Forensic Complete

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS INVESTIGATION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I. DEFINITION OF TERMS
Document – any material containing marks, symbols or signs either visible, partially visible that may
present or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink writing,
typewriting, or printing paper.
• From the Latin word “Documentum” means “Lesson, or example” (in Medieval Latin
“Instruction or Official paper”)
• French word “Docere”, means to teach
Questioned – any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny
Questioned document – one in which the facts appearing therein may not be true and contested either
in whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will
election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas, application form, checkwriters, certificates, etc.
Disputed document – a term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document,
and strictly speaking this is true meaning. Disputed document and questioned documents are used
interchangeably to signify a document that is under special scrutiny.
Standard – these are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper,
should contain a cross section of the material from a known source. In handwriting, a standard consist of
the known handwriting of a person.
Exemplar – a term used by some document examiners and attorney to characterized known material.
Holographic Document – any document completely written and signed by one person; also known as
holograph.
II. LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT
Legal basis of documents:

1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G 119: any written document by which a right is
established or an obligation is extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument executed by
person by which some agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
3. In relation to criminal jurisprudence under the best evidence rule: any physical embodiment of
information or ideas; e.g. letter, a contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or an x-ray
plate ( Black’s law dictionary).
Kinds of Document
1. Public Document – notarized by a notary public or competent public official with solemnities
with the law. (Cacnio vs. Baens 5 Phil. 742)
2. Official Document – issued by the government or its agent or its officers having the authority to
do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue and be
issued in the performance of their duties.
3. Private Document – executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public or
any person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or agreement is proved
evidenced or set forth. ( US v. Orera, 11 Phil. 596)
4. Commercial Document – executed in accordance with the code commerce or any mercantile
law, containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.
5. Electronic Document – exist only in electronic form such as data stored on a computer,
network, backup, archive or other storage media. Examples of documents subject to e-discovery
are emails, voicemail, instant messages, e-calendars, audio files, data on handheld devices,
animation, metadata, graphics, photographs, spreadsheets, websites, drawings and others types of
digital data. (Governed by RA 8792)
1|QuestionedDocumentsExamination
III. WRITING WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS – based on Supreme Court
Rulings
1. A draft of Municipal Payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority (People vs.
Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs
Santiago, CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposition or agreement are not documents but
are mere merchandise (people vs. Agnis 47 Phil. 945).
IV. CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1. Document with questioned signatures.
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills
a. Holographic wills – will entirely written by the testator.
b. Notarial will – signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary public with 3
witnesses
4. Document investigated on the question of typewriting
a. With a view of ascertaining their sources
b. With a view ascertaining their date
c. With a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or
substituted pages.
5. Questioned documents on the issues of their age or date.
6. Questioned document on issues of material used in their production.
7. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registration and miscellaneous writings.
CHAPTER II
DOCUMENT & QUESTIONED DOCUMET EXAMINATION
1) Addition – any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation. When there is a
sufficient space between the words or at the end of a sentence to permit the insertion or addition
of a single letter or word or a punctuation mark, such alteration may change the impact of the
entire document or its monetary value.
2) Alteration – refers to any change in the writing made by the party thereto, or by some person
entitled there under after the instrument has been executed. It is made either by erasing adding,
subtracting or cancellation, or interlineating or inserting. Such changes are made without the
consent of other party interested and give the instrument a different effect from that where it
originally possessed.
3) Cancellation or Subtraction – it refers to any (word, letter, number, etc.) out, strikes out or
scratched after its original preparation. It is occasionally found in document of importance such
as will, deed or contract where the writer intends to eliminate a word, name or sentence without
the necessity of rewriting the entire matter. The writer draws lines vertical or horizontal lines
through the writing having effect of cancellation.
4) Conclusion – a scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by logical, common
sense reasoning in accordance with the established rules or laws. The document examiner’s
conclusion, in legal term is referred to as opinion.
5) Document Examiner – refers to anyone who studies scientifically the details and elements of
documents in order to identify their sources or to facts concerning from them.
6) Erasure – the removal of writing or printing, from a document. It may be accomplished wither
by mechanical or abrasive measure or by chemical erasure. A chemical eradication in which the
writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator.); and an abrasive
measures is where writing is effaced by rubbing with rubber eraser or scratching out with knife
or other sharp with implement.
7) Examination – act of making a close and critical study of any material and with questioned
documents; it is process necessary to discover the facts about them.
8) Expert witness – a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special training or
experience to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which
involved in a court action. Or, expert witnesses are persons who are qualified, either by actual
experience or by careful study, to definite opinions with respect to a division of science, a branch
of art, or a department of trade.
9) Forensic Document Examiner – it refers to a person who studies all aspects of a document to
determine authenticity, origin, handwriting, photocopies, ink and papers. The older term is
Questioned Document Examiner or sometimes “examiner of questioned documents”. In the
1970’s, the term forensic document examiner started becoming more popular and that is term
that is commonly used today.
10)Handwriting Examination Expert – common name for document examiner.
11)Identification – an used in this text it is the state of being identical or absolutely the same as in
similarity of source or authorship of the questioned document and the standard document.
12)Insertion (Intercalation) – it is the addition of writing and other material between lines and
paragraphs or the addition of the whole page to document.
13)Non-Identification – as used in this text, it means that the source of authorship of the compared
questioned and standard specimen is different.
14)Obliteration – the blotting out shearing over the writing to make the original invisible to as an
addition.
15)Opinion – in the legal language, it refers to the examiner conclusion. In court, he is not only
expresses as opinion but demonstrates the reason for arriving at his opinion.
16)Qualification – the professional experience, education, ability of a document examiner. Before
he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that he is qualifies in his field.
II. RATIONALE
Generally, examination of question documents is restricted to “scientific comparison” which
means that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification or forgery lies on the availability of
known standards for comparison. In the scientific examination of document, examiner uses the ACE-V
method which stands for analysis, comparison, evaluation and verification.
In analysis, properties or characteristic of the document are observed measured. For comparison,
it will be the process comparing the characteristics of the standard and question document. Furthermore
in evaluation, similarities and dissimilarities in the properties or characteristics will each have a certain
value for identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence.
In questioned document examinations especially in the investigations of handwriting and
signatures, the “law of multiplicity of evidence” is often applied. However, evaluation of the
similarities of the questioned and known specimens gives emphasis of the existence of corresponding
occurrence. After a thorough examination, the following principle of identification is applied:
When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically oriented
characteristic of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrence by mere
coincidence and there are no unaccounted for differences, it may be concluded that they are same in
their characteristics attributed to the same cause.
III. DIVISION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION
A. Criminalistics Examination – this involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration or

