and link roads, is to provide mobility,
whereas the primary function of lower-class roads is to provide access. The roads of the
intermediate class have to provide both mobility and access.
3.2.2 Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the traversed terrain through which the
road passes. Traverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
Flat terrain: Flat or gently rolling country that offers few obstacles to the construction of the
road, having a continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (traverse terrain
slope up to 5 percent).
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Figure 3.1: Flat Terrain
Rolling terrain: Rolling, hilly, or foothill country where slopes generally rise and fall
moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions
in alignment (transverse terrain slopes from 5 percent to 25 percent)
Figure 3.2: Rolling Terrain
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Mountainous terrain: hilly, mountainous: Hilly, mountainous and river gorges. This class
of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long, steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slopes from 25 percent
to 50 percent).
Figure 3.3: Mountainous Terrain
Escarpment: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to cater to
those situations whereby standards cannot be met. We are referring to escarpment situations
that include switchback roadway sections or side hill traverse sections with significant
earthwork quantities (transverse terrain slope greater than 50%).
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Figure 3.4: Escarpment Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment
In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher
standards will be less justifiable or unachievable in such situations than for roads in either flat
or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and adjust their driving
accordingly, thereby minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with transverse
terrain.
3.2.3 Design vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capability of vehicles are controlled by a
geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include the power
to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and
width. The road elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width,
horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also influence the
design of a roadway project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on roadway capacity and affects the turning radius; the
vehicle height affects the clearance of the various structures. Vehicle weight affects the
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structural design of the roadway. The design engineer will select for design the largest vehicle
that is expected to use the roadway facility in significant numbers on a daily basis.
The following guidelines apply when selecting a design vehicle:

 When a parking lot or a series of parking lots are the main traffic generators, passenger
cars may be used.
 For the design of intersections on local streets and park roads, a single-unit truck may
be used.
 At intersections of state highways and city streets that serve buses with relatively few
large trucks, a city transit bus may be used.
 At intersections of highways and low-volume county highways or township/local roads
with less than 400 ADT, either an 84-passenger large school bus 40 ft long or a 65-
passenger conventional bus 36 ft long may be used. The selection of either of these will
depend on the expected usage of the facility.
 At intersections of freeway ramp terminals and arterial crossroads, and at intersections
of state highways and industrialized streets that carry high volumes of traffic, the
minimum size of the design vehicle should be WB-20.
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Figure 3.5: Dimensions and Turning Radius
3.2.4 Density and Character of Adjoining land use
For urban or per-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors. In
such areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the
presence of other vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and right of way
constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations.
3.2.5 Design Traffic Volume
The volume and composition of traffic also influence the development of road design standards,
particularly design speed. The design of the road should be based in part on actual traffic
volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly affects features of design
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such as width, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or section of a road, including
traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average daily traffic (AADT).
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from feeder to main
collector to link the trunk roads. However, the actual flows will vary from region to region, and
it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to over-
design for the traffic levels actually encountered.
Information on traffic volumes, traffic composition, and traffic loading are important factors
in the determination of the appropriate standard of a road. Traffic has a major impact on the
selection of road class and, consequently, on all geometric design elements. The traffic
information is also necessary for the pavement design.
The functional hierarchy is such that traffic aggregates as it moves from the feeder to the main
collector to link the trunk roads. However, the actual flow will vary from region to region, and
it is important that the designation of a road by functional type should not give rise to over-
design for the traffic levels actually encountered.
Table 3.1: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT
Road Functional Design Design Traffic Flow

Classification Standard No. (AADT)
DS1 10,000-15,000
T DS2 5,000-10,000
R DS3 1,000-5,000
M DS4 200-1,000
U
C A DS5 100-200
L N
O I
I K
F L N DS6 50-100
N
E L A
K
E E C
DS7 30-75
D C C
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E T E
R O S
R S
DS8 25-50
DS9 15-25
DS10 0-15
3.2.6 Design Speed
The design vehicle is used as an index that links road function, traffic flow, and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that the driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will be constrained to
minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder width, horizontal radius, super elevation, sight
distance, and gradient are directly related to, and vary with, design speed. Thus, all the
geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the design speed. The design speed
will be determined by the following guidelines:
 Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at a higher speed than local traffic.
 High speeds are unreasonable on local roads whose major function is to provide access.
 Drivers usually adjust their speed to physical limitations and prevailing traffic
conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he must be apt to accept
a lower speed of operation.
 Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction cost) may justify a higher
design speed for a road carrying a large volume of traffic than a less heavily trafficked
road with similar topography.
 Changes in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be
affected abruptly but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed
gradually.
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 It is often the case that physical terrain changes by two steps, i.e., from mountainous to
flat terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of the road shall
be provided with limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where it is
not possible, i.e., a departure from standards, special attention shall be given to the
application of warning signs and/or rumble strips to alert the driver to the changing
conditions.
It is important to note that the design speed of the road is set at a chosen speed to ensure a safe
design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the
application of minimum values for one or a few elements at a particular location when the other
elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.
3.2.7 Levels of service
The level of service of a highway facility may be influenced by many factors, including surface
conditions and ride ability. From the standpoint of design controls, the level of service is
principally related to the ease and convenience with which the highway facility can serve the
expected volumes of traffic.
The Transportation Research Board’s (TRB) Highway Capacity Manual presents a thorough
discussion of the level of service concept. Six levels of service are established, from level A
(the highest) through level F (the lowest). The general characteristics of the various levels of
service are:
 Level of Service A: free-flowing traffic; users virtually unaffected by other traffic, able
to select desired speeds and maneuver unrestricted.
 Level of Service B: reasonably free traffic flow; users are able to select desired speeds,
but with a slight decline in freedom to maneuver.
 Level of Service C: stable flow, but the operation of individual users is significantly
affected by traffic; the ability to select speeds is reduced and maneuvering requires
substantial vigilance by the users.
 Level of Service D: high density approaching unstable flow. Speed and freedom to
maneuver are severely restricted. Small increases in traffic flow will generally cause
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operational problems.
 Level of Service E: operating conditions at or near capacity with unstable flow. All
speeds are at a low and relatively uniform value. Freedom to maneuver is extremely
difficult.
 Level of Service F: forced or breakdown flow. Traffic exceeds capacity, causing queues
with stop-and-go waves, and operations are extremely unstable.
The traffic flow rates that can be served at each level are termed “service flow rates.” Once a
level of service has been identified as applicable for design, the accompanying service volume
logically becomes the design service flow rate, implying that if the traffic volume using the
facility exceeds that amount, operating conditions will fall below the level of service for which
the facility was designed.
3.2.8 Highway Capacity
The term “capacity” is used to express the maximum hourly rate at which people or vehicles
can reasonably be expected to traverse a point, such as a uniform section of a lane or a roadway,
during a given time period under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
As part of the traffic data furnished by the Division of Planning, there will be a recommendation
on the number of lanes to meet the projected traffic demands. However, the designer needs to
be familiar with highway capacity procedures and be aware that as a project is developed, the
original recommendation may need to be reevaluated.
Designers should be aware of several general conditions that may warrant a detailed capacity
analysis:
 Two-lane roadway sections that exceed 1,400 passenger vehicles per hour (total two-
way) should be investigated to see if more lanes or other capacity improvements are
necessary.
 The capacity of a two-lane road is greatly reduced where there is limited opportunity
for passing slower-moving vehicles. In terrain where it is impracticable to provide
adequate passing sight distance, additional lanes or useable shoulder areas may be
required.
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 The capacity of a two-lane road is significantly affected by long, steep grades for slow-
moving trucks. An auxiliary climbing lane may be warranted.
 The lack of shoulders affects vehicle speeds, indirectly leading to a decrease in capacity.
 Intersection signalization and frequency may change capacity, requiring additional

lanes.
 Urban and industrialized areas usually have frequent access points, creating roadside
conflicts. These areas may need to be studied for their effect on highway capacity.
In the event that one or more of these conditions should occur, the designer should work with
the Division of Planning and determine its significance. Increasing capacity is not only costly
but may be in conflict with the approved scope of work and project intent. Any attempt or
request to analyze or justify this type of change should receive approval prior to expending any
effort.
Two other key items to compare throughout the design process, particularly at intersections,
are the design-hour volume (DHV) and the service volume (a selected design level of service).
If the service volume is not equal to or greater than the expected design-hour volume capacity,
problems can be expected and other design alternatives need to be considered.
3.2.9 Pedestrians
Pedestrians are an important part of the roadway environment. Pedestrian needs are more
prevalent and influential on design in urban areas, but their needs in rural areas should also be
recognized. Pedestrian facilities include sidewalks, traffic control features, refuge islands, curb
cuts (depressed curbs and ramped sidewalks), and ramps for older walkers and people with
mobility impairments. Pedestrian facilities are also an important support component for transit
operations.
The typical pedestrian will not walk more than 1.5 km to work or over 1.0 km to catch a bus.
Pedestrian actions are less predictable than those of the motorists. This makes it difficult to
design a facility for safe and orderly movement of pedestrians. Pedestrians tend to walk on a
path that represents the shortest distance between two points. Pedestrians tend to resist changes
in grade or elevation when crossing roadways and tend to avoid using special underpass or
overpass pedestrian facilities.
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A pedestrian’s age has an important role in how they use a facility. If the users are
predominantly older, several measures have been identified for older Drivers and Pedestrians
and guidelines and recommendations to accommodate older drivers and pedestrians. Several
of these design elements are: keeping the design simple, assuming slower walking speeds,
providing adequate median refuge islands at wide intersections, and ensuring the geometric
design is compatible with enhanced traffic control systems.
3.2.10 Bicycle Facilities
Bicycle users are an important element when making decisions defining a project’s design
parameters. Many existing streets and highway systems can accommodate bicyclists without
significantly affecting costs or other impacts. Improvements that will enhance safety and
promote increased bicycle use include: paved shoulders, wider outside traffic lanes, bicycle-
safe drainage grates, adjusting manhole and utility covers, and maintaining a smooth, clean
riding surface.
3.2.11 Economics
Decisions on alignments, grades, widths, slopes and other items can greatly influence the
construction cost. Geometric and structural standards set higher than needed for a particular
type of facility may cause increased expenditures that might be better spent on improving
additional road sections. Use of standards that are too low may be uneconomical by
contributing to the early obsolescence of the facility.
The standards established by the Department reflect the best judgment as to design criteria for
particular conditions. Sometimes the standards are expressed as minimum values, but the
opportunity often exists to use higher than minimum standards without significant additional
costs. Designers should recognize these opportunities. At the same time, they should recognize
that increased costs for higher standards cannot be justified. Designers must continually be cost
conscious within the framework of established criteria, defined scope of work, and project
intent.
3.2.12 Safety
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Safety is a major control in roadway design. Designs should minimize driver decisions and
reduce unexpected situations. Designs should strive for uniformity in features and traffic
control. Driver safety involves a variety of factors, including:
 The number and use (variety and frequency) of access points

 Operating speed
 Type and width of median
 Shoulder width
 Alignment
 Grades
 Roadside design (roadside slopes and unyielding obstacles)
 The uniform and proper application of traffic control devices (signs, markings, and
signals), and
 Properly designed intersections, particularly in rural areas.
Established standards generally consider safety factors. Items such as minimum sight distances
and limitations on minimum curvature for a particular design speed are generally accepted as
minimum fixed values. The safety value of some other items, such as guardrails, shoulder
widths, side slopes, and lateral clearances, is not as clearly defined, and the designer may vary
the treatment to suit the specific needs and provide the maximum possible safety where
necessary.
It is difficult to completely separate safety and economic considerations. Designers should

watch for opportunities to improve safety in the design when little or no additional cost is
involved. At the same time, they should carefully evaluate proposed safety features that may
result in extremely high costs. A well-documented study may be needed to economically justify
the potential safety benefits.
A significant factor contributing to safety is access to the facility. Reducing the number,
frequency, and variety of events to which a driver must respond improves safety. All roadways
need to provide design features and operating characteristics that will reduce conflicts and
minimize interference between vehicles while still meeting the intended needs of the users.
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Speed is often a contributing factor to safety, but its role must be related to the accident site.
The safest speed depends upon design features, road conditions, traffic volumes, weather
conditions, roadside use, spacing of intersecting roads, cross-traffic volumes, and other factors.
Design features that reduce the variance in speed of vehicles (such as flat grades, speed-change
lanes, shoulders, grade separations, and appropriate signing and markings) improve highway
safety.
In addition, it is important to recognize the type and characteristics of the drivers expected to
use the facility. Trip purpose directly relates to the mix of vehicles likely to use the roadway.
Where trips are of one predominant type, i.e. commuter, recreational, or commercial, the
facility should be designed to meet this specific need.
The use of medians has been found to increase safety in four-lane facilities. Depending upon
the functional classification, funding and project scope, medians vary greatly in width and
treatment.
Even though improvements in alignment, grade, and traveled roadway cross section are
included in the design, the roadside design itself is an important part of a safe design. Drivers
leave the traveled roadway for a variety of reasons. Most of these occurrences leave the driver
without full control of the vehicle. This means that obstacles near the roadway as well as the
physical cross section of the roadside become potential contributors to safety.
3.2.13 Environment
Each project receives a level of evaluation as to its impact on environmental issues as

established by state and national goals as well as its effect on community and area values.
Projects on the new alignment receive the most intense and detailed evaluation.
As a part of the evaluation at the initial planning and funding stages, projects are classified
according to their probable impact on the environment and the level of expected impact on any
affected communities and the project area. These two elements determine the type of
environmental studies and public involvement to be conducted on a project. Projects reaching
the design phase have been through some level of environmental studies, with many of the
important design issues identified. However, it should be recognized that as project designs are
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developed, scoping meetings are held, and public involvement continues, other important
issues will very likely arise.
3.3 Highway Cross Section Elements
A cross section will normally consist of carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage features, and
earthwork profiles.
 Carriageway – the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes,
passing lanes, and bus bays.
 Roadway – consists of a carriageway, shoulders, parking lanes, and viewing areas.
 Earthwork profiles – include side slopes and back slopes.
Figure 3.6: Typical Cross Section for Two-Lane Highways
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Figure 3.7: Typical Cross Section for Multilane Highways (half section)
For urban cross sections, cross section elements may include facilities for pedestrians, cyclists,
or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. For dual
carriageways, cross sections will also include medians.
Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to traffic requirements and the characteristics of
the terrain. The cross section may vary over a particular route because these controlling factors
vary. The basic requirements are, however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be
uniform within each sub-section of the route and that any change in cross section shall be
effected gradually and locally over the transition length. Abrupt or isolated changes in cross-
section standards lead to increased hazards, reduced traffic capacity, and complicated
construction and operation.
In certain cases, however, it may be necessary to accept an isolated reduction in cross section
standards, for example, when an existing narrow structure has to be retained because it is not
economically feasible to replace it. In such cases, the proper application of traffic signs and
road markings is required to warn drivers of the discontinuity in the road.
Lane width
The width of the carriageway is a feature of the highway, having great influence and comfort.
Lane widths typically range from 2.7 m to 3.7 m. As the width of the lane decreases, the
accident rate for large trucks tends to increase, particularly on two-way rural roads. Also, a
decrease in lane width results in a decrease in the speed of travel and capacity of the road.
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Factors that influence the width of a carriageway are:
 The design vehicle, i.e., the greater the traffic volume, the wider the carriageway and,
normally, the greater the number of lanes.
 Vehicle dimensions, i.e., heavy commercial vehicles, require wider carriageways to
ensure adequate clearance when passing each other.
 The design speeds, i.e., vehicles traveling at high speeds, especially commercial
vehicles, require wider carriageways to ensure safe clearance between passing vehicles.
 The road classification, i.e., the higher the road classification, the greater the level of
service and the wider the carriageway width is expected.
Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the accommodation
of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and
pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement
courses. They vary from having no shoulder on minor rural roads where there is no surfacing,
to having a 1.5-3.0m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads, depending on the terrain
and design classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for a parking lane in urban
and peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist.
Where the carriageway is paved, the shoulder should also be sealed with a single bituminous
surface treatment. This has several advantages. It would prevent edge raveling and maintenance
problems associated with parking on a gravel shoulder. It would provide paved space for
vehicular parking outside of the traffic flow. It would provide a better surface for vehicles
experiencing emergency repairs. It would also provide for the very heavy pedestrian traffic
observed in the villages, traffic that would otherwise, especially during inclement weather, use
the roadway. All of the above also indicate an improvement in terms of roadway safety. The
sealed shoulder width may increase to 3.5 meters in urban/peri-urban areas where a provision
for a parking lane is required. The degree of urbanization determines whether a parking lane is
required. In urban areas, the shoulders should be paved rather than sealed.
The surfaced, clear portion of the roadway cross section immediately adjacent to the
carriageway edge is referred to as a shoulder. They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads
where there is no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0 meter or greater shoulder on major roads, depending
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on the terrain and design classification. Wider configurations cater to the need for parking lanes
in urban and peri-urban areas where paved carriageways exist.
When a vehicle stops on the shoulder, it is desirable for it to be at least 1 ft and preferably 2 ft
from the edge of the pavement. Based on this consideration, usable shoulder widths should be
at least 10 ft on highways having a large number of trucks and on highways with heavy traffic
volumes and high speeds. However, it may not always be feasible to provide this minimum
width, particularly when the terrain is difficult or when traffic volume is low. A minimum
shoulder width of 2 ft may therefore be used on the lowest type of highway, but 6 to 8 ft widths
should preferably be used. When pedestrians and bicyclists are permitted, the minimum
shoulder width Figure 3.6 Typical Cross Section for Multilane Highways (half section) should
be 4 ft. The width of usable shoulders within the median for divided arterials having two lanes
in each direction may be reduced to 3 ft, since drivers rarely use the median shoulder for
stopping on these roads. The usable median shoulder width for divided arterials with three or
more lanes in each direction should be at least 8 ft, since drivers in the lane next to the median
often find it difficult to maneuver to the outside shoulder when there is a need to stop.
All shoulders should be flush with the edge of the traveled lane and sloped to facilitate drainage
of surface water on the traveled lanes. Recommended slopes are 2 to 6 percent for bituminous
and concrete-surfaced shoulders, and 4 to 6 percent for gravel or crushed-rock shoulders.
Rumble strips may be used on paved shoulders along arterials as a safety measure to warn
motorists that they are leaving the traffic lane.
Shoulders serve a number of purposes - for example,
 Space is provided away from the traveled roadway for vehicles to stop because of
mechanical difficulties, flat tires, or other emergencies.
 Space is provided for motorists to stop occasionally to consult road maps or for other
reasons.
 Space is provided for evasive maneuvers to avoid potential crashes or reduce their
severity.
 The sense of openness created by shoulders of adequate width contributes to driving
ease and reduced stress.
 Sight distance is improved in cut sections, thereby potentially improving safety. · Some
types of shoulders enhance highway aesthetics.
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 Highway capacity is improved because uniform speed is encouraged.
 Space is provided for maintenance operations such as snow removal and storage.
 Lateral clearance is provided for signs and guardrails.
 Storm water can be discharged farther from the traveled roadway, and seepage adjacent
to the traveled roadway can be minimized. This may directly reduce pavement breakup.
 Structural support is given to the pavement.
 Space is provided for pedestrian and bicycle use; for bus stops, for occasional
encroachment of vehicles, for mail delivery vehicles; and for the detouring of traffic
during construction.
Median
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing directions.
The width of a median is the distance between the edges of the inside lanes, including the
median shoulders. The functions of a median include:
 Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles.
 Separating opposing traffic.
 Providing stopping areas during emergencies.
 Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-turning vehicles.
 Providing refuge for pedestrians.
 Reducing the effect of headlight glare.
 Providing temporary lanes and cross-overs during maintenance operations.
Medians can either be raised, flushed, or depressed. Raised medians are frequently used in
urban arterial streets because they facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at intersections by
using part of the median width for left-turn-only lanes. Some disadvantages associated with
raised medians include possible loss of control of the vehicle by the driver if the median is
accidentally struck, and they cast a shadow on oncoming headlights, which results in drivers
finding it difficult to see the curb.
Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be used on freeways, but
with a median barrier. To facilitate drainage of surface water, the flush median should be
crowned. The practice in urban areas of converting flush medians into two-way left-turn lanes
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is common, since the capacity of the urban highway is increased while maintaining some
features of a median.
Depressed medians are generally used on freeways and are more effective at draining surface
water. A side slope of 6:1 is suggested for depressed medians, although a slope of 4:1 may be
adequate.
Median widths vary from a minimum of 4 to 80 ft. or more. Median widths should be as wide
as possible but should be balanced with other elements of the cross section and the cost
involved. In general, the wider the median, the more effective it is in providing safe operating
conditions and a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. A minimum width of 10 ft. is
recommended for use on four-lane urban freeways, which is adequate for two 4-ft shoulders
and a 2-ft median barrier. A minimum of 22 ft., preferably 26 ft., is recommended for six or
more lanes of freeway. Median widths for urban collector streets vary from 2 to 40 ft.,
depending on the median treatment. For example, when the median is a paint-striped separation,
2 to 4 ft medians are required. For narrow raised or curbed areas, 2 to 6 ft medians are required,
and for curbed sections, 16 to 40 ft. The larger width is necessary for curbed sections because
it provides space for protecting vehicles crossing an intersection and can also be used for
landscape treatment.
Roadside Barriers
A roadside barrier is a longitudinal system used to shield motorists from obstacles or slopes
located along either side of a roadway. It may occasionally be used to protect pedestrians,
bystanders, and cyclists from vehicular traffic. Elements which may warrant shielding by a
roadside barrier include embankment obstacles, roadside obstacles, and sensitive areas such as
playgrounds.
Recent studies indicate that rounding at the shoulder and at the toe of an embankment slope
can reduce its crash severity potential. Rounded slopes reduce the chances that an errant vehicle
will become airborne, thereby reducing the potential consequences of an encroachment and
affording the driver more vehicle control.
The height and slope of an embankment are the key factors in determining barrier need through
a fill section. The designer should refer to current warrants and criteria for determination of
barrier needs.
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A clear, unobstructed, flat roadside is desirable. When these conditions do not exist, criteria to
determine the need for a barrier should be consulted. Roadside obstacles include non-
traversable areas and fixed objects. If it is not practical to remove, modify, or relocate an
obstacle, then a barrier may be needed. The purpose of a barrier is to enhance safety. Therefore,
a barrier should be installed only if it is clear that the barrier will have lower crash severity
potential than the roadside obstacle.
Short lengths of roadside barriers are discouraged. Where a barrier is needed in two or more
closely spaced locations, a continuous barrier should be provided.
Barriers should be located beyond the edge of the shoulder to ensure that the full shoulder width
may be used. The fill supporting the barrier should be sufficiently wide to provide lateral
support. At bridge locations, roadside barriers should be aligned with the bridge rail and
properly secured to the bridge to minimize the possibility of a vehicle striking the barrier and
snagging or colliding with a bridge rail or curb. Proper treatment of the exposed end of the
barrier is also important. An untreated or square approach to the end of a barrier presents a
formidable roadside obstacle. To provide safe barriers, ends may be buried, covered with a
mound of earth, flared back, or protected with a crash cushion or an approved crash tested
terminal. Buried barrier ends should be designed to minimize the ramping of impacting
vehicles.
The need for a barrier in rock cuts and near large boulders is a matter of judgment by the
highway designer and depends on the potential severity of a crash and the lateral clearance
available.
Median Barriers
A median barrier is a longitudinal system used to minimize the possibility of an errant vehicle
crossing into the path of traffic traveling in opposite directions. When traffic volumes are low,
the probability of a vehicle crossing a median and colliding with a vehicle in the opposing
direction is relatively low. Likewise, for relatively wide medians, the probability of a vehicle
crossing the median and colliding with a vehicle on the opposing roadway is also relatively
low. In these instances, median barriers are generally recommended only when there has been
a history of cross-median collisions or, for new roadways, where an incidence of high crash
rates of this type would be expected. Although cross-median collisions may be reduced by
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median barriers, total crash frequency will generally increase because the space available for
return-to the-road maneuvers is decreased.
Special consideration should be given to barrier needs for medians separating traveled
roadways at different elevations. The ability of an errant driver leaving the higher elevated
roadway to return to the road or to stop diminishes as the difference in elevations increases.
Thus, the potential for cross-median head-on collisions increases.
An important safety consideration in the design of median barriers is shielding motorists from
the exposed end of the barrier. As discussed previously, exposed ends may be buried, covered
with a mound of earth, flared back, or protected with a terminal end or a crash cushion.
For all divided highways, regardless of median width and traffic volume, the median roadside
should also be examined for other factors, such as obstacles and lateral drop-offs, as discussed
earlier.
Careful consideration should be given to the installation of median barriers on multilane

expressways or other highways with partial control of access. Even medians that are narrow
permit inadvertent encroachments with a chance for motorist recovery and can also include
geometric features to accommodate crossing or left-turn traffic. With the addition of a barrier,
the barrier ends at median openings, which present formidable obstacles. Crash cushions,
although needing maintenance and imposing a high initial cost, may be needed to shield an
errant motorist from barrier ends. Consequently, an evaluation of the number of median
openings, crash history, alignment, sight distance, design speed, traffic volume, and median
width should be conducted prior to the installation of median barriers on non-freeway facilities.
Barriers should also be considered on outer separations of 15 m [50 ft] or less where the
frontage roads carry two-way traffic.
Common types of median barriers include double-faced steel W-beam (blocked-out) installed
on strong posts, box beams installed on weak posts, and concrete barriers. The less common
types of median barrier include two-or three-cable barriers installed on light steel posts, double-
faced steel W-beams installed on weak posts, double-faced steel three-beams (blocked-out)
installed on strong posts; and a cable-chainlink fence combination.
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Precast concrete median barriers can be used for temporary protection of work areas and for
guiding traffic during construction. It can also be incorporated permanently as part of the
completed facility.
Curbs and gutters
Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete
(rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and
pedestrian walkways.
The type and location of curbs affect driver behavior and, in turn, the safety and utility of a
highway. Curbs serve any or all of the following purposes: drainage control, roadway edge
delineation, right-of-way reduction, aesthetics, delineation of pedestrian walkways, reduction
of maintenance operations, and assistance in orderly roadside development. A curb, by
definition, incorporates some raised or vertical element.
Curbs are used extensively on all types of low-speed urban highways. In the interest of safety,
caution should be exercised in the use of curbs on high-speed rural highways. Where curbs are
needed along high-speed rural highways due to drainage considerations, the need for access
control, restricted right-of-way, or other reasons, they should always be located at the outside
edge of the shoulder.
While cement concrete curbs are installed by some highway agencies, granite curbs are used
where the local supply makes them economically competitive. Because of its durability, granite
is preferred over concrete, especially where deicing chemicals are used for snow and ice
removal.
Conventional concrete or bituminous curbs offer little visible contrast to normal pavements,
particularly during fog or at night when surfaces are wet. The visibility of channelizing islands
with curbs and of continuous curbs along the edges of the traveled roadway may be improved
through the use of reflectorized markers that are attached to the top of the curb.
In another form of high-visibility treatment, reflectorized paints or other reflectorized surfaces,

such as applied thermoplastic, can make curbs more conspicuous. However, to be kept fully
effective, reflectorized curbs need periodic cleaning or repainting, which usually involves
substantial maintenance costs.
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The main functions are:
(1) To facilitate and control drainage.