obliteration of documents.
B. Handwriting Investigation/Analysis – this is more focused in determining the author of
writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires long study and experience.
IV. FORMS OF QUESTION DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)

1. Examination signatures and initials
2. Examination anonymous letter
3. Hand printing examination
B. Examination of typewriting and type print
C. Examination of inks
D. Examination of erasures, alteration or obliteration, etc.
1. Detection of alteration
2. Decipherment of erased writings
3. Restoration of obliterated writings
E. Counterfeiting
1. Examination of currency bills and coins and the like
2. Examination of fake documents
F. Miscellaneous aspects
1. Determination of age of documents
2. Identification of stamps
3. Examination of seal and other authenticating devices
V. RELATED FIELD OF STUDY
A. Historical dating – these is work involving the verification of age and worth of a document or
object, sometimes done by a document examiner, and get as complicated as Carbon-14 dating.
B. Fraud Investigators – this work that often overlaps with that of document examiner and
focuses on the money trail and criminal intent.
C. Paper & Ink specialist – these are publics or private experts who date, type, source, and/or
catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines, computer
cartridges etc., using chemical method.
D. Forgery Specialist – these are public or private experts who analyze, altered, obliterated,
changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared lighting, expensive spectrograph
equipment, or digital enhancement techniques.
E. Handwriting analysis – these are usually psychology experts who assess personality traits
from handwriting samples, also called graphologist or graphoanalyst;
F. Forensic stylistics – refers to the same purpose but by looking at semantics, spelling, word
choice, syntax, and phraseology.
G. Typewriting analyst – these are experts on the origin, make, and model used in typewritten
material.
H. Computer Crime Investigators – this is an emerging group that relates to QDE through some
common investigative and testimonial procedures.
VI. BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN QDE (PNP-CLO SOP)
I. Request
a. Document shall be based on written request from any investigating agency of the
government, court order shall and/or private requesting party, provided that the letter has
been approved by the director, PNP CL.
b. Document previously examined by any competent agencies of the government shall not
be re-examined except there is a court order.
c. If the case is undergoing trial in the court, disputed documents shall be examined only
upon order of the court having the jurisdiction.
II. Standard specimen
a. The specimen to be submitted will be dependent on the questioned under investigation.
First, the original document is necessary and the standards to be collected or requested
should be sufficient; and observance of similarity of subject matter is necessary.
VII. THE LOGICAL PROCESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
I. FIRST – ASCERTAIN THE FACTS; to select “QUESTIONED”, “DENIED”, or

“ADMITTED, “AUTHENTIC”, and “DOUBTFUL” document.
a. Concerning the document in questioned
i. Is only one signature in questioned?
ii. Is any part of the document in question? iii. Is the date of the
document in questioned?
iv. Is the paper or the typewriter used in the document in questioned?
b. Regarding the standard
i. Make sure that there are sufficient numbers of authentic documents for
comparison submitted. If there are inadequate standard, obtain more.
ii. Determine whether the standards are authentic ones, on which a foundation can
be built for admitting them in evidence.
II. SECOND – ANALYZE THE DETAILS: Synthesize the elements, date, circumstances,
conditions, technical problems and the like.
a. The examiner after ascertaining the facts should have detailed information as the
circumstances of the document in questioned the condition of an alleged writer, or of any
condition that may have affected the writing or typewriting or any facts that are part of
the technical problem with the document that is submitted to the expert.
b. He should inquire about the circumstances and conditions as far as the client knows, such
as; was the document signed sitting on the wall, on the lap, or lying in bed? Sitting on
bed, lying on his back or side? For example, a document could have been signed in a
moving automobile or having a drink at a bar.
III. THIRD – QUALIFY THE CASE

a. How much time is needed for the examination?
b. Is it possible to complete the study from the original papers, or is it necessary to make
special photo-enlargements for proper examination?
c. If it is possible to make arrangements with the clients for photo-enlargement, is it
advisable to do so?
d. Photo-enlargements are always useful for demonstrating the reasons on which the
opinion is based.
VIII. SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

a. ANALYSIS (RECOGNITION) – properties of characteristics, observed or measured.
b. COMPARISON – properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thought analysis are
compared with the familiar or recorded properties of unknown items.
c. EVALUATION – similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a
certain value for identification, determined by its, likelihood of occurrence. The weight or
significance of each must therefore be considered.
d. VERIFICATION – it is the process of double checking the accuracy and correctness of the
examination usually conducted by other expert in the said field.
IX. CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

a. Accuracy – correspondence between results obtained and the truth.
b. Precision – measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or experimentation.
X. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

 It is the initial examination conducted on a document by a document examiner to determine
whether it is genuine or not. It is not a misnomer, or in reality it consists of painstaking analysis
more than looking at a document and experience an off-hand opinion.
A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED

DOCUMENTS
 Ensures preparedness
 Avoidance of delay; &
 Ensures success of the case
B. Some points in the principal points for consideration in the preliminary examination of
questioned documents. Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writing? Or was it written last?
5. Are the remains of pencil or carbon marks which may have been an outline for the signature of
other writings?
C. Questioned Document Expert must have

 Attained the appropriate education and training;
 Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific and legal aspects of document examinations,
and
 A broad experience in handling questioned document cases.
D. REASON FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT

1. Assurance of preparedness;
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases; consequently they do not
possess the knowledge of the document expert’s ability of the various methods that exist for
determining forgeries.
3. Avoidance of an “OFF-HAND” opinion.
E. Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not based on thorough scientific examination.
F. The danger of off-hand opinions – it has happened in some cases that an off-hand opinion has
sent innocent man to prison, while a murderer was given a chance to escape.
XI. INSTRUMENT AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