(2) To strengthen and to protect the pavement edge.
(3) To reduce right of way.
(4) To give a good appearance.
Guard Rails
Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete
(rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and
pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce
rights of way. Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping. Vertical curbs
(which may be vertical or nearly vertical) range in height from 6 to 8 inches with steep sides
and are designed to prevent vehicles from leaving the highway. Sloping curbs are designed so
that vehicles can cross them if necessary. Both vertical and sloping curbs may be designed
separately or as integral parts of the pavement. In general, vertical curbs should not be used in
conjunction with traffic barriers, such as bridge railings or median and roadside barriers,
because they could contribute to vehicles rolling over the traffic barriers. Vertical curbs should
also be avoided on highways with design speeds greater than 40 mi/h, because at such speeds
it is usually difficult for drivers to retain control of the vehicle after an impact with the curb.
Gutters, or drainage ditches, are usually located on the pavement side of a curb to provide the
principal drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any hazards to traffic,
and they usually have cross slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6 ft. wide. Gutters can be
designed as V-type sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections.
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with
high fills. Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway.
Normal cross-fall
Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage
whilst not being so great as to make steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water
varies with its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of
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cross fall should be related to the need to carry surface water from the pavement structure
effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of material starts to become a problem.
Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are sloped
from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or cross slope
with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane, or a combination of the two. A parabola
is generally used for curved cross sections, and the highest point of the pavement (called the
crown) is slightly rounded, with the cross slope increasing toward the pavement edge. Plane
cross slopes consist of uniform slopes on both sides of the crown. The curved cross section has
one advantage, which is that the slope increases outward to the pavement edge, thereby
enhancing the flow of surface water away from the pavement. A disadvantage is that they are
difficult to construct.
The normal cross-fall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads.
Shoulders having the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal cross-fall.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 percent steeper than the cross-fall of the
roadway. The precise choice of normal cross-fall on unpaved roads will vary with construction
type and material rather than any geometric design requirement. In most circumstances, cross-
falls of 4 percent should be used, although the value will change throughout the maintenance
cycle.
Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas.
Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning
process to determine the sections of the road.
Where they are required, For example, rural principal arterials may require sidewalks in areas
with high pedestrian concentrations, such as adjacent to schools, industrial plants, and local
businesses. Generally, sidewalks should be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main
or high-speed roads in either rural or urban areas. When shoulders are not provided on arterials,
sidewalks are necessary even when pedestrian traffic is low. In urban areas, sidewalks should
also be provided along both sides of collector streets that serve as pedestrian access to schools,
parks, shopping centers, and transit stops, as well as along collector streets in commercial areas.
Sidewalks should have a minimum clear width of 4 ft. in residential areas and a range of 4 to
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8 ft. in commercial areas. To encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks, they should have all-
weather surfaces since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes rather than unpaved sidewalks.
Design details of sidewalk and wheelchair curb ramps will vary in relation to the following
factors: ·
 Sidewalk width
 Sidewalk location with respect to the back face of the curb
 Height and width of curb cross-section
 Design turning radius and length of curve along the curb face
 Angle of street intersections
 Planned or existing location of sign and signal control devices
 Storm water inlets and public service utilities
 Potential sight obstructions
 Street width
 Border width
 Roadway grade in combination with the grades of the sidewalk, curb, ramps, and gutter.
Side Slopes and Back Slopes
Side slopes should be designed to ensure the stability of the roadway and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for the recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations, height of
cut or fill, and economic considerations.
Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the
slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with
level ground or with a back slope, forming a ditch).
Research has found that rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the potential
hazard. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
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Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They
also serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. When
being considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope are the hinge
point, the fore slope, and the toe of the slope, as shown in Figure 3.8. The hinge point should
be rounded since it is potentially hazardous and may cause vehicles to become airborne while
crossing it, resulting in loss of control of the vehicle. The front slope serves principally as a
recovery area, where vehicle speeds can be reduced and other recovery maneuvers taken to
regain control of the vehicle. The gradient of the front slope should therefore not be high.
Slopes of 3:1 (horizontal: vertical) or flatter are generally used for high embankments. This can
be increased based on conditions at the site. As illustrated in Figure 3.8, the toe of the slope is
rounded up in order to facilitate the safe movement of vehicles from the front slope to the back
slope.
Figure 3.8: Designation of Roadside Regions (Source: AASHTO Manual)
Bridge Railings
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Bridge railings prevent vehicles, pedestrians, or cyclists from falling off the structure. Highway
Bridges specify geometric, design load, and maximum allowable material stress requirements
for the design of traffic railings for pedestrians, bicycles, and combination types. Bridge
railings are longitudinal traffic barriers that differ from other traffic barriers primarily in their
foundations. These railings are a structural extension of a bridge, while other traffic barriers
are usually set in or on soil.
The need for a traffic barrier rarely ends at the end of a bridge. Therefore, the bridge railing
should be extended with a roadside barrier, which in turn should have a crash-worthy terminal.
At the juncture between a bridge railing and a roadside barrier, an incompatibility usually exists
in the stiffness of the two barrier types. This stiffness should be carefully transitioned over the
length to prevent the barrier system from pocketing or snagging an impacting vehicle.
Where a roadside barrier is provided between the edge of the traveled roadway and the bridge
railing so that a sidewalk can be included, special attention should be given to the barrier end
treatment. End treatments that are both functional and safe are difficult to design. The end
treatments should safely accommodate vehicles, yet not impede pedestrian usage of the
walkway.
The recommended lateral clearances between the traveled roadway and bridge railings usually
exceed curb offset distances. This may create a problem with a bridge railing where a curbed
cross section is used on a bridge approach and a flush cross section is used on the bridge. Such
problems may result if the length of the bridge and its approaches make the bridge resemble a
controlled-access facility where traffic will operate at speeds in excess of 80 km/h, even though
the approach speeds are less than 80 km/h. Such high speeds may render curb usage acceptable
away from but not on the bridge. In such cases, it may be reasonable to drop the curb at the
first intersection away from the end of the bridge. Another option is to reduce the curb to a low,
sloping curb with a gently sloped traffic face, well in advance of the introduction of the traffic
barrier. This would be reasonably compatible with the traffic barrier even if it continued into
the high-speed region of the bridge.
Clear Zone
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The term “clear zone” is used to designate the unobstructed, relatively flat area provided
beyond the edge of the traveled roadway for the recovery of errant vehicles. The clear zone
includes any shoulders or auxiliary lanes.
Once a vehicle has left the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an encroachment
depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside environment. Flat, traversable, stable
slopes will minimize overturning accidents, which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside
furniture or its relocation to less vulnerable areas is an option in the development of safer
roadsides. If a fixed object or other roadside hazard cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified,
or shielded, for whatever reason, consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it
is readily visible to a motorist.
Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less in dangerous areas is an option in the
development of safer roadsides. For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered
roadside recovery area that is as wide as practical on a specific highway section.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to have a good clear zone road for the recovery area. That is
as wide as practical on the specific highway section. Horizontal clearance for road signs,
marker posts, etc. should be a minimum of 1.0m from the edge of the carriageway.
Drainage Channels
Drainage channels perform the vital function of collecting and conveying surface water from
the highway right-of-way. Drainage channels, therefore, should have adequate capacity for the
design runoff, provide for unusual storm water with minimum damage to the highway, and be
located and shaped to provide a safe transition from the roadway to the back-slope. Channels
should be protected from erosion with the least expensive protective lining that will withstand
the expected flow velocities. Channels should be kept clean and free of material that would
lower the channel’s capacity. Channel deterioration can reduce the capacity of the channel,
which may result in overflow, often with erosion or deposition in the area adjacent to the
channel.
Where the construction of a highway would have an adverse effect on drainage conditions
downstream, drainage channels can be an effective means of flood storage within the highway
right-of-way.
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Drainage channels include
(1) Roadside channels in cut sections to remove water from the highway cross section,
(2) toe-of-slope channels to convey the water from any cut section and from adjacent slopes to
the natural watercourse,
(3) Intercepting channels placed behind the top of cut slopes to intercept surface water, and (4)
flumes to carry collected water down steep cut or fill slopes.
The primary purpose of the construction of roadside channels is to control surface drainage.
The most economical method of constructing a roadside channel usually entails the formation
of open-channel ditches by cutting into the natural roadside terrain to produce a drainage
channel. From the standpoint of hydraulic efficiency, the most desirable channel has steep sides.
However, limitations on slope stability usually require somewhat flatter slopes. Construction
and maintenance factors also impose restrictions on the degree of slope steepness that is
practical alongside a highway. The offsetting factor of right-of-way costs should also be
considered when selecting combinations of slopes to be used.
Right-of-way
Right-of-ways, or road reserves, are provided to accommodate road width and to enhance the
safety, operation, and appearance of the roads. The width of the right-of-way depends on the
cross section elements of the highway, topography, and other physical controls, together with
economic considerations. Although it is desirable to acquire sufficient right-of-way to
accommodate all elements of the cross section and appropriate border areas, right-of-way
widths should be limited to a practical minimum in both rural and developed areas to affect the
economy of the inhabitants.
The right of way will be equidistant from the centerline of the road to the left and to the right
of the carriageway. It should always be determined and shown in the final design plans of road
projects.
Reduced widths should be adopted only when they are found necessary for economic, financial,
or environmental reasons to preserve valuable land, resources, or existing development or when
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the provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs because of physical
constraints.
3.4 Geometric Design Elements
The alignment of a highway or street has a great impact on the environment, the fabric of the
community, and the highway user. The alignment is comprised of a variety of elements joined
together to create a facility that serves the traffic in a safe and efficient manner, consistent with
the facility’s intended function. Each alignment element should complement others to produce
a consistent, safe, and efficient design.
The design of highways and streets within particular functional classes is treated separately in
later chapters. Common to all classes of highways and streets are several principal elements of
design. These include sight distance, super-elevation, traveled roadway widening, grades,
horizontal and vertical alignments, and other elements of geometric design.
3.4.1 Sight Distance
A driver’s ability to see ahead is of the utmost importance in the safe and efficient operation of
a vehicle on a highway. Simply put, sight distance is the distance visible to the driver of a
passenger car. For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient
length so that drivers can control the operation of their vehicles. They must be able to avoid
striking an unexpected object on the way. Two-lane highways should also have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for passing maneuvers without
the risk of an accident.
The three aspects of sight distance to be considered are:
(1) The sight distances needed for stopping, which are applicable on all highways
(2) The sight distance needed for the passing of overtaken vehicles is applicable only on
two-lane highways.
(3) The criteria for measuring these sight distances for use in the design are
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Factors affecting sight distance
The most important factor for highway designers is to provide a desirable minimum stopping
sight distance along the highway at the design stage. Other factors such as driver response time,
vehicle response time, operating speed, and type of obstruction also play a very important role.
 Driver response time
Driver response time is the time taken by the driver from the moment he sees the object to the
point where the brakes are applied. The total response time can be divided into four parts
according to PIEV theory. In practice, all of these times are often combined into a complete
visual-response time that suits design purposes and simple scale.
Most studies show that drivers need about 1.5 to 2 seconds under normal circumstances.
However, in view of the variable site conditions and adding a factor of safety, a higher value
is normally recommended, which is 2.5 seconds.
 The speed of the vehicle
The speed of the vehicle greatly affects the distance of sight. If the driver increases the speed
of the vehicle, then the driver would need more time to react and act to stop or slow down the
vehicle. Therefore, it is important to note that as the speed of the vehicle increases, the sight
distance requirement also increases.
 Effective brakes
The effectiveness of the brakes depends on the age of the vehicle, the features of the vehicle,
its maintenance regime, etc. If the brake effectiveness is 100%, then the vehicle will stop as
soon as the brakes are applied. But in reality, it is not always possible to attain 100% brake
efficacy. For a safe geometric design, it is recommended to assume that the vehicle works with
50% brake efficiency.
 Friction between the road and vehicle tires
The friction between the road and the vehicle tire plays a very important role in decelerating
the vehicle. The high Friction Surface of the road or high PSV (Polished Stone Value) road
surface layer assists vehicles to slow down by skidding.
 Road gradient
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The steep road gradient amplifies the vehicle speed. Therefore, it is very important to consider
road gradients as an important factor for sight distance. For example, if the road is passing a
sharp curve and the gradient is also steep, it would be important to provide very
clear visibility along the bend, otherwise, it would create a blind spot for the accident.
3.4.1.1 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling
at the designed speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Although greater
lengths of visible roadway are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway
should be at least that needed for a below-average driver or vehicle to stop.
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:
(1) The distance traveled by the vehicle from the time the driver notices an object that
requires a stop to the time the brakes are applied; and
(2) The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant the brake application begins.
Factors affecting stopping sight distance
 Speed of vehicle
 The efficiency of the brake
 The total reaction time of the driver by the PIEV method
 The longitudinal slope of the road
 Frictional resistance
These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.
Brake Reaction Time
Brake reaction time is the interval from the instant that the driver recognizes the existence of
an obstacle on the roadway ahead that necessitates braking to the instant that the driver actually
applies the brakes. Under certain conditions, such as emergency situations denoted by flares or
flashing lights, drivers accomplish these tasks almost instantly. Under most other conditions,
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the driver must not only see the object but must also recognize it as a stationary or slowly
moving object against the background of the roadway and other objects, such as walls, fences,
trees, poles, or bridges. Such determinations take time, and the amount of time needed varies
considerably with the distance to the object, the visual acuity of the driver, the natural rapidity
with which the driver reacts, the atmospheric visibility, the type and condition of the roadway,
and the nature of the obstacle. Vehicle speed and the roadway environment probably also
influence reaction time. Normally, a driver traveling at or near the design speed is more alert
than one traveling at a lower speed. A driver on an urban street confronted by innumerable
potential conflicts with parked vehicles, driveways, and cross streets is also likely to be more
alert than the same driver in a limited-access facility where such conditions should be almost
nonexistent.
A brake reaction time of 2.5 s is considered adequate for conditions that are more complex than
the simple conditions used in laboratory and road tests, but it is not adequate for the most
complex conditions encountered in actual driving. The need for greater reaction time in the
most complex conditions encountered on the roadway, such as those found at multiphase at-
grade intersections and at ramp terminals on through roadways,
Dr = 0.2782 Vt
Where
Dr = reaction distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time
V = initial speed (km/h)
Braking Distance
The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the design speed
of the roadway may be determined from the following equation:
𝑉2
Db =
254(f ± g)
Where
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Db = braking distance
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
g=the gradient of the road (+ for uphill and – for downhill)
Design Values
The minimum stopping sight distance is determined by the following formula, which takes into
account both the driver's reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The
formula is:
𝑉2
SSD = 0.2782 Vt +
254(f ± g)
Where
SSD = Stopping sight distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway
g=the gradient of the road (+ for uphill and – for downhill)
Table 3.2: Stopping sight distance on level roadways
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Design Speed Reaction Distance Braking Calculated SSD Design SSD
(km/h) (m) Distance (m) (m) (m)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20
30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
3.4.1.2 Passing sight distance
Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on which vehicles frequently
overtake slower moving vehicles. Passing maneuvers in which faster vehicles move ahead of
slower vehicles must be accomplished in lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If passing is
to be accomplished safely, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead,
clear of traffic, to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle before
meeting an opposing vehicle that appears during the maneuver. When appropriate, the driver
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can return to the right lane without completing the pass if he or she sees that opposing traffic
is too close when the maneuver is only partially completed. Many passing maneuvers are
accomplished without the driver being able to see any potentially conflicting vehicle at the
beginning of the maneuver, but design should not be based on such maneuvers. Because many
cautious drivers would not attempt to pass under such conditions, design on this basis would
reduce the usefulness of the highway.
Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of the length needed
to complete normal passing maneuvers in which the passing driver can determine that there are
no potentially conflicting vehicles ahead before beginning the maneuver. While there may be
occasions to consider multiple passing’s, where two or more vehicles pass or have passed, it is
not practical to assume such conditions in developing minimum design criteria. Instead, sight
distance should be determined by a single vehicle passing a single vehicle. Longer sight
distances occur in design, and such locations can accommodate occasional multiple passing.
Minimum passing sight distances for the design of two-lane highways incorporate certain
assumptions about driver behavior. Actual driver behavior in passing maneuvers varies widely.
To accommodate these variations in driver behavior, the design criteria for passing sight
distance should accommodate the behavior of a high percentage of drivers, rather than just the
average driver.
The following assumptions are made concerning driver behavior in passing maneuvers:
1) The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.
2) The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken vehicle as it enters a
passing section.
3) When the passing section is reached, the passing driver needs a short period of time to
perceive the clear passing section and to react to starting his or her maneuver.
4) Passing is accomplished with what may be termed a delayed start and a hurried return
in the face of opposing traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver,
and its average speed during the occupancy of the left lane is 15 km/h higher than that
of the overtaken vehicle.
5) When the passing vehicle returns to its lane, there is a suitable clearance length between
it and an oncoming vehicle in the other lane.
110
Some drivers accelerate at the beginning of a passing maneuver to an appreciably higher speed
and then continue at a uniform speed until the maneuver is completed. Many drivers accelerate
at a fairly high rate until just beyond the vehicle being passed and then complete the maneuver
either without further acceleration or at a reduced speed. For simplicity, such extraordinary
maneuvers are ignored and passing distances are developed with the use of observed speeds
and times that fit the practices of a high percentage of drivers.
The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction.
d2 = distance during which a passing vehicle is in the opposing lane.
d3 = clearance distance between the passing and opposing vehicles at the end of the maneuver.
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle.
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:
d1 (initial maneuver distance, including time for perception and reaction)
The perception-reaction-acceleration distance isn't hard to understand or to justify. The only

aspect of this distance that might be confusing is the simultaneous nature of perception and
acceleration. Some drivers will begin accelerating before they enter the passing section and
will continue to accelerate while they scan the opposing lane for traffic. These drivers tend to
accelerate at a reduced rate. Other drivers will avoid accelerating until they have determined
that the opposing lane is clear, but they will accelerate at a higher rate once they have decided
to pass. The net effect is that the perception-reaction-acceleration distance is identical for both
types of drivers. The distance d1 and the corresponding time t1 were measured for several
different passing vehicle speeds. More recent research has confirmed that the accepted values
are conservative.
a𝑡1
𝑑1 = 0.2782 𝑡1 (V − m + )
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
111
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of the passed vehicle and the passing vehicle; km/h
d2 (distance during which a passing vehicle is in the opposing lane )
The distance traveled during the occupancy of the left lane is also easy to understand. Since the
speed of the passing vehicle was assumed to be 10 mph faster than the overtaken vehicle, all
we need to know to calculate the distance d2 is the time that the passing vehicle occupies the
left lane. Values for this time interval were measured for several different passing vehicle
speeds. These measured values were then used to develop design values for d2.
𝑑2 = 0.2782 𝑡2
Where
t2 = time passing, a vehicle occupies the left lane. Sec
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 (clearance distance between the passing and opposing vehicles at the end of the
maneuver)
The clearance distance might not seem necessary at first, but for now, let’s take it on faith that
an opposing vehicle is necessary. If this is the case, a maneuver that feels safe will require a
certain length of roadway to be present between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle
when the passing vehicle returns to the relative safety of the right lane. The clearance distance
that drivers require depends on their personality. A timid driver might require several hundred
feet of clearance, while a more aggressive driver might consider exchanging side mirrors a
perfectly acceptable practice.
d3 = safe clearance distance between opposing and passing vehicles at the end of the maneuver
was found in the passing study to vary from 30–70 m depending on the speed of the vehicle.
d4 (distance traversed by the opposing vehicle)
The opposing vehicle encroachment distance is the distance that seems to be the most troubling
for students. Let us picture a passing section that is terminated by a sharp reduction in grade,
112
which prevents the passing driver from seeing any vehicles beyond the end of the passing
section. Let us also assume that the length of the passing section is equal to the sum of the
distances d1 and d2. Our passing vehicle driver could pass the slower vehicle before leaving the
passing section, but she might be flirting with the destination in doing so. Her principal problem
is that she can't see if there are any opposing vehicles beyond the passing section that might
conflict with her during the maneuver.
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the
portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated as:
2 𝑑1
𝑑4 =
3
The minimum passing sight distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1+ d2 + d3 + d4
Figure 3.9: Passing Sight Distance (Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority,

Geometric Design Manual)
Table 3.3: Minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) values for the design of
two-lane highways
Design Speed Assumed Speeds (km/h) Minimum Passing
(km/h) Sight Distance (m)

Overtaken Vehicle Passing Vehicle
113
30 11 30 120
40 21 40 140
50 31 50 160
60 41 60 180
70 51 70 210
80 61 80 245
90 71 90 280
100 81 100 320
110 91 110 355
120 101 120 395
130 111 130 440
3.4.1.3 Sight Distance Measuring Criteria
Sight distance is the distance along the roadway throughout which an object of a specified
height is continuously visible to the driver. This distance is dependent on the height of the
driver’s eye above the road surface, the specified object height above the road surface, and the
height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the driver’s line of sight.
Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments should be made to meet the
minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the determination of sight
lines:
 Driver's eye height: 1.07 m for passenger cars and 2.4 m for trucks
 Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 m
 Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 m
114
The following Figure shows the stopping and passing of sight distance required on a vertical
crest curve.
Figure 3.10: Stopping and passing sight distance required in a vertical crest
curve. (Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric Design Manual)
On the inside of horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove buildings, trees, or other
sight obstructions or widen cuts on the inside of curves to obtain the required sight distance
(see the following figure).
Figure 3.11: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves (Source: Ethiopian

Roads Authority, Geometric Design Manual)
115
3.4.2 Horizontal Alignment
For balance in highway design, all geometric elements should, as far as economically
practicable, be designed to provide safe, continuous operation at a speed likely to be observed
under the normal conditions for that roadway for a vast majority of motorists. For the most part,
this can be achieved through the use of design speeds as an overall design control. The design
of roadway curves should be based on an appropriate relationship between design speeds and
curvature and their relationship with super elevation (roadway banking) and side friction.
The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the tangent, or straight section, the circular
curve, the transition curve (spiral) and the super elevation section.
Super-elevation
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it undergoes a centripetal acceleration that acts
towards the center of the curvature. This acceleration is sustained by a component of the
vehicle’s weight related to the roadway super elevation, by the side friction developed between
the vehicle’s tires and the pavement surface, or by a combination of the two.
As a vehicle traverses a circular curve, it is subjected to forces associated with the circular path.
According to the principle of inertia, in the absence of forces, a moving body will travel in a
straight line. A force must be applied to the change in direction. For a circular change in
direction, the force is called centripetal force, and in design, this is provided by side friction
developed between the tires and the pavement, and by super-elevation.
A super-elevation is a cross-fall that is provided on the pavement on a horizontal curve to assist

a vehicle to maintain a circular path.
116
Figure 3.12: Forces acting on a vehicle moving along a curved path.
Super-elevation Development Length
A super-elevation is developed by rotating the roadway cross-section about some axis, most
commonly the horizontal centerline.
Super-elevation development length is defined as the length required to rotate the pavement
from the point of normal cross-fall on the approach tangent (straight) to the point where the
full super-elevation for the curve is attained. In turn, this super-elevation development length
has two components:
 Super-elevation runoff length – this is the length from the point where the pavement
has been rotated to zero cross-fall to the point where the full curve super-elevation has
been attained.
 Tangent run-out: - this is the residual length from the point of normal cross-fall to the
point of zero cross-fall (this component lies on the approach tangent).
Super-elevation Runoff
117
In alignment design with spirals, the super-elevation runoff is affected over the whole of the
transition curve. The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to a spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to a curve (SC) at the end. The change in cross slope begins by
removing the adverse cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a length
of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent run-out). The traveling way is rotated between the TS
and the SC (the super-elevation runoff) to reach the full super-elevation at the SC.
This procedure is reversed on leaving the curve. By this design, the whole of the circular curve
has full super-elevation, as shown in the following.
Figure 3.13: Spiral Curve Transition (Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority,

Geometric Design Manual)
In the design of curves without spirals, the super-elevation runoff is considered to be that length
beyond the tangent run-out. Empirical methods are employed to locate the super-elevation
runoff length concerning the point of curvature (PC).
Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent
approach and one-third on the curve, as shown in the figure below.
118
Figure 3.14: Circular Curve Transition (Source: Ethiopian Roads
Authority, Geometric Design Manual)
3.4.2.1 Horizontal Curve
Horizontal curves are one of the two important transition elements in geometric design for
highways (along with vertical curves). A horizontal curve provides a transition between two
tangent strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than a
sharp cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway,
as well as other factors including drainage and friction. These curves are semicircles so as to
provide the driver with a constant turning rate with radii determined by the laws of physics
surrounding the centripetal force.
3.4.2.1.1 Horizontal Tangents
Horizontal tangents are described in terms of their lengths (as expressed in the stationing of the
job) and their directions. Directions may be expressed as bearings or as azimuths and are always
defined in the direction of increasing station. Azimuths are expressed as angles turned
clockwise from due north; bearings are expressed as angles turned either clockwise or
counterclockwise from either north or south. For instance, the azimuth 280 is equivalent to the
bearing north 80 west (or N80 W).
119
Figure 3.15: Horizontal alignments with and without transition curves.
3.4.2.1.2 Compound Circular Curves
Compound curves are two or more horizontal curves of different radii turning in the same
direction with a common tangent point. When radii of less than 1000 m are evolved, compound
curves may cause operational problems with drivers not perceiving the change in curvature and
drivers not anticipating a change in side friction demand.
Although not conclusive, it is suggested that a smaller radius curve immediately following a
larger radius curve (both turning in the same direction) gives drivers an inadequate perception
of the smaller radius, which leads to vehicle accidents. This is a particular problem where
limited visibility of a smaller radius exists.
Where a compound curve cannot be avoided, there should be no more than two diminishing
radii, and the radius of the smaller curve should be at least two-thirds of the radius of the larger
curve.
120
A change in design speed between two circular elements should not exceed 5 km/hr unless the
second curve on a one-way road is larger than the radius of the first curve. On a one-way road,
a smaller curve preceding a larger curve is acceptable.
3.4.2.1.3 Broken back curves
Broken back curves are horizontal curves turning in the same direction joined by a short length
of tangents.
Broken back curves should be avoided except where very unusual topography or right-of-way
conditions dictate otherwise. Drivers usually do not anticipate successive curves in the same
direction. This also creates problems with drainage and super-elevation.
Where the length of a straight is less than about 0.6V meters (based on about 2 sec of travel
time with V= operating speed in km/hr), the separation of curves is usually small enough so
that there is no visual complication or problem with super-elevation. Such curvature may be
tolerated in urban areas if there is a need to maintain existing pavement or curbing. However,
it is often possible to substitute a single curve with a single radius, depending on the difference
in curve radii. Where the length of a straight is greater than about 0.6V and less than 2V or 4V,
the appearance is compromised by there not being sufficient separation of curves.
The length of 2V meters may be taken as an absolute minimum, with 4V meters being a
desirable minimum. Even the distance of 4V may be insufficient if both curves are visible at
the same time over a long distance.
3.4.2.1.4 Broken Back Circular Curves
Reverse curves are horizontal curves turning in opposite directions that adjoin (have a common
tangent point) or have a short length of tangent between curves. Reverse curves should not be
used unless there is insufficient distance between curves. Such geometries make it difficult for
the driver to remain within his lane. It is also difficult to super-elevate both curves adequately,
and this may result in erratic operation.
121
Figure 3.16: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves
(Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric Design Manual)
3.4.2.1.5 Circular Curves
Horizontal curves are normally circular. Figure 3.17 illustrates several of their important
features. Horizontal curves are described by radius (R), central angle (Δ) (which is equal to the
deflection angle between the tangents), length (L), semi tangent distance (T) ,
Figure 3.17: Horizontal curve features
122
Middle ordinate (M), external distance (E), and chord (C). The curve begins at the tangent-to-
curve point (TC) and ends at the curve-to-tangent point (CT). In the past, the severity of
curvature was sometimes expressed in the degree of curvature. Although obsolete in the metric
system, the degree of curvature may still be encountered in some situations. The degree of
curvature may be defined in two ways. The arc definition is the angle subtended by a 100 ft.
arc. The chord definition is the angle subtended by a 100 ft. chord. The relationship between
radius (in feet) and degree of curvature (arc definition) is
Figure 3.18: Arc and Chord Definitions for a Circular Curve
36,000 5729.58
𝐷= =
2𝜋𝑅 𝑅
Where D = degree of curvature and R radius of curvature, in feet. The length of a circular curve
is given by
2𝜋𝑅∆
𝐿= = 𝑅∆𝑟𝑎𝑑
360
Where ∆ is the central angle of the curve; ∆rad refers to ∆ measured in radians. The semi tangent
T of a circular curve is given by
∆
𝑇 = R tan
2
The middle ordinate M is given by
123
∆
𝑀 = R − R cos( )
2
The external distance E is given by
𝑅
𝐸= ∆ −𝑅
cos( 2 )
Figure 3.19: Layout of a circular curve.
The chord C is given by
∆
𝐶 = 2R Sin( )
2
Circular curves are usually laid out in the field by occupying the tangent-to-curve point TC
with a transit and then establishing successive points by turning deflection angles and
measuring chords, as shown in Figure 3.19. The deflection angle in radians dx to a point on the
curve at a distance x from the TC is given by
x
𝑑𝑥 = ( ) 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2R
The chord cx to this point is given by

𝐶𝑥 = 2R Sin 𝑑𝑥
Deflection angles and chords at 20 m intervals for a 500 m radius curve with a deflection angle
of 150 and a TC at station 17 + 25.
124
Design standards for horizontal curves establish their minimum radii and, in some cases, their
minimum lengths. The minimum radius of a horizontal curve is most commonly established by
the relationship between design speed, maximum rate of super elevation, and curve radius. In
other cases, minimum radii or curve lengths for highways may be established by the need to
provide stopping sight distance or by appearance standards.
Figure 3.20: Stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
Figure 3.20 illustrates the relationship between curve radius, stopping sight distance, and the
setback distance to obstructions to vision. The relationship between the radius of curvature R,
the setback distance m, and the sight distance s is given by
28.65 s
𝑀 = R ( 1 − Cos( )
R
And
R 1
𝑠= {
28.65 Cos (R−m)
R
Where the angles in the formulas are measured in degrees
Since these formulas are hard to solve for R, design charts or tables are normally used to find
the minimum radius of curvature that will provide stopping sight distance.
125
Minimum lengths or radii of horizontal curves may also be based on appearance criteria. Where
deflection angles are small, a short horizontal curve may give the appearance of a kink. To
prevent this, minimum horizontal curve lengths may be prescribed for curves with small
deflection angles.
3.4.2.1.6 Transition Curves
A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always changing. As one
would expect, such curves involve more complex formulae than curves with a constant radius,
and their design is more complex.
(1) The need for transition curves
Circular curves are limited in road designs due to the forces that act on a vehicle as it travels
around a bend. Transition curves are used to introduce those forces gradually and uniformly,
thus ensuring the safety of passengers.
Transition curves have much more complex formulae and are more difficult to set out on site
than circular curves as a result of the varying radius.
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the
comfort of passengers.
 To enable the driver to turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security,
 To provide a gradual introduction of super elevation, and
 To provide a gradual introduction of extra widening.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
(2) The use of Transition Curves
Transition curves can be used to join straights in one of two ways:
 Composite curves
 Wholly transitional curves
126
(3) Types of Transition Curve
There are two types of curve used to form the transitional section of a composite or wholly
transitional curve. These are:
 The clothoid
 The cubic parabola
(4) Length of transition curve
The length of the transition curves should be determined by the maximum of the following
three criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change of super-elevation, and
an empirical formula given by IRC.
(1) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

(2) Rate of introduction of super-elevation
(3) by empirical formula
(5) Setback Distance
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the centerline of a
horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight
distance at a horizontal curve. The setback distance depends on:
(1) Sight distance (OSD, ISD and OSD),

(2) Radius of the curve, and
(3) Length of the curve.
(6) Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and rear
wheels is different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the curve, whereas
the rear wheels seldom turn.
127
Transition curves are used to connect tangents to circular curves. Various forms of curve have
been used for this purpose. The most logical choice from a theoretical standpoint, and the only
one discussed here, is the clothoid spiral, for which the radius of curvature varies as the inverse
of the distance along the curve from its beginning.
Spirals are used both for esthetic reasons and because they provide a “rational” super-elevation
transition. In the case of railways, such rational super-elevation transitions are virtually
necessary for reasons of vehicle dynamics.
In the case of highways, spirals are used primarily for esthetic purposes. They are most
appropriate for roadways with relatively high design standards, where large radius curves are
used. Under these circumstances, drivers can often see a considerable way ahead on the
roadway, and can detect the difference between the smoother, flowing lines provided by the
transition curves and the more abrupt alignment that results in their absence. For roadways with
lower design standards, some recent research reports indicate that the use of spirals may
increase accident rates. It is surmised that the reason is that drivers have a harder time judging
the severity of curves where spirals are used.
Figure 3.21 shows how spirals connect circular curves to tangents, and illustrates the
nomenclature of spirals. The critical points in moving through the curve are the tangent to a
spiral point (TS), the spiral to a curve point (SC), the curve to a spiral point (CS), and the spiral
to tangent point (ST). The effect of using the spirals is to shift the circular portion of the curve
inwards, so that it no longer fits into the original tangents. It now fits into what are called offset
tangents, which are shifted in by a distance p, measured perpendicular to the original tangents.
The distance from the TS to any point on the curve is L; if L is measured for the entire distance
from the TS to the SC, it is referred to as Ls. Likewise, the angle between the tangent and a
line tangent to the spiral at any distance L is referred to as the spiral angle u; if the spiral angle
is measured at the SC, it is referred to as us. The distance along the extended tangent from the
TS to a point opposite that at which the circular curve is tangent to the offset tangent is referred
to as k, and the distance from this point to the P.I. as T. The length of the circular portion of
the curve is Lc, and the coordinates of any point on the spiral, measured relative to the tangent,
are X and Y.
128
Figure 3.21: Spiral transition curve nomenclature.
Since the spiral is defined as the curve such that the reciprocal of the radius varies linearly from
zero at the TS to 1/Rc at the SC,
1 1 L
= ( )( )
R 𝑅𝑐 𝐿𝑠
or
RL = 𝑅𝑐 𝐿𝑠 =𝐴2
The spiral angle u is given by

L
𝜃=
2𝑅
In particular,
𝐿𝑠
𝜃𝑠 =
2𝑅𝑐
The coordinates X and Y of any point on the spiral may be expressed as functions of L:
𝐿2 𝐿9
X=𝐿− + +⋯
40𝐴4 3,456𝐴8
129
𝐿3 𝐿7 𝐿11
Y= 2− + +⋯
6𝐴 336𝐴6 42,240𝐴10
Other measurements of interest are
p = 𝑌𝑠 − 𝑅𝑐 (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑠 )
k = 𝑋𝑠 − 𝑅𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑠
∆
𝑇 ′ = (𝑅𝑐 + 𝑝)𝑇𝑎𝑛( )
2
And
𝐿𝑐 = 𝑅𝑐 (∆𝑟𝑎𝑑 − 2 𝜃𝑠 ) = 𝑅𝑐 ∆𝑟𝑎𝑑 − 𝐿𝑠
Example - Design of a Simple Horizontal Curve
The intersection angle of a 4° curve is 55°25, and the PC is located at station 238 + 44.75.
Determine the length of the curve, the station of the PT, the deflection angles, and the chord
lengths for setting out the curve at whole stations from the PC. Figure 3.22 illustrates the layout
of the curve.
Solution:
5229.6 5229.6
Radius of curve = =
D 4
= 1432.4 ft
𝑅∆𝜋 1432.4 x 55.4167π

Length of curve = =
180 180
= 1385.42 ft
The station at PT is equal to station (238 + 44.75) + (13 + 85.42) = 252 + 30.17 stations. The
distance between the PC and the first station is 239 - (238 + 44.75) = 55.25 ft.
δ1 l1
=
∆ 𝐿
130
δ1 55.25
=
55.4167 1385.52
Figure 3.22: Layout of Curves
δ1 = 2.210
2.210
C1 = 2 𝑥 1432.4 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 55.25 𝑓𝑡
2
δ1
The first deflection angle to station 239 is = 1.105
2
Similarly,
l2 = (252 + 30.17) − (252) = 30.17 𝑓𝑡
δ1 30.17 55.4167
= 𝑥 = 0.6034
2 1385.42 2
C1 = 2 𝑥 1432.4 𝑆𝑖𝑛(0.6034)
=30.17 ft
131
D=40
C𝐷 = 2 𝑥 1432.4 𝑆𝑖𝑛(4/2)
= 99.98 ft
Note that the deflection angle for PT is half the intersection angle Δ of the tangents. This
relationship serves as a check of the computation. Since highway curves are relatively flat, the
chord lengths are approximately equal to the arc lengths. The other deflection angles are
computed in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Computations of Deflection Angles and Chord Lengths for

Example
Station Deflection Angle Chord Length

PC 238 + 44.75 0 0
PC 239 1060180 55.25
PC 240 3060180 99.98
PC 241 5060180 99.98
PC 242 7060180 99.98
PC 243 9060180 99.98
PC 244 11060180 99.98
PC 245 13060180 99.98
PC 246 15060180 99.98
PC 247 17060180 99.98
PC 248 19060180 99.98
PC 249 21060180 99.98
PC 250 23060180 99.98
PC 251 25060180 99.98
PC 252 27060180 99.98
PC 252 + 30.17 270420300 30.17
132
3.4.3 Vertical Alignment
3.4.3.1 Introduction
The vertical alignment specifies the elevation of points along the roadway. The elevations of
these roadway points are usually determined by the need to provide proper drainage (from
rainfall runoff) and an acceptable level of driver safety.
A primary concern in vertical alignment is establishing a smooth transition of roadway

elevations between two grades. This transition is achieved using a vertical curve.
The two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight
distance criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of service. The
following text gives the formula and features of the vertical curve.
The vertical alignment of a transportation facility consists of tangent grades (straight lines in
the vertical plane) and vertical curves. Vertical alignment is documented by the profile. Just as
a circular curve is used to connect two horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical curves
connect two gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either a convex or concave. The
former is called a summit curve, while the latter is called a valley curve.
3.4.3.2 Gradient
A gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided by designing the vertical curve. Before
realizing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost, and the practical
problems on the site also have to be considered. Usually, steep gradients are avoided as far as
possible because of the difficulty to climbing them and the increase in their construction cost.
More about gradients is discussed below.
 Effect of a gradient
The effect of a long steep gradient on vehicle speed is considerable. This is particularly
important on roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due to restricted sight
distance at uphill gradients, the speed of traffic is often controlled by these heavy vehicles. As
133
a result, not only will the operating costs of the vehicles be increased, but also the capacity of
the roads will have to be reduced. Further, due to the high differential speeds between heavy
and light vehicles and between uphill and downhill gradients, accidents abound at gradients.
 Representation of gradients
The positive gradient, or ascending gradient, is denoted as +n and the negative gradient as n.
The deviation angle N is: when two grades meet, the angle which measures the change of
direction and is given by the algebraic difference between the two grades (n 1 (n2)) = n1 + n2 =
1 + 2.
Example: 1 in 30 = 3.33% 2o is a steep gradient, while 1 in 50 = 2% 1o 100 is a flatter gradient.
Figure 3.23: Representation of a gradient
Table 3.5: Representation of gradient (source: IRC Specifications for

gradients for different roads)
Terrain Ruling Limitings Exceptional
Plain/Rolling 3.3 5.0 6.7
Hilly 5.0 6.0 7.0
Steep 6.0 7.0 8.0
 Types of gradient
134
Many studies have shown that gradients of up to seven percent can have a considerable effect
on the speeds of passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of heavy vehicles are considerably
reduced when long gradients as at as two percent is adopted. Although after- gradients are
desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high.
 Ruling gradient
(1) Limiting gradient

(2) Exceptional gradient
(3) Critical length of the grade
(4) Minimum gradient
(5) Summit curve
3.4.3.3 Summit curves
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradients upwards. They are formed when two
gradients meet.
(1) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient.

(2) When a positive gradient meets a gradient,
(3) When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient,
(4) When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient.
3.4.3.4 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
In connecting two roadway grades (tangents) with an appropriate vertical curve, a mathematical
relationship defining roadway elevations at all points (or, equivalently, stations) along the
vertical curve is needed. A parabolic function has been found suitable in this regard because,
among other things, it provides a constant rate of change of slope and implies equal curve
tangents. The general form of the parabolic equation, as applied to vertical curves, is.
y = ax2 + bx + c
135
Where
y is the roadway elevation.
x stations (or meters) from the beginning of the vertical curve (i.e., from PVC).
c is the elevation of the BVC, because x = 0 corresponds to the BVC.
a and b, note that the first derivative of the above parabolic equation gives the slope and
is
dy
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
dx
At the PVC, x = 0, hence
dy
b= = 𝑔1
dx
Where 𝑔1 is the initial slope (in m/m). Also, note that the second derivative of the same
parabolic equation is the rate of change of slope and is
𝑑2y
= 2𝑎
𝑑𝑥 2
However, the rate of change of slope can be written as
𝑑 2 y 𝑔2 − 𝑔1
=
𝑑𝑥 2 L
Which gives the value of a as
𝑔2 − 𝑔1
𝑎=
2L
As a result, the equation for the vertical parabola curve, which provides a constant rate of
change of curvature, and hence acceleration and visibility, along its length, has the form:
𝑔2 − 𝑔1
𝑟=
2L
Where g2 is the grade just beyond the end of the vertical curve (EVC) and L is the length of the
curve. Also, vertical curves are sometimes described by K, the reciprocal of r. K is the distance
136
in meters required to achieve a 1 percent change in grade. Vertical curves are classified as sags
where g2 > g1 and crests otherwise.
Also, note that vertical distances in the vertical curve formulas are the product of grade times
a horizontal distance. In consistent units, if vertical distances are to be in meters, horizontal
distances should also be in meters, and grades should be dimensionless ratios. In many cases,
however, it is more convenient to represent grades in percentage and horizontal distance in
stations. This produces the correct result, because the grade is multiplied by 100 and the
horizontal distance divided by 100, and the two factors of 100 cancelled. It is very important
not to mix the two methods, however. If grades are in percent, horizontal distances must be in
stations; likewise, if grades are dimensionless ratios, horizontal distances must be in meters.
The parabola is selected as the vertical curve so that the rate of change of grade, which is the
second derivative of the curve, will be constant with distance. Note that the first derivative is
the grade itself, and since the rate of change of grade is constant, the grade of any point in the
vertical curve is a linear function of the distance from the BVC to the point.
dy
= 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
dx
The quantity rx2/2 is the distance from the tangent to the curve and is known as the offset. If x
is always measured from the BVC, the offset given by rx2/2 will be measured from the g1
tangent. To determine offsets from the g2 tangent, x should be measured backward from the
EVC. Since the curve is symmetrical about its center, the offsets from the g1 and g2 tangents,
respectively, are also symmetrical about the center of the curve, which occurs at the station of
its P.I.
Other properties of the vertical curve may be used to sketch it. For instance, at its center, the
curve passes halfway between the P.I. and a chord joining the BVC and EVC. At the quarter
points, it passes one quarter of the way between the tangents and the chord. Normal drafting
practice is to show the P.I. by means of a triangular symbol, although the extended vertical
tangents shown in the figure are often omitted. The BVC and EVC are shown by means of
circular symbols. The P.I., BVC, and EVC are identified by notes. The stations of the BVC and
EVC are given in the notes, as are the station and elevation of the P.I., the two tangent grades,
and the length of the vertical curve.
137
𝑟𝑥 2
𝑦= + 𝑔1 𝑥 + Elevation of PVC
2
Where
r = rate of change of grade per section (%)
g1 = starting grade (%)
g2 = ending grade (%)
L = length of curve (horizontal distance m)
y = elevation of a point on the curve
x = distance in stations from the PVC
PVC = beginning of the vertical curve
PVC = end of the vertical curve
Figure 3.24: Crest Curve (Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric

Design Manual)
138
Figure 3.25: Sag Curve (Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric
Design Manual)
Example: Two grade lines intersect at station 2+200 where the point of vertical intersection
(PVI) elevation is 239.5 m. The starting grade is -6 percent and the ending grade is +2 percent.
Compute the elevation at station 2+200.
2 − (−6)
𝑟= = +2.00%
400
400
𝐵𝑉𝐶 = (2 + 200) − = 2 + 000
2
𝑋 = (2 + 000) − (2 + 000)
Elevation of BVC = 239.5 + 0.06(200) = 251.5
0.02x22
𝑦= + (−6)(2) + 251.5 = 243.5
2
139
3.4.3.5 Crest and Sag Curves
The minimum lengths of crest and sag curves have been designed to provide sufficient stopping
sight distance. The design is based on the minimum allowable “K” values, as defined by the
formula:
K = L/A
Where
K = limiting value, horizontal distance required to achieve a 1% change in grade
L = length of vertical curve (m)
A = Algebraic difference in approach and exit grades (%)
Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical curves have been recommended based on design
speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort, appearance,
and, most importantly, safety.
Example: Design Speed = 100 km/h, Sag Curve from standard K= 51
Algebraic difference in grades 2-(-6) = 8%
Minimum length L = AK = 8(51) = 408 meters
3.4.3.6 Critical length of grade for design
A maximum grade in itself is not a complete design control. It is also appropriate to consider
the length of a particular grade of desirable vehicle operation. The term “critical length of grade”
refers to the maximum length of designated upgrade on which a loaded truck can operate
without an unreasonable reduction in speed.
Factors to be considered for the determination of the critical length of grades are:
(1) The size and power of a representative truck or truck combination to be used as a design
vehicle along with the grade ability data for this vehicle.
(2) Speed at entrance to the critical length of grades.
140
(3) Minimum speed at the grade below which interference with the following vehicle is
considered unreasonable.
Example - Design of Crest Vertical Curve
A crest vertical curve joining a +3 percent and a -4 percent grade is to be designed for 75 mi/h.
If the tangents intersect at a station (345 + 60.00) at an elevation of 250 ft., determine the
stations and elevations of the BVC and EVC. Also, calculate the elevations of intermediate
points on the curve at the whole station.
Solution: For a design speed of 75 mi/h, K = 312.
Minimum length = 312 *[3 – (-4)] = 2184 ft
21+84
Station of BVC = (345 + 60) – = 334+68
2
Station of EVC = (334 + 68) + (21 + 84) = 356 + 52
21+84
Elevation of BVC = 250 – (0.03 * ) = 217.24 ft
2
Figure 3.26: Layout of a Vertical Curve
141
Table 3.6: Elevation Computations
Station Distance Tangent Offset Curve Elevation

from (Tangent
Elevation Ax2
[y=200L]
BVC (x) Elevation-Offset)
BVC 334 + 68 0 217.24 0.01 217.24

BVC 335 + 00 32 218.20 0.02 218.18
BVC 336 + 00 132 221.20 0.28 220.92
BVC 337 + 00 232 224.20 0.86 223.34
BVC 338 + 00 332 227.20 1.77 225.43
BVC 339 + 00 432 230.20 2.99 227.21
BVC 340 + 00 532 233.20 4.54 228.66
BVC 341 + 00 632 236.20 6.40 229.80
BVC 342 + 00 732 239.20 8.59 230.61
BVC 343 + 00 832 242.20 11.09 231.11
BVC 344 + 00 932 245.20 13.92 231.28
BVC 345 + 00 1032 248.20 17.07 231.13
BVC 346 + 00 1132 251.20 20.54 230.66
BVC 347 + 00 1232 254.20 24.32 229.88
BVC 348 + 00 1332 257.20 28.43 228.77
BVC 349 + 00 1432 260.20 32.86 227.34
BVC 350 + 00 1532 263.20 37.61 225.52
BVC 351 + 00 1632 266.20 42.68 223.53
BVC 352 + 00 1732 269.20 48.07 221.13
BVC 353 + 00 1832 272.20 53.79 218.41
BVC 354 + 00 1932 275.20 59.82 215.38
BVC 355 + 00 2032 278.20 66.17 212.03
BVC 356 + 00 2132 281.20 72.84 208.36
BVC 356 + 52 2184 282.76 76.44 206.32
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Example - Design of Sag Vertical Curve
A sag vertical curve joins a -3 percent grade and a + 3 percent grade. If the PVI of the grades
is at station (435 + 50) and has an elevation of 235 ft, determine the station and elevation of
the BVC and EVC for a design speed of 70 mi/h. Also compute the elevation on the curve at
100-ft intervals.
Figure 3.27: Layout for a Sag Vertical Curve
Solution: For a design speed of 70 mi/h, K = 181,
Minimum length = 312 *[6] = 2086 ft
Station of BVC = (335 + 50) – (5 + 43) = 430 + 07
Station of EVC = (335 + 50) + (5 + 43) = 440 + 93
Elevation of BVC = 235 + (0.03 * 543) = 251.29 ft
Elevation of EVC = 235 + (0.03 * 543) = 251.29 ft
143
Table 3.27: Elevation Computations
Station Distance Tangent Offset Curve Elevation

from (Tangent
Elevation Ax2
[y=200L]
BVC (x) Elevation-Offset)
BVC 430 + 07 0 251.29 0.28 251.29

BVC 431 + 00 93 248.50 0.24 248.74
BVC 432 + 00 193 245.50 1.03 246.53
BVC 433 + 00 293 242.50 2.37 244.87
BVC 434 + 00 393 239.50 4.27 243.77
BVC 435 + 00 493 236.50 6.71 243.21
BVC 436 + 00 593 233.50 9.71 243.21
BVC 437 + 00 693 230.50 13.27 243.77
BVC 438 + 00 793 227.50 17.37 244.87
BVC 439 + 00 893 224.50 22.03 246.53
BVC 440 + 00 993 221.50 27.24 248.74
BVC 440 + 93 1086 218.71 32.58 251.29
3.4.3.6.1 Length of Crest Vertical Curves
Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only criterion used for design of
a crest vertical curve. As illustrated in Figures 3.28 and 3.29, there are
Figure 3.28: Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curve (S > L)
144
Where L = length of vertical curve (ft.),
S = sight distance (ft.).
H1 = height of eye above roadway surface (ft.)
H2 = height of object above roadway surface (ft.)
G1, G2 = grades of tangents (%)
PVC = point of vertical curve
PVT = point of vertical tangent
Figure 3.29: Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curve (S < L)
Where L = length of vertical curve (ft.)

S = sight distance (ft.)
H1 = height of eye above roadway surface (ft.)
H2 = height of object above roadway surface (ft.)
G1, G2 = grades of tangents (%)
PVC = point of vertical curve
PVT = point of vertical tangent
Two possible scenarios that could control the design length:
1. The SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve, and
2. The SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve.
Consider the case when the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve as shown in
Figure 3.28 where the driver’s eye height in a vehicle on the grade at point C is 𝐻1 ft. and the
object at point D seen by the driver is H2 ft. The driver’s line of sight is PN ft and the SSD is S
145
ft. The line of sight, PN, may not necessarily be horizontal, but the value, used in calculations
for SSD considers the horizontal projection. From the properties of the parabola.
L
𝑋3 =
2
The SSD s is
S = X1 + L/2 + X2
X1 and X2 can be determined from grades G1 and G2 and their algebraic difference A. The
minimum length of the vertical curve for the required sight distance is obtained as
2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2 )
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑆 − (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 > 𝐿)
A
It has been the practice to assume that the height H1 of the driver is 3.75 ft. and the height of
the object is 0.5 ft. Due to the increasing number of compact automobiles on the nation’s
highways, the height of the driver’s eye is now assumed to be 3.5 ft., and the object height,
considered to be the taillight of a passenger car, is 2.0 ft. Under these assumptions,
2158
A
When the sight distance is less than the length of the crest vertical curve, the configuration
shown in Figure 3.29 applies. Similarly, the properties of a parabola can be used to show that
the minimum length of the vertical curve is
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 < 𝐿)
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2 )
Substituting 3.5 ft. for H1 and 2.0 ft. for H2, The equation can be written as
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 < 𝐿)
2158
146
3.4.3.6.2 Length of Sag Vertical Curves
The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled by the following four
criteria:
(1) SSD provided by the headlights
(2) comfort while driving on the curve.
(3) General appearance of the curve, and
(4) Adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve.
(1) Minimum Length based on SSD Criterion
The headlight SSD requirement is based on the fact that sight distance will be restricted during
periods of darkness, whereas during daylight periods, sight distance is unaffected by the sag
curve. As a vehicle is driven on a sag vertical curve at night, the position of the headlights and
the direction of the headlight beam will dictate the stretch of highway ahead that is lighted.
Therefore, the distance that can be seen by the driver is controlled by the headlight beam.
Figure 3.30 is a schematic of the case when S > L. The headlight is located at a height of H
above the ground, and the headlight beam is inclined upward at an angle of b to the horizontal.
The headlight beam intersects the road at point D, thereby restricting the available SSD S. The
values used by AASHTO for H and b are 2 ft. and 1 degree, respectively. Using the properties
of the parabola, it can be shown that
200(𝐻 + 𝑆 tan 𝛽 )
A
Substituting 2 ft. for H and 1 degree for b in Equation yields the following
(400 + 3.5𝑆 )
A
Similarly, for the condition when S < L, it can be shown that
147
(𝐴𝑆 )2
200(𝐻 + 𝑆 tan 𝛽 )
And substituting 2 ft. for H and 1 degree for b in Equation yields
(𝐴𝑆 )2
(400 + 3.5𝑆 )
Figure 3.30: Headlight Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves (S >L)
To provide a safe condition, the minimum length of the sag vertical curve should assure a light
beam sight distance S at least equal to the SSD. The SSD for the appropriate design speed is
the value for S used to compute minimum lengths of sag vertical curves.
(2) Minimum Length based on Comfort Criterion
The comfort criterion is based on the fact that when a vehicle travels on a sag vertical curve,
both the gravitational and centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in a greater effect
than on a crest vertical curve, where these forces act in opposition to each other. Several factors,
such as weight carried, body suspension of the vehicle, and tire flexibility affect comfort due
to changes in vertical direction, making it difficult for comfort to be measured directly. It is
generally accepted that a comfortable ride will be provided if the radial acceleration is not
greater than 1 ft. / sec2. The following expression is used for the comfort criterion.
𝐴𝑈 2
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
46.5
148
Where u is the design speed in mi/h,
L the minimum length based on comfort, and
A the algebraic difference in grades.
(3) Minimum Length of Curve based on Appearance Criterion
The criterion for acceptable appearance is usually satisfied by assuring that the minimum length
of the sag curve is not less than expressed by the following equation:
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 100𝐴
Where L is the minimum length of the sag vertical curve
Longer curves are frequently necessary for major arterials if the general appearance of these
highways is to be considered satisfactory.
(4) Minimum Length based on Drainage Criterion.
The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be considered when the road is curbed. This
criterion is different from the others in that there is a maximum length requirement rather than
a minimum length.
149
Assessments
1. Practical
 Detailed design of SSD and PSD sight distance
 Detailed design of horizontal alignment (plan)
 Super-elevation and widening details for the road
 Detailed design of vertical alignment (profile)
 Drawing detailed cross-sections typical for construction and earth-work computations
of the new road
2. Theory
(1) The design of horizontal and vertical alignments, super elevation, and gradients is worst
affected by
a) Vehicle length
b) Vehicle width
c) Vehicle speed
d) vehicle height
Answer: c
(2) The most raised portion of the pavement is called _______.
a) Extreme elevation
b) Camber
c) Crown
d) Curb
Answer: c
(3) The extra width of pavement is provided on __________.
150
a) Horizontal curve
b) Pavement width
c) Pavement length
d) Extreme elevation
Answer: a
(4) If the super elevation of the highway provided is zero, then what is the design speed of
a highway that has a curve of 200 m and a coefficient of friction of 0.10?
a) 40 km/hr
b) 50 km/hr
c) 55 km/hr
d) 60 km/hr
Answer: b
(5) The vertical alignment of a highway includes
a) Sight distance and traffic intersection

b) Width of pavement
c) Design of valley curves and gradients
d) Highway lighting
Answer: c
(6) The vertical alignment does not influence
a) Sight distance
b) Vehicle operation costs
c) Accidents
d) Vehicle speed
Answer: c
151
(1) Why are roads super elevated around horizontal curves? What factors control the
maximum and minimum values of super elevation to be applied?
(2) State and discuss all design controls in highway design.
(3) What are the factors that classify the roadway according to geometric elements?
(4) Differentiate the two lengths of super elevation transition?
(5) A curve has a deflection angle of ∆=23o18’ 02", and a radius of 1432.6 m. The Point of
Intersection (PI) is 2+245.54. Calculate the tangent distance (T), external distance (E), curve
length (L), point of curvature (PC), and point of tangent (PT).
152
(6) A horizontal curve is designed for a two-lane road in mountainous terrain. The following
data is known:
Deflection angle = 400

Tangent length = 436.76m
Station of PI = 2 +710.65
f = 0.12
e = 0.08
Determine the following:
a) Design speed
b) Station of the PC
c) Station of the PT
153
Evaluation Table
Test 1
Test 2
Result
1
Class Assignment
2
Understanding on
the Geometric
design
Work Performance
Evaluation
Attitude
Complete task
Time used
Time (180 Min.)
(1 per 10 min.)
Total /45
* Score (5-point rating): Excellent 5, Good 4, Fair 3, Bad 2, and Worst 1
154
References
[1] William R McShane, Roger P Roess, and Elena S Prassas (1998), Traffic Engineering.
Prentice-Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery,
[2] C. S Papacostas (1987), Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering. Prentice-Hall, New
Delhi,
[7] F.L. Mannering, W.P. Kilareski (2013), Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic
Analysis, New York: Wiley
[8] L.R. Kadiyali (2003), Principles and Practice of Highway Engineering, Delhi: Khanna
Publishers
[9] S.K. Khanna and C.E.G. Justo (2011), Highway Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros,
Roorkee
155
Chapter 4 Intersections, Interchanges, and
Terminals
Lesson Plan
• Be able to road alignment, classification of road.
• Be able to and select the best route and highway alignment.
• Understand the geometric design of the highway.
• Understand vertical alignment and cross sections.
• Understand super elevation and widening.
• Understand earthwork and the quantities.
• Understand design principles of At-Grade intersection.
• Understand surface and subsurface drainage structures.
2. Motivation
essential components of a highway, geometric design of highway components; and
volume computation of highway earthwork; Individual access to inroad software
 Using the Multi-Criteria Analysis, identify alternative routes and select technically
feasible routes.
 Understand the different geometric design control criteria and their impact on geometric
design decisions.
 Perform horizontal and vertical geometric design for a specific highway project.
 Design a highway project's super-elevation, sight distance, and road widening.
 Determine the earthwork volume of a given highway project and be able to determine
the economic hauling distance.
156
 Understand local and international geodetic design standards and manuals such as ERA,
AACRA, and AASHTO.
4. Equipment
• Desktop or Laptop computer with an internet connection.
• Maps
• Total Station, meter and string
 A brief introduction to intersections, interchanges and terminals

 Tool setup
6. Assessments
 What are the main principles of intersection design?

 What are the guidelines that have to be followed for the selection of an intersection?
 How can you install inroad software?
7. Clean-up
 After practice, all tools and equipment used in the practice must be returned to their
proper lab location.
 Clean up the work bench and practice lab.
Learning through Assignment
opinions.
157
4. Intersections, Interchanges, and Terminals
4.1 Intersections
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements within the area. Each
highway radiating from an intersection or forming part of it is an intersection leg.
Intersections are an important part of highway facilities because, to a great extent, the efficiency,
safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity of the facility depend on their design. Each
intersection involves through or cross traffic movements on one or more of the highways and
may involve turning movements between these highways. Such movements may be facilitated
by various geometric designs and traffic control, depending on the type of intersection.
Intersections vary in complexity from a simple intersection, which has only two roads crossing
at a right angle to each other, to a more complex intersection, at which three or more roads
cross within the same area. The process of decision-making for road users at intersections is
complex, and this is part of the reason why intersections tend to have a high potential for
accidents and delays. The overall traffic flow on any highway depends to a great extent on the
performance of the intersections, since intersections usually operate at a lower capacity than
on other sections of the road.
4.1.1 General design considerations and objectives
The main objective of intersection design is to facilitate the convenience, ease, and comfort of
people traversing the intersection while enhancing the movement of motor vehicles, buses,
trucks, bicycles, and pedestrians. Intersection design should be fitted closely to the natural
transitional paths and operating characteristics of its users.
The following basic elements that should be considered in the design of intersections are:
(1) Human factors
158
 Driving habits
 Ability of a driver to make decisions
 Driver expectancy
 Decision and reaction time
 Conformance to natural paths of movement
 Pedestrian use and habits
 Bicycle traffic use and habits
(2) Traffic considerations
 Design and actual capacities
 Design hour turning movements
 The size and operating characteristics of vehicles
 Vehicle speed
 Bicycle movements
 Pedestrian movements
(3) Physical elements
 Vertical alignment at intersection
 Sight distance
 The Angle of intersection
 Conflict area
 Speed change lanes
 Geometric design features
 Traffic control devices
 Lighting requirements
 Safety features
 Environmental factors
159
 Cross walks
(4) Economic factors
 Initial, improvement and operational costs
 Effect of controlling or limiting right of way on abutting residential or commercial

properties where channelization restricts or prohibits vehicular movements
 Energy consumption
Intersections are generally classified into three general categories:
(1) At- grade intersections,
(2) Grade-separated without ramps, and
(3) Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as interchanges)
Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that provide for traffic to cross at
different levels (vertical distances) without interruption. The potential for accidents at grade-
separated intersections is reduced because many potential conflicts between intersecting
streams of traffic are eliminated.
4.1.2 Selection of Junction Type
The choice of an intersection type requires knowledge of traffic demand, intersection

performance, and accident prediction. It is often difficult to determine the best intersection type
for any particular situation, taking into account capacity, delay, safety, and physical layout
factors. Various alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection of junction
types based on different combinations of traffic flows is presented in Figure 4.1.
The basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types, including grade separation,
are as follows:
 Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction):- For low flows. It can cause long delays.
Requires sufficient stopping sight distance. Delays can be improved by signal
installation.
160
 Roundabouts: - For low to medium flows. Minimal delays at lower flows. Shown to
be safer than priority junctions. Requires attention to pedestrian movements and
accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
 Grade-Separation: - For high flows. This results in minimal delays. Expensive.
Figure 4.1: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows (Source: Ethiopian

4.1.3 At Grade Intersections
Most highways intersect at grade, and the intersection area should be designed to adequately
provide for turning and crossing movements with due consideration to sight distance, signs,
and alignments. The basic types of at-grade intersections are T, Y, or three-leg intersections,
which consist of three approaches; four-leg or cross intersections, which consist of four
approaches; and multi-leg intersections, which consist of five or more approaches. A few
examples of these types of intersections are given in Figure 4.2.
161
Figure 4.2: Types of at grade intersections (Source: Ethiopian Roads
162
4.2 Grade separations and Interchanges
The intersection at grades can be eliminated by the use of grade-separation structures that
permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without interruption. The advantage of such
separation is the freedom from cross-interference, with a resultant saving of time and an
increase in safety for traffic movements. Grade separations and interchanges may be warranted.
 As part of an express highway system designed to carry high volumes of traffic,
 To eliminate bottlenecks,
 To prevent accidents,
 Where the topography is such that other types of design are not feasible,
 Where the volumes to be catered for would require the design of an intersection at a
grade of unreasonable size, and
 Where the road user benefits of reducing delays at an at-grade intersection exceed the
cost of the improvement.
An interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles moving in one direction of flow may
transfer by the use of connecting roadways. These connecting roadways at interchanges are
called ramps. Many types and forms of interchanges and ramp layouts are used. Some of these
are shown in Figure 4.3. The choice between these intersection types depends on various
factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay, space requirements, etc.
163
Figure 4.3: Types of grade separated intersections (Source: Ethiopian
164
4.3 Design Principles of At-Grade Intersections
The fundamental objectives in the design of at- grade intersections are to minimize delays and
the number and severity of potential conflicts between different streams of traffic and between
pedestrians and turning vehicles. At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the smooth
flow of traffic across the intersection. The design should therefore incorporate the operating
characteristics of both the vehicles and pedestrians using the intersection. For example, the
corner radius of an intersection pavement or the radius required for the design velocity of the
turning roadway is under consideration. The design also should ensure adequate pavement
widths of turning roadways and approach sight distances. This suggests that at-grade
intersections should not be located at or just beyond sharp crest vertical curves or at sharp
horizontal curves.
The basic requirements of intersection design are to maximize safety and minimize traffic
delays. The design of an at-grade intersection involves:
 The design of the alignment, including profiles, minimum radiuses and widths of
turning roadways,
 The design of a suitable channeling system for the traffic pattern
 The assurance that the sight distances are adequate for the type of control at the
intersection.
4.3.1 Alignment of At-Grade Intersections
The best alignment of an at-grade intersection is when the intersecting roads meet at right or
nearly right angles. This alignment is superior to acute-angle alignments because much less
road area is required for turning at the intersection, there is a lower exposure time for vehicles
crossing the main traffic flow, and visibility limitations, particularly for trucks, are not as
serious as those at acute-angle intersections. Figure 4.4 shows alternative methods for
realigning roads intersecting at acute angles to obtain a nearly tight-angle intersection.
165
Figure 4.4: Alignment method for realigning skewed intersections (Source:
Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric Design Manual)
When designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, large changes in grade
should be avoided; preferably, grades should not be greater than 3 percent. The stopping and
accelerating distances for passenger cars on grades of 3 percent or less are not much different
from those of cars on flat grades. However, significant differences start to occur at grades
higher than 3 percent. When it is unavoidable to use grades of 3 percent or more, design factors
such as stopping distances and accelerating distances should be adjusted so that conditions
equivalent to those on level ground exist. In any case, it is not advisable to use grades higher
than 6 percent at intersections.
It should always be remembered that the combination of horizontal and vertical alignments at
an intersection should produce traffic lanes that are clearly seen by motorists at all times,
without the sudden appearance of potential hazards. Also, motorists should be able to easily
understand the path they should take in any desired direction. The angle of turn, the turning
speed, the design vehicle, and traffic volume are the main factors governing the design of
166
curves at at-angle intersections. When the turning speed at an intersection is assumed to be 25
km/h or less, the curves for the pavement edges are designed to conform to at least the minimum
turning path of the designed vehicle. When the turning speed is expected to be greater than 25
km/h, the design speed is also considered. It is also necessary to increase the pavement width
of turning roadways when the speed is greater than 25 km/h.
4.3.2 Roundabouts
A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island, entry to which is

controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to traffic already in the roundabout.
Roundabouts provide high capacity and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety record.
The term “roundabout” is used in the United States to differentiate modern roundabouts from
the non-conforming traffic circles or rotaries that have been in use for many years.
Roundabouts are defined by two basic operational and design principles:
 Yield-at-Entry: Also known as off-side priority or the yield-to-left rule, yield-at-entry

requires that vehicles on the circulatory roadway of the roundabout have the right-of
way and all entering vehicles on the approaches have to wait for a gap in the circulating
flow. To maintain free flow and high capacity, yield signs are used as the entry control.
As opposed to nonconforming traffic circles, modern roundabouts are not designed for
weaving maneuvers, thus permitting smaller diameters. Even for multilane roundabouts,
weaving maneuvers are not considered a design or capacity criterion.
 Deflection of Entering Traffic: Entrance roadways that intersect the roundabout along
a tangent to the circulatory roadway are not permitted. Instead, entering traffic is
deflected to the right by the central island of the roundabout and by channelization at
the entrance into an appropriate curved path along the circulating roadway. Thus, no
traffic is permitted to follow a straight path through the roundabout.
To provide for increased capacity, modern roundabouts often incorporate flares at the entry by
adding lanes before the yield line and have wide circulatory roadways.
The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following:
167
 Adequate entry width
 Adequate circulation space is compatible with entry widths
 Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers guidance on the maneuvers
expected.
 Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote movement and ensure low
traffic speeds.
 A simple and clear layout
 Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry
 Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius should be adjusted to the
design speeds
Figure 4.5: Geometric Elements of a Single-lane Roundabout
168
Designing the geometry of a roundabout involves choosing the best operational and capacity
performance while retaining the best safety enhancements. Roundabouts operate most safely
when their geometry forces traffic to enter and circulate at slow speeds. Horizontal curvature
and narrow pavement widths are used to produce this reduced-speed environment. However,
the capacity of roundabouts is negatively affected by these low-speed design elements. As the
widths and radii of the entry and circulatory roadways are reduced, the capacity of the
roundabout is also reduced. Furthermore, many of the geometric criteria used in the design of
roundabouts are governed by the maneuvering needs of the largest vehicles expected to travel
through the intersection. Thus, designing a roundabout is a process of determining the optimal
balance between safety provisions, operational performance, and accommodation of over-sized
vehicles.
Achieving appropriate vehicular speeds through a roundabout is the most critical design
objective. A well-designed roundabout reduces the relative speeds between conflicting traffic
streams by requiring vehicles to negotiate the roundabout along a curved path. Increasing the
curvature of the vehicle path decreases the relative speed between the entering and circulating
vehicles. To determine the speed of a roundabout, the fastest path allowed by the geometry
should be drawn. This is the smoothest, least-curved path that can be followed by a single
vehicle, in the absence of other traffic and ignoring all lane markings, traversing the entry,
around the central island, and out the exit. Usually the fastest path is the through movement,
but in some cases it may be a right-turn movement.
4.4 Channelization of At-Grade Intersections
Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite

paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly
movements of both vehicles and pedestrians. A traffic island is a defined area between traffic
lanes where vehicular traffic is excluded and is provided to regulate the movement of vehicles
or to serve as a pedestrian refuge. A properly channelized intersection will result in increased
capacity, enhanced safety, and increased driver confidence. Properly designed channelization
systems increase intersection capacity and decrease conflicts and accidents.
Channelizing Islands generally are included in an intersection design for one or more of the
following purposes:
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 Separation of conflicts
 Control of an angle of conflict
 Reduction of excessive pavement areas
 Regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area
 Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement for protection of
pedestrians
 Protection of pedestrians
 Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
 Location of traffic control devices
Islands are generally grouped into three major classes; directional or channelized, divisional,
and refuge. Islands can be formed by using raised curbs, pavement markings, or pavement
edges. General types and shapes of islands are shown in figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Example of types and shapes of the island (Source: Ethiopian
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4.4.1 Directional islands
Directional islands are designed primarily to guide the motorist through the intersection by
indicating the intended route. Where a spacious area exists at an intersection and leaves much
to the discretion of the driver, islands may be used to channel the motorist into the desired lane
by placing a channeling island in the little-used portion of the intersection.
Directional islands that control and direct traffic movements into the proper paths for their
intended use are an important part of intersection design. Confusing traffic movements
resulting from spacious areas may be eliminated by the conversion of unused areas into islands
that leave little to driver discretion. Channelizing islands may be of many shapes and sizes,
depending on the conditions and dimensions of the intersection. A common form is the corner
triangular shape that separates right-turning traffic from through traffic. Central islands may
serve as a guide around which turning vehicles operate.
Directional islands should be placed so that the proper course of travel is immediately obvious,
easy to follow, and of unquestionable continuity. When designing an island, attention should
be given to the fact that the driver’s eye view is different from the plan view. Particular care
should be taken where the channelization is on or beyond the crest of a vertical curve, however
slight, or where there is substantial horizontal curvature on the approach to or through the
channelized area. The outlines of islands should be easily flowing curved or straight lines
nearly parallel to the line of travel.
Where islands separate turning traffic from through traffic, the radii of curved portions should
equal or exceed the minimum for the turning speeds expected. Drivers should not be confronted
suddenly with an unusable area in the normal vehicle path. Islands first approached by traffic
should be indicated by a gradually widening and marking or a conspicuously rumble strip that
directs traffic to each side.
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Figure 4.7: Alignment for Addition of Directional Islands at Intersections
4.4.2 Divisional islands
Divisional islands are most frequently used on undivided highways approaching intersections.
They serve to alert the driver to the intersection and regulate the flow of traffic into and out of
the intersection. Their use is particularly advantageous for controlling left-turn traffic at skewed
intersections. A refuge island is located at or near crosswalks to aid and protect pedestrians
crossing the roadway. Refuge islands are most generally used on wide streets in urban areas
for loading and unloading transit riders.
Divisional islands are often introduced on undivided highways at intersections. They alert the
drivers to the crossroads ahead and regulate traffic through the intersection. These islands are
particularly advantageous in controlling left turns at skewed intersections and at locations
where separate channels are provided for right-turning traffic.
Where an island is introduced at an intersection to separate opposing traffic on a four-lane road

or on a major two-lane highway carrying high volumes, particularly where future conversion
172
to a wider highway is likely, two full lanes should be provided on each side of the dividing
island. In other instances, narrower roadways may be used.
Figure 4.8: Alignment for the Addition of Divisional Islands at

Intersections (Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric Design
Manual)
4.4.3 Refuge Islands
A refuge island for pedestrians is one at or near a crosswalk or bicycle path that aids and
protects pedestrians and bicyclists who cross the roadway. Raised-curb corner islands and
center channelizing or divisional islands can be used as refuge areas. Refuge islands for
pedestrians and bicyclists crossing a wide street, for loading or unloading transit riders, or for
wheelchair ramps, are used primarily in urban areas.
The location and width of crosswalks, the location and size of transit loading zones, and the
provision of wheelchair ramps influence the size and location of refuge islands. Refuge islands
should be a minimum of 1.8 m wide when they are used by bicyclists. Pedestrians and bicyclists
should have a clear path through the island and should not be obstructed by poles, sign posts,
utility boxes, etc.
173
In rural, as well as in urban, areas, many of the islands designed for the function of
channelization are also of the type and location to serve as refuges for pedestrians. The general
principles for island design also apply directly to providing refuge islands.
Figure 4.9: Alignment for the Addition of Refuge Islands at Intersections

4.5 Sight Distance at Intersections
The high accident potential at an intersection can be reduced by providing sight distances that
allows drivers to have an unobstructed view of the entire intersection at a distance great enough
to permit control of the vehicle. At-grade intersections either have no control or are controlled
by one of the following methods: yield control, stop control, or signal control. At signalized
intersections, the unobstructed view may be limited to the area where the signals are located,
but for un-signalized intersections, it is necessary to provide an adequate view of the crossroads
or intersecting highways to reduce the potential for collision with crossing vehicles.
174
Figure 4.10: Visibility Splay for “Yield” Conditions (Source: Ethiopian
Figure 4.11: Visibility Splay for “Stop” Conditions (Source: Ethiopian

CB ED
=
AB AD
𝑑𝑏 a
=
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑎 − 𝑏
175
From this equation, if any of the variables𝑑𝑎 ,𝑑𝑏 , a, and b are known, the fourth can be
determined.
Sight distance requirements for no-control intersections: In this situation, the intersection
is not controlled by a yield sign, a stop sign, or a traffic signal, but sufficient sight distance is
provided for the operator of a vehicle approaching the intersection to see a crossing vehicle
and, if necessary, adjust the vehicle’s speed to avoid a collision. This distance must include the
distance traveled by the vehicle both during the driver’s perception reaction time and during
brake actuation or acceleration to regulate speed. At intersections, 2.0 sec is usually acceptable
for perception reaction time, and an additional 1.0 sec is added for the driver to actuate braking
or to accelerate to regulate speed. It is, generally, preferable to design uncontrolled
intersections such that the driver of each vehicle sees the intersection and the traffic on the
crossroad insufficient tie for stopping the vehicle before reaching the intersection.
Sight distance requirements for yield-control intersections: In this situation, the minor road
is controlled by a yield sign. Vehicles on the minor road are therefore required to yield to
vehicles on the major road, which often requires the vehicle on the minor road to slow down
or to stop before reaching the intersecting roadway. The sight distance provided on the minor
road must therefore be sufficient for the driver to see a vehicle approaching from either the left
or right side of the major road and to be able to stop the vehicle before reaching the intersecting
roadway, as shown in figure 4.10. It should be noted that the grades of the approaches should
be taken into consideration when determining the minimum stopping sight distances.
Sight distance requirements for stop-control intersections: When vehicles are required to
stop at an intersection, the drivers of such vehicles should be provided sufficient sight distance
to be able to stop the vehicle before reaching the intersecting roadway and allow for a safe
departure from the stopped position for the three basic maneuvers that occur at an average
intersection. These maneuvers are:
 Crossing the intersection, thereby clearing traffic approaching from both sides of the
intersection,
176
 Turning left onto the crossroad, which requires clearing the traffic approaching from
the left and then joining the traffic stream on the crossroad with vehicles approaching
from the right, and
 Turning right onto the crossroad by joining the traffic on the crossroad with vehicles
approaching from the left.
Sight distance at intersections with signal control: Although the unobstructed view at
signalized intersections may be limited to the area of control, it is recommended that the
minimum sight distances based on the sight distance requirement for stop-control intersections
be made available at these intersections. These minimum sight distances are necessary to avoid
the hazardous situations resulting from unanticipated conflicts at signalized intersections,
including signal failure, vehicles running the red light, use of the flashing red/yellow mode,
and right turns on red. The basic principle of signalized intersections is to provide sight
distances that will enable the driver to see the signals early enough to take the necessary action
indicated by the signals.
4.6 Traffic Controls
The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to drivers, and thus to facilitate
highway safety by ensuring the orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways.
Control may be achieved by using traffic signals, signs, or markings that regulate, guide, warn,
and/or channel traffic. Complex maneuvering areas of highways such as intersections require
properly designed traffic control systems.
Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions interfere with each other.
The three types of conflicts are merging, diverging, and crossing. Figure 4.12 shows the
different conflict points that exist at a four-approach un-signalized intersection. There are 32
conflict points in this case. The number of possible conflict points at any intersection depends
on the number of approaches, the turning movements, and the type of traffic control at the
intersection.
177
Figure 4.12: Conflict points at four-approach unsignalized intersections
(Source: Ethiopian Roads Authority, Geometric Design Manual).
The primary objective in the design of a traffic control system at an intersection is to reduce
the number of significant conflict points. In designing such a system, it is first necessary to
undertake an analysis of the turning movements at the intersection, which will indicate the
significant types of conflicts. Factors that influence the significance of a conflict include the
type of conflict, the number of vehicles in each of the conflicting streams, and the speeds of
the vehicles in these streams. Crossing conflicts tend to have the most severe effect on traffic
flow and should be reduced to a minimum whenever possible.
4.7 Types of intersection control
Several methods of controlling streams of vehicles at intersections are in use. The choice of
one of these methods depends on the type of intersection and the volume of traffic in each of
the conflicting streams. The different types of intersection control are described below.
YIELD signs: Yield signs are usually placed on minor road approaches; where it is necessary
to yield the right of way to major road traffic. All drivers approaching with yield signs are
required to slow down and yield the right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection.
178
Stopping at yield signs is not mandatory, but drivers are required to stop when necessary to
avoid interfering with a traffic stream that has the right of way.
STOP signs: A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle is required to stop before
entering the intersection. A stop sign may be used on a minor road when it intersects a major
road, at an un-signalized intersection, or where a combination of high speed, restricted view,
and serious accidents indicates the necessity for such a control. Stop signs should not be used
at signalized intersections or on through roadways of expressways.
Roundabouts: A roundabout is a means of traffic control where one-way traffic circulates

around a central island. Priority within the roundabout is controlled by Giveaway (Yield) signs
for entering traffic, although occasionally traffic signals may be used. It considerably reduces
the number and severity of conflicts, and makes the traffic flow self-regulatory and continuous,
which reduces congestion and promotes safety.
Traffic signals: One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an intersection is the
use of traffic signals. Traffic signals can be used to eliminate many conflicts because different
traffic streams can be assigned the use of the intersection at different times. Since this result in
a delay for vehicles in all streams, traffic signals must be used only when necessary. The most
important factor that determines the need for traffic signals at a particular intersection is the
intersection‘s approach traffic volume. Accident experience may also play a significant role.
The efficient operation of the signal requires proper timing design. The main objectives of
signal timing at an intersection are to reduce the average delay of all vehicles and the
probability of an accident. These objectives are to achieve the average delay of all vehicles and
the probability of accidents. These objectives are achieved by minimizing the possible conflict
points when assigning the right of way to different traffic streams at different times. The cycle
length for an isolated intersection should be short, preferably between 35 and 60 sec, although
it may be necessary to use longer cycles when approach volumes are very high. However, cycle
lengths should be kept below 120 sec, since very long cycle lengths will result in excessive
delays. Several methods have been developed for determining the optimal cycle length at an
intersection, and, in most cases; the yellow interval is considered a component of the green
time. Figure 4.8 shows a typical two-phase signal system to illustrate the terminologies
commonly used in the design of signal times.
179
Figure 4.13 Typical two-phase signal system (Source: Ethiopian Roads
Yellow interval: The main purpose of the yellow indication after the green is to alert motorists
to the fact that the green light is about to change to red and to allow vehicles already in the
intersection to cross it. A bad choice of the yellow interval may lead to the creation of a
dilemma zone, an area close to an intersection in which a vehicle can neither stop safely before
the intersection nor clear the intersection without speeding before the red signal comes on. The
required yellow interval is the time period that guarantees that approaching vehicles can either
stop safely or proceed through the intersection without speeding.
The yellow interval, which eliminates the dilemma zone, is estimated from the following
equations:
W + L 𝑢0
τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = δ + +
𝑢0 2𝑎
If the effect of grade is added
W+L 𝑢0
τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = δ + +
𝑢0 2(𝑎 + 𝐺𝑔 )
180
Where, τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 = the minimum yellow interval, (sec)
δ = perception-reaction time (sec)
W = width of intersection, (m)
L = length of vehicle, (m)
uo = speed (m/sec)
𝑎 = deceleration, (m/sec2)
G = grade of the approach road, and
g = acceleration due to gravity
Yellow intervals of 3 to 5 sec are normally used. When longer yellow intervals than 5 sec are
computed from the above equations, an all-red phase can be inserted to follow the yellow
indication, but the change interval, yellow plus all-red, must be at least the value computed
from the equations.
Cycle lengths: Several design methods have been developed to determine the optimum cycle
length, one of which is the Webster method, which is presented here.
Webster method: Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical conditions, the
minimum intersection delay is obtained when the cycle length is obtained by the equation:
1.5L + 5
𝐶0 =
1 − ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖
Where, Co = optimum cycle length (sec)
L = total lost time per cycle (sec)
Yi = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows for all traffic
streams using phase i (i.e., Vii/ Sj)
n = number of phases
Vij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase i
Sj = saturation flow in lane i
181
Total Lost Time: Figure 4.14 shows a graph of the discharge of vehicles at various times
during a green signal cycle at an intersection. Initially, sometimes time is lost before the
vehicles start moving and then the rate of discharge increases to a maximum. This maximum
rate of discharge is the saturation flow. If there are sufficient vehicles in the queue to use the
available green time, the maximum rate of discharge will be sustained until the yellow phase
occurs. The rate of discharge will then fall to zero when the yellow signal changes to red. The
number of vehicles that go through the intersection is represented by the area under the curve.
Dividing the number of vehicles that go through the intersection by the saturation flow will
give an effective green time, which is less than the sum of the green and yellow times. This
difference is considered lost time, since it is not used in any other phase for the discharge of
vehicles; it can be expressed as
I𝑖 = 𝐺𝑒𝑖 + τ𝑖 + 𝐺𝑒𝑖
Where, I𝑖 = lost time for phase i
Gai = actual green time for phase I (not including yellow time),
τ𝑖 = yellow time for phase i
Gei = effective green time for phase i
Total lost time is given as
𝐿 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖 + 𝑅
𝑖=1
Where R is the total all-red time during the cycle
182
Figure 4.14: Discharge of a vehicle at various times during a green phase
Allocation of green time: in general, the total effective green time available per cycle is given
by
𝐺𝑡𝑒 = 𝐶 − 𝐿 = 𝐶 − [ ∑ 𝐼𝑖 + 𝑅 ]
𝑖=1
Where, C = actual cycle length used (usually obtained by rounding off C0, to the nearest 5
sec)
Gte=total effective green time per cycle.
To obtain the minimum overall delay, the total effective green time should be distributed
among the different phases in proportion to their Y values to obtain the effective green time for
each phase.
Y𝑖
G𝑒𝑖 = G
Y1 + Y2 +. . . +Y𝑛 𝑡𝑒
And the actual green time for each phase is obtained as
𝐺𝑎1 = 𝐺𝑒1 + 𝑙1 − τ1
𝐺𝑎2 = 𝐺𝑒2 + 𝑙2 − τ2
183
𝐺𝑎𝑖 = 𝐺𝑒𝑖 + 𝑙𝑖 − τ𝑖
𝐺𝑎𝑛 = 𝐺𝑒𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 − τ𝑛
For example: Figure 4.15a shows peak-hour volumes for a major intersection on an arterial
highway. Using the Webster method, determine suitable signal timing for the intersection using
a four-phase system and the additional data given in the figure. Use a yellow interval of 3 sec.
184
Figure 4.15a & b: Peak hour volume for major intersection on arterial
highway
185
Solution:
First convert the mixed volumes to equivalent straight-through passenger cars. The equivalent
volumes are shown in Figure 4.15b. The volumes were obtained by dividing by the PHF and
then by applying the relevant factors for trucks and left-turning vehicles as necessary. No
factors for right- turning vehicles were used because those volumes were very low. Assume the
following phasing system, where the arrows indicate traffic streams that have the right of way:
The critical lane volumes are (see Figure 4.15b)
Phase,n Critical Lane volume
A 499
B 338
C 115
D 519
1471
Compute the total time using li=4sec. Since there is not an all-red phase-that is, R=0 and there
are four phases,
𝐿 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖 = 4𝑥3.5 = 14 𝑆𝑒𝑐
𝑖=1
Phase A (EB) Phase B (WB) Phase C (SB) Phase D (NB)
Lane 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Vij 335 499 499 189 338 338 115 79 37 519 105 217
Sj 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000
Vij/ Sj 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.019 0.25 0.05 0.17
Yi 0.25 0.17 0.06 0.26
186
∑ 𝑌𝑖 = 0.74
Determine the optimum cycle length
1.5L + 5
𝐶0 =
1 − ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑌𝑖
1.5x14 + 5
𝐶0 = = 100 𝑆𝑒𝑐
1 − 0.74
Find the total effective green time:
𝐺𝑡𝑒 = 𝐶 − 𝐿 = 100 − 14 = 86 𝑆𝑒𝑐
Effective time for phase i is obtained from:
Y𝑖
G𝑒𝑖 = G
Y1 + Y2 +. . . +Y𝑛 𝑡𝑒
Y𝑖
G𝑒𝑖 = 86
0.25 + 0.17 + 0.06 + 0.26
Y𝑖
G𝑒𝑖 = 86
0.74
Yellow time τ =3 sec; then the actual green time for each phase can be calculated as:
0.25
Actual green time for phase A:𝐺𝑎𝐴 = 0.74 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 30 Sec
0.14
Actual green time for phase B: 𝐺𝑎𝐵 = 0.74 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 20 Sec
0.06
Actual green time for phase C: 𝐺𝑎𝐶 = 0.74 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 7 Sec
0.26
Actual green time for phase D: 𝐺𝑎𝐷 = 0.74 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 31 Sec
187
4.8 Terminals
4.8.1 Parking facilities
Widespread parking problems exist in business districts and other highly developed areas. The
provision of parking facilities where there is a demand is vital for the efficient and safe
movement of vehicles. The geometric design of parking facilities mainly involves the
dimensioning and arranging of parking bays to provide a safe and easy crossing without
seriously restricting the flow of traffic on the adjacent traveling lanes. The following paragraph
presents principles for the design of parking facilities.
On-Street Parking Facilities: On-street parking facilities may be designed with parking bays
parallel to the curb or inclined to the curb. Figure 4.16 shows the angles of inclination
commonly used for curb parking and the associated dimensions for automobile parking. It can
be seen that the number of parking bays that can be fitted along a given length of curb increases
as the angle of inclination increases, up to 900.
188
Figure 4.16: Various parking configurations
The higher the inclination angle, however, the greater the encroachment of the parking bays on
the traveling pavement of the highway. Parking bays inclined at angles to the curb severely
interfere with the movement of traffic on the highway, with the result that accident rates tend
to be higher on sections of the road with angled parking than on those with parallel parking. It
should be noted that the dimensions given in Figure 4.16 are for automobiles. When parking
bays are to be provided for trucks and other types of vehicles, their dimensions should be
determined based on the dimensions of the specific vehicles being considered.
Off-street parking facilities: The primary aim in designing off-street parking facilities is to
obtain the maximum possible number of spaces. Figure 4.17 shows different types of layouts
that can be used on a lot of surfaces. The most important consideration is that the layout should
be such that parking a vehicle involves only one distinct maneuver, without the necessity to
reverse. The different layouts also indicate that the parking space is most efficiently used when
the parking bays are inclined at 900 to the direction of traffic flow. The use of the herringbone
layout facilitates traffic circulation since it provides for a one-way flow of traffic on each
passageway.
189
Figure 4.17: Different types of off-street parking layout
Garages: Parking garages consist of several platforms, supported by columns, which are
placed in such a way as to facilitate an efficient arrangement of parking bays and passageways.
Access ramps connect each level with the one above. The gradient of these ramps is usually
not greater than 1 in 10 on straight ramps and 1 in 12 on the centerline of curved ramps. It is
recommended that the radius of curved ramps measured to the end of the outer curve should
not be less than 21 m, and that the maximum super elevation should be 0.15 m/m. It is also
recommended that the width should not be less than 5 m for curved ramps and 3 m for straight
ramps. These ramps can be one-way or two-way, although one-way ramps are preferable.
When two-way ramps are used, the lanes must be marked and perhaps physically divided,
particularly at curves and turning points. This helps to avoid head-on collisions that may occur
as drivers cut corners or swing wide at bends.
4.8.2 Truck Terminals
The planning and design of facilities to accommodate the loading, unloading, and parking of
trucks can have a significant impact on the operational efficiency of the street and highway
190
system. Although truck loading docks and berths (doors) are usually located off the rights-of-
way of public roadways, inadequacies in such facilities will cause bottlenecks and congestion
on the nearby streets and highways. Furthermore, trucks making pickups and deliveries for
commercial establishments often make use of street and alley space for maneuvering into truck
loading docks and berths. It is apparent that, while public highway agencies do not usually
become involved in the planning and design of truck loading and unloading facilities, it is in
the public interest that such facilities be properly planned and designed.
Truck terminal planning involves the determination of the overall size and general layout of
facilities required to handle the forecast quantity of freight. This includes estimating the
number of loading berths as well as the amount of space required for the handling and
temporary storage of the freight. To make reliable estimates of the number of loading berths,
it is necessary to make a thorough analysis of the truck movements and cargo-handling
procedures. The design year workload must also be forecast, taking into account daily and
seasonal variations in the rate of truck arrivals and the effect of loading and unloading rates
and procedures.
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Assessments
1. Practical
 Determine suitable signal timing for the intersection.
 Determine a suitable intersection for the proposed road.
2. Theory
(1) Which of the following is not an intersection at grade?
a) Un-channelized
b) Channelized
c) Rotary
d) Different level intersections
Answer: d
(2) An intersection that is provided for different levels of roads is called__________
a) Intersection at grade
b) Grade separation intersections
c) Channelized intersection
d) Rotary intersection
Answer: b
(3) Which of the following is not a requirement for the intersection at grade?
a) Area of conflict should be large

b) Adequate visibility
c) Avoiding sudden change of path
d) Sufficient radius should be provided
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Answer: a
(4) The most complex type of intersection for traffic operations is _____________
a) Un-channelized
b) Channelized
c) Rotary
d) Grade separation
Answer: a
(5) If the angle of merging is low, then the relative speed will be___________
a) Low
b) High
c) Medium
d) Depending on the width of the pavement
Answer: a
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(1) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different junction types.

.
(2) What is off-street parking? Where this is normally applied?
(3) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of traffic signal control and roundabouts?
(4) Describe the different types of islands used in channelizing at-grade intersections,
indicating the principal function of each type.
(5) A four-phase traffic signal is to be designed at an intersection with a cycle time that
minimizes intersection delay. The result of traffic counts and analysis is shown in Table 1.
Determine the cycle length and appropriate actual green times for each phase. Assume a yellow
period and lost time per green of 3 sec and 3.5 sec, respectively. Use the PHF=0.95
194
Table 1. Traffic flow equivalent to PCU through traffic
Traffic turning movement
Road Left Through Right Saturation flow
A 30 280 40 2000
B 25 300 100 1800
C 15 400 80 1600
D 10 550 150 2000
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Evaluation Table
Test 1
Test 2
Result
1
Class Assignment
2
Understanding on
the Intersection
Performance
Work
Evaluation
Attitude
Complete task
Time used
Time (180 Min.)
(1 per 10 min.)
Total /45
196
References
[1] Institute of Transportation Engineers (2009). Traffic Engineering Handbook, 6th Edition.
Washington, DC
[2] Highway Statistics. (2003). FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation
[3] Federal Highway Administration. (2003). Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices,
McLean, VA
[4] Federal Highway Administration (2001). Traffic Control Devices Handbook, Washington,
DC
[5] National Research Council (1998). "Modern Roundabout Practice in the United States—A
synthesis of Highway Practice “NCHRP Synthesis 264”, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC
Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
197
Chapter 5 Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul
Diagram
Lesson Plan

2. Motivation
Criteria Analysis
 Understand the different geometric design control criteria’s and their impact on
project
198
4. Equipment
• Desktop or laptop computer with an internet connection.
• Maps

 Brief introduction of route selection
 Tool setup
6. Assessments
selection?
7. Clean-up
Review the outcome of the practice, improvement measure, and previous reflected
opinions.
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5. Earthwork Quantities and Mass Haul Diagram
5.1 Introduction
Earthwork is excavation of material from cutting and/or construction of embankments which

is required to convert right of way from natural condition and configuration to a level that is
ready for pavement work as prescribed in the design of the road.
Key terms and definitions associated with this process include:
 Borrow - material not obtained from roadway excavation but secured by widening cuts,
flattening back slopes, excavating from sources adjacent to the road within the right-
of-way, or from selected borrowed pits as may be noted in the plans
 Waste - material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making the
embankment
 Free Haul - the maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without the added cost above the unit bid price
 Overhaul - excavated material transported to a distance beyond the free haul distance
 Economic Limit of Haul - distance through which it is more economical to haul
excavated material than to waste and borrow
The careful attention to limiting earthwork quantities through the preparation of a mass haul
diagram an essential element in providing the best-combined horizontal, vertical, and cross-
sectional design. This is especially true when the design includes consideration of the least cost
in relation to earthworks.
The activities that are undertaken on earthworks include:
 Clearing and grubbing

 Roadway excavation: This consists of common or soft excavation, intermediate and
hard rock excavation and boulder excavation.
 Removal and stockpiling of unsuitable excavated material off the right of limit.
 Borrow excavation and hauling to be used for roadway filling.
191
 Embankments are constructions from material obtained from excavation within the
right of way or borrow.
 Sub grade preparation: this consists of assessment of sub grade material, removal and
replacement of unsuitable material as necessary, and preparation of graded road bed for
surfacing or surfaced road bed for paving. The compacted sub grade may be the
surfaced layer of the sub grade, compacted in cut areas, or embankment material in the
fill zone.
 Shoulder and side slope construction
 Protection of earthworks: This work covers protection of earthworks including
excavation, embankment, slopes and sub grade from effects of weather.
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are:
 End area calculations

 Earthwork calculations
 Preparation of mass haul diagram
 Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
These steps are presented in the following text. Of note is the fact that most current highway
design computer programs, including MX (MOSS), will produce the mass haul diagram as part
of the output when typical sections and horizontal and vertical alignments are inputs. A final
stage of geometric design is then usually to make adjustments to the alignments in the interests
of balancing or minimizing the earthwork quantities.
5.2 End Area Calculations
End area calculations are usually made by one of the following methods:
1. Planimeter Method - The original ground line and template section (cross section) must
be plotted on grid paper. Centerline profile grade must first be calculated for each cross
section station to determine the centerline reference of each template plot. Areas of cut
and fill quantities are calculated using a planimeter, converted to square meters, and
tabulated for each section.
192
2. Electronic Computer Method - This method is widely used due to its versatility and
speed of calculations. The end area calculation on modern computer programs is an
integral part of the alignment design program and shown on output listings along with
the geometrics of each section
.
5.3 Calculating Earthwork
There are several ways of calculating earthwork, but the most common is the "average end
area" method. This method consists of averaging the cut and fill quantities of adjacent stations
and multiplying the distance between stations to produce cubic meters of excavation and
embankment between the two stations. This procedure is followed when manual methods are
used. Projects designed by computer will be tabulated on the mass plot listing and these
calculations are integral parts of the alignment design program.
Compaction factors of excavated material must be determined or estimated in order to

determine earthwork quantities of excavation and embankment. When common material is
excavated from natural ground and compacted in an embankment, it loses volume. When solid
rock is broken up and compacted in an embankment, it usually swells. Although adjustment
factors can be applied to either embankment or excavation quantities, it is general practice to
apply the compaction factor to the excavation so that a compaction factor of –25 percent would
result in 100 cubic meters of excavation required for an embankment of 75 cubic meters.
Likewise, a 10 percent swell factor would result in 100 cubic meters of rock excavation
required for an embankment of 110 cubic meters.
Compaction factors should be determined or estimated for each project, taking into
consideration the various types of soils and depth of proposed cuts and fills.
The designer should avoid using one factor for the entire project as this result in incorrect
distribution of earthwork quantities. Cuts through rock should be classified using parameters,
such as swell, associated with the particular rock, and not as a common value for all types of
excavation.
Sometimes the use of stripping factors or pre-rolling factors of the natural ground prior to
placing embankments is employed. This is done by assuming that the natural ground will be
stripped or compacted to a certain depth, such as 75 – 100 millimeters, thus increasing the
193
volume of the required embankment to be placed on the natural ground. This assumption may
prove satisfactory for projects following virgin country having a fairly uniform type of soil.
However, problems develop with projects that follow an existing road as only those areas
beyond the toe of slopes of the existing roadway will compact the estimated depth. This manual
does not recommend the use of natural ground or stripping factors in Ethiopia road authority
projects. Instead, it is recommended that if the designer considers this volume to be significant,
it is recommended to increase the compaction factors from say –20 percent to –25 percent.
Accumulation totals of cut and fill can now be calculated as follows:
 Total accumulated cut is the total of adjusted cuts (excavation volume x adjustment
factor) added from station to station.
 Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station (no
adjustment).
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of adjusted excavation
and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using "+" for excavation and "-" for
embankment
5.4 Computing Earthwork Volumes
One of the major objectives in selecting a particular location for a highway is to minimize the
amount of earthwork required for the project. Therefore, the estimation of the amount of
earthwork involved for each alternative location is required at both the preliminary and final
stages.
To determine the amount of earthwork involved for a given grade line, cross sections are taken
at regular intervals along the grade line. The cross sections are usually spaced 50 ft apart,
although this distance is sometimes increased for preliminary engineering.
194
Figure 5.1: Types of cross Sections
These cross sections are obtained by plotting the natural ground levels and proposed grade
profile of the highway along a line perpendicular to the grade line to indicate areas of
excavation and areas of fill. Figure 5.1 shows three types of cross sections. When the
computation is done manually, the cross sections are plotted on standard cross-section paper,
usually to a scale of 1 in. to 10 ft for both the horizontal and vertical directions. The areas of
cuts and fills at each cross section are then determined by the use of a planimeter or by any
other suitable method. Surveying books document the different methods for area computation.
The volume of earthwork is then computed from the cross-sectional areas and the distances
between the cross sections.
A common method of determining the volume is that of average end areas. This procedure is
based on the assumption that the volume between two consecutive cross sections is the average
of their areas multiplied by the distance between them, computed as follows.
195
L
𝑉= (𝐴 + 𝐴2 )
54 1
Where
V = volume (yd3)
A1 and A2 = end areas (ft2)
L = distance between cross sections (ft)
The average end-area method has been found to be sufficiently accurate for most earthwork
computations, since cross sections are taken 50 to 100 ft apart, and minor irregularities tend to
cancel each other. When greater accuracy is required, such as in situations where the grade line
moves from a cut to a fill section, the volume may be considered as a pyramid or other
geometric shape.
It is common practice in earthwork construction to move suitable materials from cut sections
to fill sections to reduce to a minimum the amount of material borrowed from borrow pits.
When the materials excavated from cut sections are compacted in the fill sections, they fill less
volume than was originally occupied. This phenomenon is referred to as shrinkage and should
be accounted for when excavated material is to be reused as fill material. The amount of
shrinkage depends on the type of material. Shrinkages of up to 50 percent have been observed
for some soils. However, shrinkage factors used are generally between 1.10 and 1.25 for high
fills and between 1.20 and 1.25 for low fills. These factors are applied to the fill volume in
order to determine the required quantity of fill material.
Example 1: A roadway section is 2000 ft long (20 stations). The cut and fill volumes are to be
computed between each station. Table 5.1 lists the station numbers (column 1) and lists the end
area values (ft2) between each station that is in cut (column 2) and that are in fill (column 3).
Material in a fill section will consolidate (known as shrinkage), and for this road section, is 10
percent. (For example, if 100 yd3 of net fill is required, the total amount of fill material that is
supplied by a cut section is 100 + (0.10 x 100) = 100 + 10 = 110 ft3.)
Determine the net volume of cut and fill that is required between station 0 and station 1.
196
Solution:
100(𝐴𝑜𝑐 + 𝐴1𝑐 ) 100(3 + 2)

𝑉𝑐𝑢𝑡 = = = 9.25 𝑦𝑑3
54 54
100(𝐴𝑜𝐹 + 𝐴1𝐹 ) 100(18 + 50)

𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 = = = 125.9 𝑦𝑑3
54 54
Shrinkage = 125.9 (0.10) = 13 yd3
Total fill volume = 126 + 13 = 139 yd3
The cut and fill volume between station 0 + 00 and 1+ 00 is shown in columns 4 and 7.
Cut: 9 yd3 (column 4)
Fill: 126 yd3 (column 5)
Shrinkage: 13 yd3 (column 6)
Total fill required: 139 yd3 (column 7)
Table 5.1: Computation of Fill and Cut Volumes and Mass Diagram
Ordinate
End Area (ft2) Volume (yd3) Net Volume (4 to 7)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Station Cut Fill Total Fill Shrinkage Total Fill (-) Cut (+) Mass
Cut 10 percent Fill Diagram
(5+6) Ordinate
0 3 18 9 126 13 139 130 - 0
1 2 50 7 272 27 299 292 - -130
2 2 97 11 420 42 462 451 - -422
3 4 130 22 335 34 369 347 - -873
4 8 51 89 178 18 196 107 - -1220
5 40 45 157 120 12 132 - 25 -1327
197
6 45 20 231 46 5 51 - 180 -1302
7 80 5 374 13 1 14 - 360 -1122
8 122 2 467 4 0 4 - 463 -762
9 130 0 500 0 0 0 - 500 -299
10 140 0 444 6 1 7 - 437 201
11 100 3 333 61 6 67 - 266 638
12 80 30 287 93 9 102 - 185 904
13 75 20 231 130 13 143 - 88 1089
14 50 50 130 241 24 265 135 - 1177
15 20 80 56 333 33 366 310 - 1042
16 10 100 19 407 41 448 429 - 732
17 0 120 6 444 44 488 482 - 303
18 3 120 80 315 31 346 266 - -179
19 40 50 130 148 15 163 33 - -445
20 30 30 - - - - - - -478
Net volume between stations 0-1 = total cut - total fill = 9 – 139
= 130 yd3 (column 8)
Note: Net fill volumes are negative (-) (column 8) and net cut volumes are positive (+) (column
9).
Similar calculations are performed between all other stations, from station 1 + 00 to 20 + 00,
to obtain the remaining cut or fill values shown in columns 2 through 9.
5.5 Mass Haul Diagram
The mass haul diagram is a curve in which the abscissas represent the stations of the survey
and the ordinates represent the algebraic sum of excavation and embankment quantities from
some point of beginning on the profile. The plot can be on any scale, depending on the
quantities involved. Project designed by computer will list, tabulate, and plot all of the data
shown above, including a mass haul diagram and balance points.
198
The steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the development of the
optimal mass haul diagram are:
 End area calculations

 Earthwork calculations
 Preparation of mass haul diagram
 Balancing earthworks using the mass haul diagram
Of note is the fact that most current highway design computer programs will produce the mass
haul diagram as part of the output when typical sections and horizontal and vertical alignments
are inputs. A final stage of geometric design is then usually to make adjustments to the
alignments in the interests of balancing or minimizing the earthwork quantities.
General steps to be followed for determining the mass haul diagram are:
(1) Calculate fill and cut volumes separately

(2) Correct the volumes calculated for swell and shrinkage
(3) Tabulate the corrected cut and fill volumes, and aggregate volumes in the following
format.
Stations Earthwork Qty Shrinkage/Swell Earthwork Qty Aggregate

Factor Volumes
in m3
Cut(+) in Fill(-) in Cut(+) in Fill(-) in
m3 m3 m3 m3
(4) Plot the Mass-haul diagram with stations in x-coordinate and aggregate volumes in y-
coordinate.
199
The mass haul diagram shows excavation (adjusted) and embankment quantities from some
point at the beginning in the profile, considering cut volumes positive and fill volumes negative.
At the beginning of the curve, the ordinate is zero, and ordinates are calculated continuously
from the initial station to the end of the project.
The mass haul diagram can be used to determine:
 Proper distribution of excavated material

 Amount and location of waste
 Amount and location of borrowing
 Amount of overhaul in kilometers-cubic meters
 Direction of haul.
The following figure shows a mass haul curve diagram with an accompanying profile of
existing ground line and grade line.
The double line in the profile and the mass haul diagram indicate areas of excavation. Arrows
indicate the direction of haul. Note in the mass haul diagram that the material moves from the
rising line to the falling line.
Note that the properties of mass haul diagrams are as follows:
a) An upward slope on the mass curve indicates excavation, and conversely, a downward
slope indicates embankment. The steeper the slope of the mass curve, the greater the
cubic meters of excavation or embankment.
b) The maximum ordinate of the mass curve occurs at the point where excavation ends
and the embankment starts. Similarly, the minimum ordinate occurs at the point where
the embankment ends and excavation starts.
c) Cut and fill quantities between the points at which any horizontal line cuts off a loop of
the mass curve will exactly balance. Such horizontal lines are called balance lines and
the points at which these lines intersect the mass curve are called balance points.
d) Areas below the balance line indicate that the hauling of the excavation to the
embankment is from right to left, whereas areas above the balance line indicate that the
haul is from left to right.
e) The area between a balance line and its corresponding loop of the mass curve is a
measure of haul (the product of the volume and distance in station-meters).
200
f) The ordinate at any station represents the accumulated amount of surplus or deficit of
material at the station. It does not indicate the amount of cut or fill volume at that station.
Figure 5.2: Relationship of profile grade and haul to mass haul

diagram
Example 2: Computing Mass Diagram Ordinates
Use the data obtained in Example 1 to determine the net accumulation of cut or fill beginning
with station 0 + 00. Plot the results.
Solution: Columns 8 and 9 show the net cut and fill between each station. To compute the
mass diagram ordinate between station X and X + 1, add the net accumulation from Station X
(the first station) to the net cut or fill volume (columns 8 or 9) between stations X and X + 1.
Enter this value in column 10.
Station 0+00 mass diagram ordinate =0
201
Station 1+00 mass diagram ordinate =0 – 130 = -130 yd3
Station 2+00 mass diagram ordinate = - 130 -292 = -422 yd3
Station 3+00 mass diagram ordinate =-422 – 451 = -873 yd3
Station 6+00 mass diagram ordinate =1327 + 25 = -1302 yd3
Station 7+00 mass diagram ordinate =-1302 + 180 = -1122 yd3
Continue the calculation process for the remaining 13 stations to obtain the values shown in
column 10 of Table 5.1. A plot of the results is shown in Figure 5.3.
Interpretation of the Mass Diagram
Inspection of Figure 5.3 and Table 5.1 reveals the following characteristics.
(1) When the mass diagram slopes downward (negative), the preceding section is in fill,
and when the slope is upward (positive), the preceding section is in cut.
(2) The difference in the mass diagram ordinates between any two stations represents the
net accumulation between the two stations (cut or fill). For example, the net
accumulation between stations 6 + 00 and 12 + 00 is 1302 + 904 = 2206 yd3.
(3) A horizontal line on the mass diagram defines the locations where the net accumulation
between these two points is zero. These are referred to as “balance points,” because
there is a balance in cut and fill volumes between these points. In figure 5.3, the “x”
axis represents a balance between points A’ and D’ and a balance between points D’ and
E’. Beyond point E’, the mass diagram indicates a fill condition for which there is no
compensating cut. The maximum value is the ordinate at station 20 + 00 of -478 yd3.
For this section, imported material (called borrow) will have to be purchased and
transported from an off-site location.
202
Figure 5.3: Mass Diagram for Computation Shown in Table 5.1
(4) Other horizontal lines can be drawn connecting portions of the mass diagram. For
example, lines J-K and S-T, which are each five stations long, depict a balance of cut
and fill between stations at points J and K and S and T
5.6 Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram
The designer should carefully assess the project before the start of design and set certain
guidelines for balancing the earthwork. A determination should be made as to the maximum
haul distance or distance between balance points, whether tight balances will be used or
whether it will be more economical to excavate spoil in some areas and obtain borrowed
material in others.
203
Earthwork Analysis
 Assume a free haul distance and find by trial a horizontal line to intersect the curve at
A and C such that the length of line AC equals the assumed free haul distance. The
quantity of material above line AC will be hauled at no extra cost. Of note is the fact
that this material is a measure of ordinate from line AC to point B and it is the volume
of material to be cut from ab to be filled in bc.
 Considering the volume of material above the balance line OD. A study of the mass
haul and the corresponding profile shows that the cut from o to b makes the fill b to d.
Since the part above, line AC is included in the free haul, the remaining part between
line OD and AC which is measured by the ordinate AA’ is subjected to overhaul unless
wastage and, borrow takes place. That is, the excavation from C to A may be overhauled
to make the fill CD.
 The average distance of overhaul of the material o to a to make the fill a to c is the
distance between the center of gravity of cut o to a and fill c to d.
 The approximate gravity lines are found as follows
Bisect AA’ at M and draw a horizontal line intersecting the curve at H and J. These
points are assumed to be vertically below the desired center of gravity. Therefore, the
average haul distance is given by the distance HJ and the overhaul distance can be
obtained by subtracting the free haul distance.
Overhaul distance = HJ – AC
204
Figure 5.4: Balancing Earthwork Using the Mass Haul Diagram
Example 3: Computing Balance Point Stations
Compute the value of balance point stations for the mass diagram in Figure 5.3 for the
following situations:
(a) The x-axis
(b) The horizontal distance S-T, which measures 500 ft?
Solution:
(a) Balance points are computed by interpolation using the even stations where the ordinates
change from cut to fill (or vice versa).
Balance point D’ occurs between Stations 9 + 00 and 10 + 00 (since ordinate values are -299
and +201).
Assuming that the mass diagram ordinate changes linearly between stations, by similar
triangles, we can write
205
Station of the Balance Point D’ = (9 + 00) + [299/ (299 + 201) (100) = 9 + 60
Similarly,
Station of the Balance Point E’ = (17 + 00) + [303/ (303 + 179) (100) = 17 + 63
(b) To determine the balance point stations for line ST, it is necessary to draw the mass diagram
to a larger scale than depicted in the textbook, and to read the station for one of the points
directly from the diagram. Using this technique, station 11 + 20 was measured for point S and
from this value the station for point T is computed as
(11 + 20) + (5 + 00) = Station 16 + 20
5.7 Economical analysis
The economical limit of haul is defined as the distance through which it is more economical
to haul excavated material than to waste and borrow. The following formula is presented as a
guide to assist the designer in determining the economic limit of haul:
E.L.H. = F.H. distance + Unit Price of Borrow Unit Price of Overhaul
Where: E.L.H = Economic limit of haul
F.H. = Free haul distance
Example: Assume F.H. Distance = 1500 meters
Borrow U.P. = ETB 8.00/m3
Overhaul U.P. = ETB 5.00/100/meter/m3
E.L.H = 15 + 8 .5
E.L.H = 15 + 16 = 3100 m
Listed below are a few considerations in determining the best earthwork design:
a) Right-of-way restrictions may necessitate importing borrowed materials for the

required embankments.
206
b) Where large quantities of inferior or deleterious material are encountered in the
excavation, it will be necessary to waste this material, which is unsuitable for use as an
embankment.
c) Special conditions for deep cuts, such as sloughing, sight distance requirements, or sand
drift conditions may require very flat back slopes, resulting in large amounts of
excavation and no large embankments within a reasonable haul distance. This situation
will require some excavated material to be wasted.
d) The need to carry the road level considerably above the existing ground for extended
distances through flood plain areas will generally require borrow excavation.
After the designer has analyzed all of the above factors and determined how he proposes to
balance the earthwork, he is ready to start calculations as previously outlined.
In order to obtain a better perspective of the work, the project should be broken down to
sections not to exceed 5 kilometers in length. This allows the designer to work with smaller
sections, solving the individual problems of each section involving drainage, grades, erosion
control, and earthwork distribution. Figure 5.4 shows three situations where the balance line
can be at the top, bottom or at the center of the mass curve. Note that Case 3, where the balance
line is located at the center of the mass curve, is not necessarily the ideal situation in all cases.
The profile grade should be studied along with the mass haul diagram to determine where it
will be more economical to haul towards back stations (Case 1), towards forward stations (Case
2), or to haul equally towards back and forward stations (Case 3).
Free haul is defined as the maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without added cost above the unit bid price. Prior to the use of high-speed
pneumatic-tired earth moving equipment, free haul distances were limited to approx. 1000
meters, but distances of up to 2000 meters are not uncommon now. Special conditions on a
project may require longer hauls, where restrictions do not allow excavation or borrow in the
immediate area. Some Ethiopia road authority contracts do not provide for separate payment
for haul and/or overhaul, but make this work incidental to the excavation item. Haul and
overhaul figures shall be made available to prospective bidders to assist them in determining
their excavation bid price. A note on the mass haul diagram, in the plans, or in the specifications
shall state that the contractor may be required to haul material a specified distance, or within
balance points shown on the plans, without additional compensation.
207
Example 4: Computing Overhaul Payment
The free-haul distance in a highway construction contract is 500 ft and the overhaul price is
$11/yd3 station. For the mass diagram shown in Figure 5.3, determine the extra compensation
that must be paid to a contractor to balance the cut and fill between station 9 + 60 (D) and
station 17 + 63 (E).
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the number of cubic yards of overhaul.
The overhaul volume will occur between stations 9 + 60 and 11 + 20, and between stations 16
+ 20 and 17 + 63. The overhaul value is obtained by interpolation between stations 11 + 00 and
12 + 00 or by reading the value from the mass diagram.
By interpolation, the value is
Overhaul = Ordinate at station 11 + (difference in ordinates at 12 and 11) (20/100)
=638 + (904 – 638) (0.2) = 638 + 53 =691 yd3
This overhaul value should equal the value at station 16 + 20. By interpolation, the value is
732 – (732 – 303) (0.2) =646 yd3
Since the values are not equal, use the average (669 yd3) or measure the overhaul from a larger
scale diagram to obtain a value of 675 yd3. This value is selected for the calculation of
contractor compensation.
Step 2: Determine the overhaul distance.
The method of moments is used to compute the weighted average of the overhaul distances
from the balance line to the station where free haul begins.
Beginning with stations 9 + 60 to 10 + 00, the volume moved is 201 yd3, and the average
distance to the free-haul station (11 + 20) is (10 + 00 – 9 + 60)/2 + 100 + 20 = 140 ft.
From stations 10 + 00 to 11 + 00, the volume moved is (638 - 201) = 437 yd3, and the distance
moved to the free-haul line is (11 + 00 - 10 + 00)/2 + 20 = 70 ft.
208
From station 11 + 00 to station 11+ 20, the volume moved is 675 – 638 = 37 yd3, and the
average distance is 10 ft.
Overhaul distance moved between station 9 + 60 and 11 + 20 is
{(201) (140) + (437) (70) + (37)(10)} /675 = 59,100/675 = 87.6 ft
Similarly, compute the overhaul distance between the balance point at station 17 + 63 and the
beginning of free haul at station 16 + 20. Beginning with stations 17 + 63 to 17 + 00, the volume
moved is 303 yd3 , and the average distance to the free-haul station (16 + 20) is (17 + 63)/2
+( 17 + 00) - 16 + 20) = 111.5 ft.
From stations 17 + 00 to 16 + 20, the volume moved is (675 - 303) = 372 yd3, and the distance
moved to the free-haul line is (17 + 00 - 16 + 20)/2 = 40 ft.
Overhaul average distance moved between station 16 + 20 and 17 + 63 is
{(303) (111.5) + (372) (40)}/ 675 = 48,664.5/ 675 = 72.1 ft
Total overhaul distance = 87.6 + 72.1 = 159.7 ft
Step 3: Compute overhaul cost due to the contractor.
Overhaul cost = contract price ($/yd3 station) x overhaul (yd3) x stations
= 11 x 675 x (0.876 + 0.721) = $11,858
209
Assessments
1. Practical
 Install the necessary software necessary for inroads.
 Mass-haul diagram showing the movements of the earth-work
2. Theory
(1) A cross-section of earthwork of road in banking is in the form of trapezium. Name the
method to calculate the quantity of earthwork.
e) Longitudinal formula
f) Quadrilateral formula
g) Prismoidal formula
h) Trapezium formula
Answer: c
(2) Cut and fill of earthwork is performed while constructing a new road line on undulating
surface. Which of the following conditions should be maintained so that construction cost is
minimized?
a) Quantity of cut = Quantity of fill

b) Construction cost is independent of quantity of cut and fill
c) Quantity of cut > Quantity of fill
d) P Quantity of cut < Quantity of fill
Answer: a
(3) To calculate the volume of earthwork from a contour plan for filling a depression or pond
and for cutting a hillock ___________________ may be used conveniently.
a) Elevation method
210
b) Section area method
c) prismoidal formula
d) Contour method
Answer: c
(4) Which of the following values is necessary in the case of determining the correction in
prismoid?
a) Volume
b) Area
c) Constants
d) distance between the sides
Answer: d
(5) The assumption on which the trapezoidal formula for volumes is based, is
a) The end sections are parallel planes.

b) The mid-area of a pyramid is half the average area of the ends.
c) The volume of the prismoidal correction is applied
d) All the above
Answer: d
211
(1) A roadway is to be designed on level terrain. This roadway is 150 meters in length. Four
cross sections have been selected, one at 0 meters, one at 50 meters, one at 100 meters, and one
at 150 meters. The cross sections, respectively, have areas of 40 square meters, 42 square
meters, 19 square meters, and 34 square meters. What is the volume of earthwork needed along
this road?
(2) What is mass diagram? Use an assumed natural profile and corresponding grade of a road
of your own choice plot and discuss the concepts of the mass diagram.
(3) What are mass haul diagrams? How are they useful in highway design and construction?
212
(4) Give the definition of each of the following terms
 Free haul
 Over haul
 Mass haul diagram
 Borrow
 waste
(5) Write the four steps involved in the computation of earthwork quantities and the
development of the optimal mass haul diagram?
(6) What is the most common method of calculation of earthwork Area?
(7) Calculate and Draw Mass Diagram Assuming Shrinkage = 25%
213
End Area(x103)
Station Cut Fill
0+000
0+100 3.21
0+200 1.4
0+300 1.8
0+400 1.15
0+500 1.65
0+600 1.64
0+700 2.13
0+800 1.90
0+900 1.84
1+000 2.20
1+100 2.30
1+200 1.97
1+300 1.11
1+400 1.55
214
Evaluation Table
Test 1
Test 2
Result
1
Class Assignment
2
Understanding on
the earthwork and
Mass haul
Diagram
Work
Performance
Evaluation
Attitude
Complete task
Time used
Time (180 Min.)
(1 per 10 min.)
Total /45
215
References
[1] Uren, J., Price, W.F. (1978). Mass Haul Diagrams. In: Surveying for Engineers. Palgrave,
London.
216
Chapter 6 Drainage and Drainage Structures
Lesson Plan
2. Motivation
Criteria Analysis
 Understand the different geometric design control criteria and their impact on
project
217
4. Equipment
 Desktop or Laptop computer with internet connection.
 Software (Civil 3D and Auto Cad)
 Maps
 Total Station, Meter and string
 Brief introduction to route selection
 Tool setup
6. Assessments
selection?
7. Clean-up
opinions
218
6. Drainage and Drainage Structures
6.1 Introduction
Highway drainage structures are an essential component in the design of a highway. Provision
of adequate drainage is an important factor in the location and geometric design of highways.
It is desirable that they be designed economically and provide an adequate level of service.
Factors such as initial cost, design life, and the risk of loss of use of the roadway for a time due
to runoff exceeding the capacity of the drainage structure, need to be considered in the design.
Drainage facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for the flow of water
away from the surface and subsurface of the pavement to properly designed channels and then
discharge into the natural waterways. Inadequate drainage will eventually result in:
(1) Serious damage to highway structure

 Reduce pavement strength
 Swelling heave
 Stripping of asphalt
 Cause pumping in rigid pavements
 Fronts heave and reduction of bearing capacity when melting
(2) Traffic operation problems
 Slow traffic movement by accumulated water on the pavement
 It causes traffic accidents as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from
the splash and spray.
The importance of adequate drainage is well recognized in highway engineering and about 25
percent of highway construction cost is estimated to be spent on erosion control and drainage
structures, such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches.
6.1.1 Construction Considerations

218
Many serious construction problems arise because important drainage and water related factors
were overlooked or neglected in the planning and location phases of the project. With proper
planning, many factors can be avoided or cost effective solutions developed to prevent
extended damage. Such factors include:
 Soil erosion;
 Sediment deposition;
 Drainage and landslide;
 Timing of project stages;
 Protection of irrigation systems and continued use during construction;
 Protection of streams, lakes, and rivers; and
 Protection of wetlands
Analysis of available data, scheduling of work, and other aspects involved in the early planning
and location studies can alleviate many problems encountered in the construction of drainage
structures
6.1.2 Maintenance Considerations
Planning and location studies should consider potential erosion and sedimentation problems.
If a particular location requires frequent and expensive maintenance due to drainage, alternate
locations shall be considered, unless these maintenance costs can be reduced by special design.
Local experience is the best indicator of maintenance problems and interviews with
maintenance personnel and local residents are extremely helpful in identifying potential
drainage problems. Reference to highway maintenance, flood reports, and damage surveys is
also valuable in evaluating potential maintenance problems.
6.1.3 Drainage Surveys
Since hydraulic considerations can influence the selection of a highway corridor and the
alternate routes within the corridor, the type and amount of data needed for planning studies
varies widely. These studies depend on such elements as environmental considerations, class
of the proposed highway, state of land-use development, and individual site conditions.
219
Topographic maps, aerial photographs, and stream flow records provide helpful preliminary
drainage data, but historical high-water elevations and flood discharges are of particular interest
in establishing waterway requirements. Comprehensive hydraulic investigations may be
required when route selection involves important hydraulic features, such as water-supply
wells and reservoirs, flood-control dams, water resource projects, and encroachment on flood
plains of major streams. Special studies and investigations, including consideration of the
environmental and ecological impact, shall be commensurate with the importance and
magnitude of the project and the complexity of the problems encountered.
6.1.4 Data Collection
As part of planning and location studies, several categories of data shall be obtained and
evaluated, including:
 Physical characteristics of drainage basins;

 Maps and topographic data including channel surveys and cross sections;
 Runoff quantity data (hydrologic and precipitation data);
 Channel and flood plain delineation and related studies;
 Flood history and problem inventory;
 Existing storm water management structure characteristics;
 Development of alternative plan concepts;
 Hydrologic and hydraulic analysis of alternative concepts;
 Consideration of multipurpose opportunities and constraints, benefit/cost analysis and
evaluation; and
 Runoff quantity data.
6.1.5 Stream Crossings
220
Additional factors to be considered in locating a stream crossing that involves encroachment
within a flood plain are:
 River type (straight or meandering),

 River characteristics (stable or unstable),
 River geometry and alignment,
 Hydrology,
 Hydraulics,
 Flood plain flow,
 Needs of the area, and
 Economic and environmental concerns.
A detailed evaluation of these factors is part of the location hydraulics study. When a suitable
crossing location has been selected, specific crossing components can be determined.
6.1.6 Types of Data
The following is a brief description of the types of data needed for planning and location studies.
(1) Topographic
Topographic data shall be acquired at sites requiring hydraulic studies. This data is needed to
analyze existing flow conditions, and those created by various design alternatives. Significant
physical and cultural features near the project shall be located and documented in order to
obtain their elevation. Features such as residences, commercial buildings, schools, churches,
farms, other roadways and bridges, and utilities can affect, as well as be affected by, the design
of any new hydraulic structure. Often, recent topographic surveys will not be available at this
early stage of project development. Aerial photographs, photogrammetric maps, topographic
maps, and even old highway plans may be utilized during the planning and location phases.
When better survey data becomes available, usually during the design phase, these early
estimates will need to be revised to correspond with the most recent field information.
(2) Channel Characteristics
In order to perform an accurate hydraulic analysis, the profile, horizontal alignment and cross
sections of the stream shall be obtained.
221
One method that can be useful in determining channel characteristics, such as material in the
streambeds and banks, type and coverage of vegetal material, and evidence of drift or debris is
the taking of photographs. Field visits made early in the project life can include photographing
the channel, upstream and downstream, and the adjoining flood plain. The photos can be
valuable aids for not only preliminary studies but also for documentation of existing conditions.
The designer should determine the details of the field survey required at the site. This should
include the upstream and downstream limits of the survey, the number of and distance between
cross sections, and how far to either side of the channel the sections should extend. The
minimum number of cross sections will vary with the study requirements and the particular
stream characteristics. The level of accuracy of the survey required shall be a consideration
when determining the degree of hydraulic analysis needed.
(3) Hydrologic Data
Information required by the designer for analysis and design includes the physical
characteristics of the land and channel, as well as all the features that can affect the magnitude
and frequency of the flood flow. These data may include climatological characteristics, land
runoff characteristics, stream gauging records, high water marks, and the size and past
performance of existing structures in the vicinity. The exact data required will depend upon the
methods used to estimate flood discharges, frequencies, and stages.
(4) Catchment Characteristics
The hydrologic characteristics of the catchment of the stream under study are needed for any
predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these characteristics can be
found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of the basin. The size and
configuration of the catchment, the geometry of the stream network, storage volumes of ponds,
lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and soil of the basin can all be found
from maps. Land use and vegetal cover may be also be determined from maps, but with rapidly
changing land use, a more accurate survey will probably be achieved from aerial photographs
and field visits. Having determined these catchment characteristics, runoff times, infiltration
values, storage values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow
values.
(5) Precipitation
222
A precipitation survey normally consists of the collection of rainfall records form the rainfall
stations near the study site. Unlike the survey of stream flow records or basin characteristics,
however, rainfall records from outside the watershed can be utilized. Ideally, these records will
contain several years of events, for every month and season and will include duration values
for various long rainstorms.
(6) Flood Data
The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis. This
data can be collected both in the office and in the field. The office acquisition includes the
collection of past flood records, stream gauging records, and newspaper accounts. The field
collection will consist mainly of interviews with residents, maintenance personnel, and local
officials who may have recollections or photos of past flood events in the area. If there is a
stream gauging station on the stream being studied, it is close to the crossing site, and has many
years of measurements, then, in some cases, this may be the only hydrologic data needed. This
data shall be analyzed to ensure that stream flows have not changed over the time of
measurement. Such changes in flow may be due to watershed alteration such as the construction
of a large storage structure, diversion of flow to another watershed, addition of flow from
another watershed, or development that has significantly altered the runoff characteristics of
the watershed.
(7) High-Water Information
Sometimes high-water marks are the only data of past floods available. When collected, these
should include the date and elevation of the flood event when possible. The cause of the high-
water mark should also be noted. Often, unusual debris rather than an inadequate structure
causes the mark. Therefore, designing roadway or structure grades to such an elevation could
lead to an unrealistic, uneconomical design.
High-water marks can be identified in several ways. Small debris, such as grass or twigs caught
in tree branches, hay or crops matted down, mud lines on buildings or bridges, are all high-
water indicators.
(8) Existing Structures
The size, location, type, and condition of existing structures on the stream under study can be
a valuable indicator when selecting the size and type for any new structure. Data to be obtained
223
on existing structures includes size, type, age, existing flow line elevation, and condition,
particularly in regards to the channel. Scour holes, erosion around the abutments upstream or
down, or abrupt changes in material gradation or type can all indicate a structure too small for
the site. With knowledge of flood history, the age, and overall substructure condition may also
aid in determining if the structure is too small.
There are two sources of water that the highway engineer is primarily concerned with providing
highway drainage facilities. The first source, surface water, is that which occurs as rain or snow.
Drainage of runoff water on the surface from this source is referred to as surface drainage. The
second source, ground water, is that which flows in underground streams. This may become
important in highway cuts or at locations where a high water table exists near the pavement
structure. Drainage for seepage water and underground streams is referred to as subsurface
drainage. In this chapter, the fundamental design principles for surface and subsurface drainage
facilities are presented. The principles of hydrology necessary for understanding the design
concepts are also included, together with a brief discussion on erosion prevention.
6.2 Surface Drainage
Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is removed from the pavement
and right of way of the highway or street. A properly designed highway surface drainage system
should effectively intercept all surface and watershed runoff and direct this water into
adequately designed channels and gutters for eventual discharge into the natural waterways.
Water seeping through cracks in the highway’s riding surface and shoulder areas into
underlying layers of the pavement may result in serious damage to the highway pavement. The
major source of water for this type of intrusion is surface runoff. An adequately designed
surface drainage system will therefore minimize this type of damage. The surface drainage
system includes:
(1) Transverse slopes: - These include crowning of pavement on either side of the
centerline or providing a slope in one direction across the pavement width and crowning
of shoulders away from the pavement to facilitate the removal of surface water from
the pavement surface in the shortest possible time.
224
(2) Longitudinal slopes: - A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the
highway is required to obtain adequate slope in the longitudinal channels, particularly
in cut sections. Slopes in longitudinal channels should generally not be less than 0.2
percent for highways in very flat terrain. Although zero percent grades may be used on
uncurbed pavements with adequate cross slopes, a minimum of 0.5 percent is
recommended for curbed pavements. This may be reduced to 0.3 percent on suitably
crowned high- type pavements constructed on firm ground.
(3) Longitudinal Channels: - These are ditches constructed along the sides of the highway
to collect the surface water that runs off from the pavement surface, subsurface drains,
and other areas of the highway right of way. When the highway pavement is located at
a lower level than the adjacent ground, such as in cuts, water is prevented from flowing
onto the pavement by constructing a longitudinal drain (intercepting drain) at the top of
the cut to intercept the water. The water collected by the longitudinal ditches is then
transported to a drainage channel and then to a natural waterway or retention pond.
(4) Curbs and gutters: - Curbs and gutters are more common facilities in urban areas,
particularly in residential areas, where they are used in conjunction with storm sewer
systems to control street runoff in addition to other functions, which include preventing
the encroachment of vehicles on adjacent areas and delineating pavement edges. When
it is necessary to provide relatively long continuous sections of curbs in urban areas,
the inlets to the storm sewers must be adequately designed for both size and spacing so
that the impounding of large amounts of water on the pavement surface is prevented.
(5) Cross - Drainage Structures: - Cross drainage structures are constructed to carry
traffic over natural waterways that flow below the right of way of the highway. These
structures also provide for the flow of water below the highway, along the natural
channel, without significant alternation or disturbance to its normal course. One of the
main concerns of the highway engineer is to provide an adequate sized structure, such
that the waterway opening is sufficiently large to discharge the expected flow of water.
Inadequately sized structures can result in water impounding, which may lead to failure
of the adjacent sections of the highway due to embankments being submerged in water
for long periods. Cross drainage structures can be categorized into major and minor
structures. Major structures are those with clear spans greater than 6m, whereas minor
structures are those with clear spans of 6m or less. Major structures are usually large
225
bridges, although multiple-span culverts may also be included in this class. Minor
structures include small bridges and culverts.
(6) Sediment and Erosion Controls: - Continuous flow of surface water over shoulders,
side slopes and unlined channels often results in soil erosion which can lead to
conditions that are detrimental to the pavement structures, embankments and cut
sections. The methods used to prevent erosion and control sediment include:
 Intercepting drains at the top of a cut to collect and transport runoff to paved
spillways that are placed at strategic locations on the side of the cut and then to
the longitudinal ditches alongside the highway.
 Curbs and gutters are used to prevent un-surfaced shoulders and embankment
slopes from erosion and then direct surface water into paved spillways.
 Turf cover on unpaved shoulders, ditches, embankments, and cut slopes in an
efficient and economical way of preventing erosion when slopes are flatter than
3 to 1. The turf cover is commonly developed by sowing suitable grasses
immediately after grading.
 Slope and channel linings are more effective for prevention of erosion than any
of those already described. For example, when cut and embankment side slopes
are steep and are located in mountainous areas subjected to heavy rain or snow,
a commonly used method is to line the slope surface with rip-rap or hand-placed
rock. Channel linings are also used to protect longitudinal channels from
eroding. Protective linings are of two types: flexible (dense-graded bituminous
mixtures and rock-rip-rap) and rigid (cement concrete and soil cement). Rigid
linings are much more effective in preventing erosion under severe conditions,
but they are more expensive and, because of their smoothness, tend to create
high unacceptable velocities at the end of the linings.
The design of surface drainage systems for a highway may be divided into three major phases:
(1) An estimate of the quantity of water that may be expected to reach any element of the
system;
(2) The hydraulic design of each element of the system; and
(3) The comparison of alternative systems, alternative materials, and other variables in
order to select the most economical system that can be devised. In the third phase,
226
attention must be given to selecting the system that has the lowest annual cost when all
variables are taken into consideration.
6.2.1. Flood Estimation
A variety of approaches have been used to estimate the quantity of runoff for drainage design.
When a drainage structure is to handle the flow of an existing stream, such as in the case of
some culverts and most bridges, the flow used for hydraulic design may be based on available
records. For such “gauged” sites, statistical analyses can be performed on the recorded stream
flow to provide an estimated peak design flow for a given “return period’’. The term “return
period” refers to the estimated frequency of rare events such as floods. Section of the frequency
of occurrence of the design storm is largely a matter of experience and judgment although the
concerned road agency may have an established interval to be used for a given situation. The
return period is a statistical matter. For example, if the system is designed for a return period,
the most severe storm to occur once is 25 years; the statistical assumption is that the system
will accommodate the most severe storm to occur once in 25 years. It is apparent that selection
of a return period of 100 years instead of 25 would mean designing for a more severe storm
and, in general, a more costly system. Conversely, if the frequency is 10 years, the intensity of
the design storm will be less and in most cases a less costly drainage system will result,
although economic losses from use of the short time might offset the savings in construction
costs.
The estimation of peak runoff for drainage design is accomplished by consideration of severe
storms that occur at intervals and during which the intensity of rainfall and runoff of surface
water are far greater than at other periods. Rainfall intensity during the designed storm is a
function of occurrence, duration, and intensity. As shown in Figure 6.1, the intensity of rainfall
for a particular return period varies greatly with the duration of rainfall. An accurate estimate
of the probable intensity, frequency, and duration of rainfall in a particular location can be
made only if sufficient data has been collected over a period of time. If such information is
available, standard curves may be developed to express rainfall-intensity relationships with
accuracy sufficient for drainage problems.
227
Figure 6.1: Typical Rainfall intensity-duration curves
The available methods of flood estimation may be categorized into three groups; analysis of
stream flow data, runoff modeling and regionalized flood formula, but here a rational method
which is under the category of runoff modeling will be presented.
Rational Method
The rational method is the most widely used rainfall runoff relation for ungagged areas. It is
most suitable for small catchments of sizes up to five square kilometers. The basic form of the
equation is:
𝐶𝑥 𝐼𝑥 𝐴
𝑄=
360
Where: Q = Flood peak at catchment’s exit (m3/sec).
C = Rational runoff coefficient;
I = Average rainfall intensity over the whole catchment (mm/hr) for the duration
corresponding to the time of concentration;
228
A = Catchments area in hectares
The time of concentration is defined as the time required for the surface runoff form the
remotest part of the drainage basin to reach the point where the drainage facility is located. It
depends on several factors, including the size and shape of the drainage area, the type of the
surface cover, the slope of the drainage catchments, the rainfall intensity, and whether the flow
is entirely overloaded or partly channalized.
The time of concentration generally consists of one or more of the following three components:
time for overland flow, time for gutter or stream sewer flow (urban), or time for channel flow.
Travel time is the ratio of flow length to average flow velocity.
Mathematically
∞
L
𝑇𝑖 = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐 = ∑ 𝑇𝑖
V
𝑛=1
Where: Ti = The travel time for section i, with length L (km);
V = Average flow velocity (km/hr)
Tc = Time of concentration (hr)
Alternatively, the time of concentration can be calculated by the Kirpich formula:
0.385
0.87𝑥𝐿2
𝑇𝑖 = ( )
1000xS
Where: Tc = Time of concentration (hr)
L = Length of main stream (km)
S = Average slope of main stream (mm-1)
Having determined the time of concentration, the corresponding rainfall intensity can then be
obtained from the intensity duration curve for the selected recurrence interval (return period)
Figure 6.1. In the absence of rainfall intensity duration curves, simple empirical relationships
of the form:
229
a
I=
(b + T)𝑛
In which; I = the rainfall intensity in mm/hr;
T = rainfall duration in hrs;
a, b, and n are constants to be determined.
The drainage catchment area (the land that contributes to the runoff) is normally determined
from a topographic map. The runoff coefficient, C, is an integrated value representing the ratio
of runoff to rainfall for the drainage area. It depends on the type of ground cover, the slope of
the drainage area, storm duration, and prior wetting. The runoff coefficient can be estimated
from Figure 6.1. In cases where the drainage area consists of different ground characteristics
with different runoff coefficients, a representative value Cw is computed by computing the
weighted coefficients as:
∑∞
𝑛=1(𝐶𝑖 𝐴𝑖 )
𝐶𝑤 =
∑∞
𝑛=1(𝐴𝑖 )
6.2.2. Hydraulic Design of surface Drainage Structures
The objective of the hydraulic design for any highway drainage structure is to provide a suitable
structure size that will economically and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff without
detrimental erosion and sedimentation problems.
6.2.2.1 Design of Side Ditches
With the quantity of water expected to reach any given point in the drainage system known,
the design of side ditches, gutters, stream channels, and similar facilities is based on established
principles of flow in open channels. The principles also apply to flow in conduits with a free
water surface. In the design of open channels, the principles also apply to flow in conduits with
a free water surface. In the design of open channels, an important design consideration is the
flow velocity. The flow velocity in the channel should not be as low as to cause deposits of
230
transported material, nor so high as to cause erosion of the channel. The most appropriated
channel gradient range to produce the required velocity is between 1 percent and 5 percent.
For most types of linings, sedimentation is usually a problem when slopes are less than 1
percent, and excessive erosion of the lining will occur when slopes are less than 5 percent.
Consideration of recommended maximum velocities that can be found at different standards
and literature for particular lining materials is vital for preventing erosion problems. Attention
should also be paid to the point at which the channel at the point of discharges into the natural
waterway. For example, if the drainage channel at the point of discharge is at a much higher
elevation than the natural waterway, then the water should be discharged through a spillway or
chute to prevent erosion.
The hydraulic design of an open channel drainage facility for a given storm entails the
determination of the minimum cross-sectional area of the channel that will accommodate the
flow due to that storm and prevent water from overflowing the facility. The most commonly
used formula to give reliable capacity estimates is Manning’s formula, which assumes a
uniform steady flow in the channel:
𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = A
n
Where, Q = capacity (m3 / see);
A = channel cross- sectional area (m2);
v = mean velocity (m/sec);
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient,
R = Hydraulic Radius (A/P) in m;
S = Slope (m/m); and
P = wetted perimeter (m).
The depth of flow in a uniform open channel depends on the shape of the cross-section, the
roughness, and the slope of the channel, and the amount of discharge. For example, water
flowing down a relatively flat slope in an open channel is in tranquil flow, while that falling
down a steep slope is rapid. In the same channel, with the same quantity of flow, the flow can
231
be changed from tranquil to rapid by an increase in slope. In such a case, the depth of flow
decreases forms that existing in the section of tranquil flow to a lower value in the section of
rapid flow. The decrease in depth begins at some distance. In the section of rapid flow, since
the quantity of flow is the same, the dimension of the channel is the same and the depth less. It
follows from the equation of continuity that the velocity is greater.
Critical depth is defined as the depth corresponding to the change from tranquil to rapid flow.
Critical velocity and critical slope are the velocity and slope that correspond to uniform flow
at critical depth. Critical depth is independent of channel slope and roughness, but the critical
slope is a function of the slope of the channel. Tranquil flow exists when the normal depth of
water in an open channel is greater than the critical depth; conversely, when the depth is less
than critical, the flow is rapid. Theoretically, in any channel in which the water is flowing at
critical depth, the velocity head (V2/2g, where V is the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration
due to gravity) is equal to one half the mean depth of flow (mean depth is defined as the water
cross sectional area, A, divided by the free water surface, T). In other words, at critical flow,
𝑄 2 𝐴3
=
g T
Design Procedure: Hydraulic design procedures are difficult to simplify because of the wide
variety of choices presented to the designer in a typical case and when various assumptions
must be made. A simple design procedure that utilizes the manning equation may, however, be
outlined as follows:
(1) For the cover material in the ditch will be running, select the Manning's roughness
coefficient, n, the side slopes-normally controlled by the angle of natural repose.
(2) Using the Manning formula, calculate the maximum permissible hydraulic radius.
(3) Using the equation of continuity, calculate the minimum permissible cross section area
required from the given discharge and permissible velocity. Calculate the wetted
perimeter for this area.
(4) Solve the expression obtained in step 3 simultaneously for the bottom width of the ditch
and the depth of flow.
(5) Check the depth of flow, whether it is greater than the critical depth or not.
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(6) If the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, add a suitable freeboard and modify
the section for particularity. In the case of side ditches, a freeboard should at least equal
the height above the bottom of the pavement. For other channels, a value of 0.5m is
added as a freeboard.
(7) If the depth is greater than the critical depth, consideration should be given to reduce
the slope or provision should be sought to protect it from erosion.
6.2.2.2 Design of Culverts
Depending on the class of highway, the volume of the stream flow to be crossed, the site
conditions, and economic factors, the flowing cross-drainage structures may be considered:
 Fords
 Drifts
 Culverts, and
 Bridges
Fords are the simplest river crossings that utilize the existing river bed and are appropriate for
shallow, slow moving watercourses with little probability of flooding. The traffic volume may
be up to about 100 vehicles per day. Gravel or stones can be used to line the bottom of the ford
to provide a firm footing for vehicles. Drifts are crossing structures like fords, but here a
concrete slab is constructed where the bed of the river is not able to carry vehicles. They are
suitable as a crossing where fords cannot be used due to the risk of flooding.
Culverts are cross-drainage structures that convey water from streams and side channels below
the road. A culvert is usually, although not always, differentiated from a bridge by virtue of the
fact that the top of the culvert does not form part of a traveled roadway. More frequently,
culverts are differentiated from bridges on the basis of span length. On an arbitrary basis,
structures having a span of 6 m or less will be called culverts, whereas those having spans of
more than 6 m will be called bridges. Culverts also differ from bridges in that they are usually
designed to flow fully under certain conditions, while bridges are designed to pass floating
debris or vessels. Culverts are to be found in three general locations: at the bottom of
depressions where a natural watercourse exists; where natural streams intersect the roadway;
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and at locations required for passing surface drainage carried in side ditches beneath roads and
driveways to adjacent property.
Principles of Culvert Location: The majority of culverts are installed in natural watercourses
that cross the roadway, either at right angles or on a skew. In addition to selecting the proper
location for the culvert crossing with respect to the centerline of the road, the alignment and
grade of the culvert are of importance. The location of the centerline of the culvert on the
centerline of the road may be determined by inspection of the plans or in the field.
These locations will generally be on the centerline of an existing watercourse at the bottom of
a depression if no natural watercourse exists. The alignment of the culvert should generally
conform to the alignment of the natural stream, and the culvert should, if possible, cross the
roadway at right angles in the interests of economy. Skew culverts, located at an angle to the
centerline of the road, are needed in many instances.
Hydraulic Design of Culverts: Earlier in this chapter, the concepts and procedures related to
estimation of the quantity of runoff from a drainage basin were presented. In this section, we
will briefly discuss principles and techniques for the hydraulic design of culverts. A more
complete treatment of the subject is assumed to be dealt in hydraulics and related courses. The
purpose of hydraulic design is to provide a drainage facility or system that will adequately and
economically provide for the estimated flow throughout the design life without unreasonable
risk to the roadway structure or nearby property. Hydraulic design of culverts involves the
following general procedure:
(1) Obtain all site data and plot a roadway cross section at the culvert site, including a
profile of the stream channel.
(2) Establish the culvert invert elevation at the inlet and outlet and determine the culvert
length and slope.
(3) Determine the allowable headwater depth and the probable depth of tail water during
the designed flood.
(4) Select a type and size of culvert that will accommodate the design flow under the
established conditions.
(5) Examine the need for energy dissipaters, and where needed, provide appropriate
protective devices to prevent destructive channel erosion.
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Whenever a constriction such as a culvert is placed in a natural open channel, there is an
increase in the depth of water just upstream of the constriction. The allowable level of the
headwater upstream of the culvert entrance is generally the principal control of the culvert size
and inlet geometry. The allowable headwater depth depends on the topography and the nature
of land use in the culvert vicinity. In establishing the headwater depth, the designer should
consider possible harmful effects that flooding may cause, such as damage to the pavement,
interruptions to traffic, and inundation of nearby property.
The type of flow in a culvert depends on the total energy available between the inlet and outlet,
primarily because of the difference in the headwater and the tail-water elevation. The flow
characteristics and capacity of a culvert are determined by the location of the control section.
Laboratory tests and field studies have shown that highway culverts operate with two major
types of controls: inlet and outlet controls.
Under inlet control, the discharge capacity of a culvert depends primarily on the depth of
headwater at the entrance and the entrance geometry (barrel shape, cross-sectional area, and
type of inlet edge). Inlet control commonly occurs when the slope of the culvert is steep and
the outlet is not submerged. In addition to the factors mentioned in inlet control culverts, the
maximum flow in a culvert operating with outlet control depends on the tail-water at the outlet
and the slope, roughness, and length of the culverts. It occurs on flat slopes, especially where
downstream conditions cause the tail-water depth to be greater than the critical depth.
On the basis of experimental work, analytical relationships have been developed for analysis
of the design of culverts. These relationships are complex and the analysis or design of a culvert
is tedious even with the use of monographs and charts. Several computer and hand calculator
programmers are presently available that can be used to increase the accuracy of the results and
significantly reduce the time it takes for design or analysis.
Culvert Types and Materials: Materials most commonly used in the construction of culverts
are reinforced concrete and corrugated metal. Less frequently, culverts are made from timber,
cast-iron pipe, vitrified-clay pipe, and stone masonry. Reinforced concrete pipe intended for
use in culverts is made of different diameters of 300 to 3600 mm and in different lengths, the
usual length being 1.2 to 2.4m. Reinforced-concrete culverts may be manufactured with a cross
section other than circular-elliptical and "arch" shapes being in quite common use. Concrete
box culverts are constructed in place with square or rectangular cross sections; single box
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culverts vary in size from 0.6 to 3.6 m square, depending on the required area of waterway
opening. Both concrete pipe and concrete box culverts are built with more than one opening
where additional waterway area is required and when it is desired to avoid the use of May, for
example, be "double" or "triple” concrete pipe or concrete box culverts. Concrete arches are
sometimes used in place of concrete box culverts, although difficulties attendant on their proper
design and construction have somewhat restricted their use. Corrugated steel of various
thicknesses is used in various forms in the construction of culverts for use in highway drainage.
Corrugated metal (galvanized steel) pipe is made with diameters of 200 to 2440 mm and with
lengths of 6 to 12 m. In many culvert installations, headroom is limited, and a circular pipe that
has sufficient hydraulic capacity is not suitable. In such cases, corrugated metal "pipe arches"
may be used. Pipe arches made of standard corrugated metal are available in sizes varying from
a span of 460 mm and a rise of 280 mm to a span of 1830 mm and a rise of 1120 mm. Other
materials that may be used in the construction of culverts include vitrified-clay pipe, cast-iron
pipe, and timber. In addition, masonry arch culverts are constructed in localities where suitable
stone is cheaply available. Each of these types of culvert has advantages and may be used in
areas where the material is economically available and for special-purpose structures.
The type of culvert selected for use in a given location is dependent on the hydraulic
requirements and the strength required to sustain the weight of a fill or moving wheel loads.
After the hydraulic and strength requirements are satisfied, the selection is largely a matter of
economics: durability and cost of the completed structure, including cost of transport and
installation.
6.2.2.3 Highway Bridges
The term "bridge" is usually associated with structures that are required to carry the roadbed
over an established waterway; it may also be somewhat loosely applied to grade separation
structures and elevated highways in urban areas (viaducts). In some cases, bridges of relatively
short span are located to conform with the general location of the highway, which has been
previously determined. That is the tentative location for the highway was established after an
analysis of all the economic and engineering factors involved, and the bridge engineer was
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given the problem of providing an economical and adequate bridge design to conform to the
roadway location.
Generally, however, the location of a suitable stream crossing may be the most important single
factor influencing the location of the highway in a given section; such a situation is usually the
case when long bridge spans are involved. The ideal location for a bridge crossing is, of course,
one in which the crossing is made at right angles to the centerline of the stream at the narrowest
point, where the alignment of the approach pavement is straight, where the approach grade is
slight, and where soil conditions are adequate for the installation of the most economical
foundation for the span involved. This ideal combination of circumstances is encountered all
too infrequently, except in structures of short span, and many bridges have been located on
skew crossings, vertical curves, or with curving alignment. In such cases, considerations related
to the general roadway location may still be regarded as controlling factors, and the required
adjustments in the location of the bridge are made with these requirements in mind.
Many times, alternative locations of proposed bridge may seem to offer somewhat similar
advantages. A careful comparison must then be made of the various possible locations. The
final decision should be based on a complete analysis, including factors related to traffic safety
and operating conditions, fulfillment of the purpose of the road (e.g. the direct connection of
population centers) and the economy. Any complete analysis must include both the bridge and
the approaches to it. A comparison of this type will generally result in the selection of one of
the possible sites as the most desirable.
Although the preceding paragraphs have dealt largely with waterway crossings, similar factors
govern the design of grade separation and the bridge portions of complex interchanges.
Obviously, a grade separation structure designed to carry the roadway over an existing railroad
presents the location engineer and designer with similar problems, as does the design of a
highway overpass. Similarly, the general location of an elevated highway in an urban area is
usually determined on the basis of maximum serviceability to traffic (and availability of right-
of-way) so that the engineer must prepare a design suitable to conditions in a rather limited
area.
In many locations, the natural stream channel is somewhat constricted by the bridge structure
and roadway approaches. In the interests of economy, the roadway is frequently placed on an
embankment on either side of the bridge span; the distance between abutments is reduced as
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much as possible, and piers may be placed in the stream channel. All these things serve in many
cases to reduce severely the area through which the water must pass, particularly when the
velocity of the water through the bridge opening may be considerably increased, with resultant
danger to the bridge structure through scours at abutments and piers, and the elevation of the
water on the upstream side may be increased, with the result that the area subjected to flooding
above the bridge site is increased and adjacent property is subjected to overflow beyond the
limits of the normal floodplain. It thus seems axiomatic that the bridge must be designed to
pass the flow occurring at flood stage without excessive velocity and without damage to
property located above the bridge crossing. Bridge openings are also normally designed to pass
floating debris carried in the channel in normal and flood states. On navigable streams,
requirements for navigation must be evaluated and provided for. Generally speaking, navigable
streams are spanned by high-level crossings or movable bridges.
Standards related to bridge clearance, both vertical and horizontal, are an important part of the
design of highway bridges. AASHTO specifies that the roadway width at bridges shall be equal
to the full shoulder width of the approach section. Along curbed roadways, the full width of
the approach section should similarly be crossed by the structure. For low-speed, low volume
roads, a minimum horizontal clearance of the width of the approach traveled roadway plus
2.4m is recommended. The vertical clearance of a highway bridge should be at least 4.3m over
the entire roadway. Along main highways, a 4.9m vertical clearance is usually provided.
6.3 Subsurface Drainage
Subsurface drainage systems are provided within the pavement to drain water that
 Has percolated through cracks and joints in the pavements to the underlying strata
 Has moved upward through the underlying soil strata as a result of capillary action
 exists in the natural ground below the water table, usually referred to as ground water
The design of subsurface drainage should be carried out as an integral part of the complete
design of the highway, since inadequate subsurface drainage is detrimental to the stability of
slopes and pavement performance. The procedure usually adopted for subsurface drainage
design is first to determine the geometric and structural requirements of the highway based on
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st5andard design practice, and then to subject these to a subsurface drainage analysis to
determine the subsurface drainage requirements. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
develop a standard solution for solving subsurface drainage problems because of the many
different situations that engineers come across in practice. The experience gained from field
and laboratory observations for a particular location coupled with good engineering judgment
should always be used in conjunction with the design tools provided. Subsurface drainage
systems are usually classified into five general categories:
 Longitudinal drains
 Transverse drains
 Horizontal drains
 drainage blankets
 Well systems
6.3.1 Longitudinal drains
Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes laid in trenches, within the pavement
structure and parallel to the centerline of the highway. These drains can be used to lower the
water table below the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 6.2, or to remove any water that
is seeping into the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 6.3.
6.3.2 Transverse drains
Transverse drains are placed transversely below the pavement, usually in a direction
perpendicular to the centerline, although they may be skewed to form a herringbone
configuration. An example of the use of transverse drains is shown in Figure 6.4, where they
are used to drain ground water that has infiltrated through the joints of the pavement.
239
Figure 6.2: Symmetrical longitudinal drains used to lower the ground
water level
Figure 6.3: Longitudinal collector drains used to remove seeping water
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Figure 6.4: Transverse drain used on superelevated curves
6.3.3 Horizontal Drains
Horizontal drains are used to relieve pore pressure on the slopes of cuts and embankments on
the highway. They usually consist of small diameter, perforated pipes inserted into slopes of
cut and fill. The subsurface water is collected by the pipes and is then discharged at the face of
the slope through paved spillways to longitudinal ditches.
6.3.4 Drainage Blankets
A drainage blanket is a layer of material that has a very high coefficient of permeability, usually
greater than 10m/day, and is laid beneath or within the pavement structure such that its width
and length in the flow direction are much greater than its thickness. The coefficient of
permeability is the constant of proportionality of the relationship between the flow velocity and
241
hydraulic gradient between two points in the material. Drainage blankets can be used to
facilitate the flow of subsurface water away from the pavement structure or subsurface water
from artesian sources. A drainage blanket can also be used in conjunction with longitudinal
drains to improve the stability of cut slopes by controlling the flow of water on the slopes,
thereby preventing the formation of a slip surface. However, drainage blankets must be
properly designed to be effective. Figure 6.5 shows two drainage blanket systems.
Figure 6.5: Application of drainage blankets
6.3.5 Well Systems:
A well system consists of a series of vertical wells, drilled into the ground, into which ground
water flows, thereby reducing the water table and releasing the pore pressure. When used as a
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temporary measure for construction, the water collected in the wells is continuously pumped
out, or else it may be left to overflow.
Design of Subsurface drainage
The design procedure for subsurface drainage involves the following:
1. Summarize the available data.

2. Determine the quantity of water for which the subsurface drainage system is being
designed.
3. Determine the drainage system required.
4. Determine the capacity and spacing of longitudinal and transverse drains and select
filter material, if necessary.
5. Evaluate the design with respect to economic feasibility and long term performance.
Summarize Available Data
The data that should be identified and summarized can be divided into the following four
classes:
 The flow geometry: - the flow geometry is given by the existing subsurface
characteristics of the area in which the highway is located and by the geometric
characteristics of the highway.
 The materials properties: - the material permeability that indicates the extent to which
water will flow through the material.
 The hydrologic and climatic characteristics: - indicate the precipitation rates, the source
of subsurface water, and the possibility of frost.
 Miscellaneous information: - all the other information that will aid in the design of an
effective and economical subsurface drainage system, including any impact the
subsurface drainage system may have on future construction.
Determination of Discharge Quantity
The net amount of water to be discharged consists of the following components:
 Water due to filtration

 Ground water
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 Water due to melting ice, but not significant problem in the tropics
 Water evaporating vertically from the pavement structure
(1) Water due to infiltration, (qi)
This is the amount of water that infiltrates into the pavement structure through cracks in the
pavement surface. It is extremely difficult to calculate this amount of water exactly, since the
rate of infiltration depends on the intensity of the design storm, the frequency and size of cracks
and/or joints in the pavement, the moisture condition of the atmosphere, and the permeability
characteristics of the materials below the pavement surface. The Federal Highway
Administration recommends the use of the following empirical relationships to estimate the
infiltration rate:
𝑁𝑐 𝑊𝑐
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐼𝑐 ( + ) + 𝐾𝑝
W W𝐶𝑠
Where, qi = design infiltration rate (ft3/day/ft2 of drainage layer).
Ic = crack infiltration rate (ft3/day/ft of crack); Ic = 2.4ft3/day/ft is recommended for

most designs, but with local experience this value may be increased or decreased as
necessary.
Nc = number of contributing longitudinal cracks or joints; N+1 for new pavements,

where N is the number of traffic lanes.
Wc = length of contributing transverse cracks (ft).
W = width of granular base or sub-base subjected to infiltration (ft)
Cs = spacing of transverse crack or joints (ft); a value of 40 has been suggested for new
bituminous concrete pavements, but local experience should be used.
Kp = rate of infiltration (ft3/day/ft2), coefficient of permeability through the un-cracked

pavement surface, the value of the cement concrete and well compacted dense graded
asphalt concrete pavement is very low and can therefore be zero, but it should be
determined from laboratory tests.
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(2) Ground Water
When it is possible to intercept the flow of ground water or lower the water table sufficiently
before the water reaches the pavement, it is necessary to determine the amount of ground water
seepage that will occur. Figure 6.2 demonstrates the two possible sources of ground water of
interest in this case. A simple procedure to estimate the ground water flow rate due to gravity
drainage is to use the chart shown in Figure 6.6. In this case, the radius of influence Li is
determined as:
𝐼𝑖 = 3.8(𝐻 − 𝐻𝑜 )
Where, Ho = thickness of the subgrade below the drainage pipe (ft)
H = thickness of the subgrade below the natural water table (ft)
H-Ho = amount of draw down (ft)
The chart shown in figure 6.6 is then used to determine the volume of lateral flow per unit
length of lateral drain (qL=q1+q2), where q1 is the flow above the bottom of the drainage layer,
and q2 is the total upward flow into one-half of the drainage layer. The average inflow rate to
the drainage layer is determined as:
𝑞2
𝑞𝑔 =
0.5W
Where, qg = design inflow rate for gravity drainage (ft3/day/ft2 of drainage layer).
q2 = total upward flow into half of the drainage blanket (ft3/day/linear ft roadway of
drainage layer).
W = Width of drainage layer (ft)
If the pavement is sloped to one side and the collector is installed only on one side, then
𝑞1 + 2𝑞2
𝑞𝐿 = 2(𝑞1 − 𝑞2 ), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞𝑔 =
W
For the case of artesian flow, the average inflow rate is simply estimated using Darcy’s law as:
245
∆H
𝑞𝑎 = K
𝐻𝑜
Where, qa = design inflow rate from artesian (ft3/day/ft2)
∆H = excess hydraulic head (ft)
Ho = subgrade soil thickness between the drainage layer and the artesian aquifer (ft)
K = coefficient of permeability (ft2/day)
Figure 6.6: Charts for determining flow rate in horizontal blanket
246
(3) Vertical outflow or evaporation
In some cases, the total amount of water accumulated within the pavement structure can be
reduced because of insignificant evaporation of some of the accumulated water through the
subgrade. When this occurs, it is necessary to estimate the amount of this overflow in order to
determine the net inflow for which the subsurface drainage system is provided. The procedure
for estimating this flow involves the use of net diagrams, which is beyond the scope of this
course.
Net Design Flow: The net design inflow is the sum of inflow rates from all sources less any
amount attributed to vertical overflow through the underlying soil. A set of relationships for
estimating the net design inflow rate (qd) has been developed, taking into consideration the
different flows that occur concurrently. In the absence of inflow due to melting of ice lenses,
the design net inflow can be given as:
1. If there is no frost, no ground water, and no artesian flow,

qd = qi − qv
2. If there is no frost and artesian flows, and the inflows are only due to infiltration and
ground water,
qd = qi + qg − qv
3. If the inflows are only due to infiltration and artesian, then

qd = qi + qa − qv
Design of Drainage Layer
The design of a drainage layer involves either the determination of the maximum depth of flow
Hm when the permeability of K is known, or the determination of the required permeability of
the drainage material when maximum flow depth is stipulated. The drainage materials should
consist of sound, clean, and open-graded and must have a high permeability to accommodate
the free passage of water and protected from clogging by means of filter. The amount of fine
particles in the drainage layer affects permeability and the elimination of fines significantly
increases permeability. A number of approximate relationships have been suggested between
permeability and grain sizes. The most frequently used approximations are by Hazen for filter
sands and by Moulton for granular drainage and filter materials.
247
According to Hazen, the permeability of filter sands, K, can be estimated as:
K = Ck (D10)2
In which, K is the permeability in mm/sec, D10 is the effective grain size corresponding to 10%
passing, and Ck is Hazen’s coefficient as provided in Table 6.1, which is dependent on the
nature of the soil.
Table 6.1: Hazen’s coefficient for estimating the permeability of filter sands
Type of sand D10 range (mm) Ck 1/mm-sec

Uniform sand 0.06 – 3.0 8 -12
Well graded and silty sand 0.003 – 0.6 5-8
Another approximation devised for granular drainage and filer materials by Moulton is an
empirical equation of the form:
6.216𝑥105 (𝐷10 )1.478 (n)6.654

K=( )
(𝑃200 0.397 )
Where, K = permeability in ft/day
D10 = effective grain size corresponding to 10% passing
P200 = percent fine passing 200 sieve (%)
γd
n = porosity [1 − 62.4 Gs]
γd = dry unit weight
Gs = specific gravity of material
248
Figure 6.7: Charts for estimating maximum depth of flow
The thickness of the drainage layer can be determined using a chart shown in Figure 6.7 for a
given value of the slope of the drainage layer, and the length of the flow path based on steady
inflow and uniformly distributed across the surface of the pavement section. This condition
does not normally occur in practice, but a conservative result is obtained.
Design of Longitudinal Collector Pipes
Circular pipes are generally used for longitudinal collectors and are usually constructed of
either porous concrete, perforated corrugated metal, or verified clay. The pipes are laid in the
trenches located at the depth that will allow the drainage of the subsurface water from the
pavement structure. The trenches are then backfilled with porous granular material to facilitate
free flow of the subsurface water into the drains. Design of longitudinal collectors involves the
determination of a suitable backfill material.
249
The diameter, D, of the collector pipe depends on the gradient of the pipe drain, the amount of
water per running linear meter length (q) that should be determined through the pipe,
Manning’s roughness coefficient of the pipe material, n, and the distance between the outlets
L. When the flow in the pipe is full, using the Manning’s equation, the relationship among nq,L,
S and D becomes
nqL = 0.311685D8/3S1/2
Given any of the above values, the other can be computed. To determine the diameter of the
pipe, the equation can be written as:
3.208𝐿𝑞𝑛 0.375
D=( )
𝑆 0.5
Alternatively, the chart shown in figure 6.8 can be used either to determine the minimum pipe
diameter when the flow depth, distance between outlets, and the gradient as specified, or to
determine the maximum spacing between the outlet for different combination of the gradient
and pipe diameters.
In using the chart, it is first necessary to determine the amount of the inflow q as:
Q=qd L
In which q is the flow rate in the drain pipe (m3/day/m), qd is the design inflow (m3/day/m2),
and L is the length of the flow path (m).
250
Figure 6.8: Chart relating pipe size with flow rate, outlet spacing, and pipe
gradient.
The material selected to backfill the pipe trench should be coarse enough to prevent the flow
of water into the pipe and also fine enough to prevent the infiltration of drainage aggregates
into the pipe. The following can be used to select a suitable filter material.
𝐷85 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
For slotted pipes:𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡−𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ > 1.2
𝐷
85 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
For circular holes: Hole−dimeter >1
Filter Criteria
Fine graded soil particles from sub grade soil adjacent to the drainage layer may be transmitted
and clog the voids in the drainage material and eventually reduce the permeability significantly
and make it less effective. This intrusion of fines can be minimized if course material satisfies
certain filter criteria. In the case where these criteria are not satisfied by the drainage material,
a protective filter must be provided between the subgrade and the drainage layer to prevent
clogging. Any aggregate used for drainage must, therefore, satisfy the following criteria:
251
i. Clogging criteria: - to prevent the adjacent material from piping or migrating
into the filter material,
≤5
𝐷85 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
ii. Permeability criteria: - to carry water without any significant resistance,
≥5
iii. Additional criteria: - to make the grain size curves of filters and protected soils
somewhat parallel,
≤ 25
 To minimize, the filter material must have the coefficient of uniformity
𝐷60
≤ 25
𝐷10
 The amount of fine in the filter material
D5 filter ≥ 0.074mm
 If the protected soil contains a large percentage of gravel, the filters

should be designed on the base of the material finer than 25.4mm.
252
Assessments
1. Practical
 Determine the surface drainage structure for the proposed road.
 Design the surface drainage structure
2. Theory
(1) Which of the following is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and
subsoil water within the roadway?
a) Highway finance
b) Highway drainage
c) Highway Engineering
d) Highway maintenance
Answer: b
(2) The highway drainage system consists of how many types?
a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four
Answer: b
(3) The surface water is obtained from________________
a) Ground water
b) Rainfall
c) Leakage of water from water treatment plants
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b
(4) The removal and diversion of surface water from the roadway is called
___________
253
a) Surface drainage
b) Sub surface drainage
c) Camber
d) Cross slope
Answer: a
(5) If the span exceeds 6m, then the bridge is called _________
a) Culvert
b) Minor Bridge
c) Major Bridge
d) Truss
Answer: b
(6) The seepage flow is present in __________
a) Surface drainage
b) Sub surface drainage
c) Camber
d) Cross slope
Answer: b
(7) The factors not affecting run off is?
a) Intensity of soil
b) Type of soil
c) Topography of soil
d) Type of road
Answer: d
(8) Which is the most preferred shape of drainage?
a) Rectangular
b) Trapezoidal
c) Triangular
d) Circular
Answer: b
254
(1) Drainage facilities on any highway should adequately provide for the flow of water away
from the surface of the pavement to properly designed channels. Describe each of the two
sources of water a highway engineer is primarily concerned with?
.
(2) Describe the main differences between surface drainage and subsurface drainage?
(3) Describe the three properties of rainfall that primarily concern highway engineers?
(4) Sketch any example of highway drainage structures with labeling.
255
Evaluation Table
Test 1
Test 2
Result
1
Class Assignment
2
Understanding on
the drainage
structure
Work Performance
Evaluation
Attitude
Complete task
Time used
Time (180 Min.)
(1 per 10 min.)
Total /45
256
References
[1] NAASRA, Guide to the Design of Road Surface Drainage. Sydney: National Association
of Australian State Road Authorities, 1986.
[2] The Effects of Highway Construction on Flood Plains, HA 71/95. London: HMSO, 1995.
[3] Department of Transport, Highway Construction Details. London: HMSO, 1987.
[4] Russam, K., The Hydraulic Efficiency and Spacing of BS Road Gulleys, RRL Report LR
236. Crowthorne, Berkshire: The Road Research Laboratory, 1969.
[5] Young, C.P. and Prudhoe, J., The Estimation of Flood flows from Natural Catchments,
TRRL Report LR 565. Crowthorne, Berkshire: The Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
1973.
[6] Ross, N.F. and Russam, K., The Depth of Rain Water on Road Surfaces, RRL Report LR
236. Crowthorne, Berkshire: The Road Research Laboratory, 1968.
[7] Ackers, P., Charts for the Hydraulic Design of Channels and Pipes, HRSP DE2, 3rd edn.
London: HMSO, 1969.
Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
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This textbook was developed by TVTI faculties through
KOICA project “PMC Service for Capacity Development
for TVET Leaders and Trainers in Ethiopia”

Yeka Subcity, Woreda 9, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone: 011-646-4455, Fax: 011-646-5675/5678
E-mail: info@ftveti.edu.et, Website: http://www.ftveti.edu.et

RC 3of6 - Highway Engineering I

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RC 3of6 - Highway Engineering I

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Highway Engineering

Habtamu Mebratu (M.Sc.)

Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Habtamu Mebratu (M.Sc.)

Department of Road Construction Technology

Technical and Vocational Training Institute (TVTI)

Department Road Construction Technology

Course title Highway Engineering I

Course 4. Vertical alignment and cross-sections

Pre-requisite Traffic engineering (RCTE 2023 and surveying II (SURT 3020

Target group 3rd year Road Construction Technology

1.1 Introduction 1.1,.1. Internet,

Chapter Two: Functional Classification of Highways

2.1 The Concept of 1.1, Textbook, PC,

4 3.1Introduction 1.2,1. Internet,

10 4.1 Intersections Determine suitable 5.1.2, PC, Software

12 5.1 Earthworks quantities 5.1.2, Internet,

13 5.5 Mass-haul diagram Mass-haul diagram 1.2,1. Internet,

14 6.1 Importance of Drainage Surface drainage 1.2,1.3 Internet,

15 6.3 Subsurface drainage

• Be able to select of best route and highway alignment.

• Understand geometric design of highway

• Understand vertical alignment and cross sections

• Understand super elevation and widening

• Understand earthwork and the quantities

• Understand design principles of At-Grade intersection

• Understand surface and subsurface drainage structures

• Understand suitable signal timing for the intersection.

• Desktop or laptop computer with an internet connection.

• Software (Civil 3D and Auto Cad)

• Total Station, Meter and string

1.1.1 Transportation system

1.1.1.1 Diverse characteristics

1.1.1.2 Study context

 Planning range: Urban transportation planning, producing long-range plans for 5-

 Passenger transport: Regional passenger transportation deals with inter-city passenger

 International transport: issues such as containerization and inter-modal co-ordination.

1.1.1.3 Background: A changing world

 Change in operational policy: A variety of policy options designed to improve

1.1.2 Role of transportation engineer

1.1.3 Basic premise of a transportation system

P1 The total transportation system, must be viewed as a single multi-modal system.

P2 Considerations of transportation systems cannot be separated from considerations of the

1.1.4 Major disciplines of transportation

Transportation engineering can broadly consist of four major parts:

(1) Transportation Planning

1.1.4.1 Transportation planning

1.1.4.3 Pavement analysis and design

1.1.4.4 Traffic engineering

 Financial and economic analysis of transportation facilities requires large capital

 Intelligent transport systems, with the advent of computers, communication, and

1.2 Requirement for highway selection

1.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment

The factors controlling a highway alignment include:-

(1) Point through which the alignment has to pass.

(2) Point through which the alignment should not pass.

d) Economy: Construction, maintenance, and operation costs should be considered. For

e) Other considerations: These include drainage considerations, attractiveness of road sides,

1.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Location

(1) Reconnaissance Survey

 Published literature covering a range of topics, including road construction and

 Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.

 Gradients, length of gradient and radius of curves of alternate alignment

 Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood levels