EXAMINATION
1. Magnifying Lens – bank personnel and other people involved in currency examination usually
use and ordinary hand-lens; the maximum diameter of which is four inches and this appears big
with its wide frame it has magnifying power of two times the original only. Magnifying lenses of
five times or more magnifying power, with built in lighting are more useful.
2. Shadowgraph – a pictorial image formed by casting a shadow, usually of the hands, upon a
rightful surface or screen.
3. Stereoscopic binocular microscope – a tri-dimensional (3D) enlargement is possible.
4. Measures and Test plates (transparent glass) – those used for signatures and type writings.
5. Table Lamps with adjustable shades (Goose Neck Lamps) - used for illumination; needed in
sidelight examination where light is placed at a low-angle in a position oblique to plane or
document.
6. Transmitted Light Gadget – a device where light comes from beneath or behind glass on
document is placed.
7. Ultraviolet Lamp – this is used in the detection of counterfeited bills but can actually be used to
detect security features of qualified document.
8. Infrared Viewer – primarily used to decipher writings in charred document.
9. Comparison microscope – similar to that of the bullet comparison microscope.
10. Video Spectral Comparator (VCS) – it is used in the examination of masked or obliterated
text, watermarks, visible fluorescence, paper fluorescence and oblique illumination of indented
writing and embossing.
11. Electrostatic Detection analysis (ESDA) – the device that can detect indention/indented
writings can records transparencies of any indention.
XII. TECHNIQUE IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS;

A. Microscopic Examination - any examination or study which is made with microscope in order
to discover minute physical details. Stereoscopic examination with low and power objectives is
used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift in signature analysis. With proper
angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in decipherment of erasures, some minute
manipulations not perfectly pictured to the unaided eye the sequence of entries done by different
writing instrument.
B. Transmitted Light Examination – in this examination, the document is viewed with the source
of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper. Documents are subjected to this
type of examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching of serrations and some other
types of alteration.
C. Oblique Light Examination – an examination with the illumination so controlled that it grazes
or strikes the surface of the document from one side at every low angle. Decipherment of faded
handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed impressions, etc are subjected
to this of examination.
D. Photographic examination – this type of examination is very essential in every document
examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photograph.
E. Ultra-violet Examination – ultraviolet radiation in invisible and occurs in the wave lengths just
below the visible blue-violet end of spectrum (rainbow). These rays in the wave lengths just
below the visible light are reflected, a phenomenon known as fluorescence. This type
examination is done in a darkroom after the lamp has been warmed up in order to give a
maximum output of the ultra-violet should be to the minimum duration in order to avoid fading
of some writing and typewriter ribbon. The exposure of a document to ultraviolet light is useful
when it consists of several pages and substitution is being suspected. The color and intensity
fluorescence reaction is very apparent in case of substituted page. Mechanical and chemical
erasures will certainly change the reflectivity and fluorescence of the area affected.
F. Infrared Examination – the examination of documents employs invisible radiation beyond the
red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a specially sensitized
photographic emulsion.
XIII. PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Purposes and Photographs in QDE:
1. Serve as a record of the initial condition of a disputed document;
2. Make clear what otherwise may be hidden or indistinct;
3. Enlarge writing in question so that every quality and characteristics of it can be clearly
and properly interpreted whether the facts so shown point to genuineness or to forgery;
4. Enable many number of accurate reproduction of document thus affording unlimited
opportunity for study, comparison and evaluation by any number of examiners, which
would not be possible by using the document alone;
5. Allow cutting apart as may be desired and the various parts classified for comparisons;
6. Can show delicate discolorations due to chemical erasures or other fraudulent changes,
which may otherwise be overlooked, or misinterpreted;
7. Can show very clearly any erasures by abrasions made by ordinary rubber eraser and it
can record in permanent form with the paper placed obliquely to the plane of the lens
and plate and inclined at just right of reflection so as to show differences in the reflected
light from different portions of the paper surface; and
8. With transmitted light, photograph is useful in:
 Examination of watermarks
 Determining the identity or the differences in paper by showing
arrangement of the fibers and the markings of the gauze and dandy roll.
 Showing the continuity of strokes and
 Determining retouching or patching of writing by showing clearly the
presence of added ink film and the uneven distribution of ink in
interrupted.
XIV. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS

a. Erasures – one of the common inquiries in questioned document is whether or not an
erasures was actually made on a document. In cases like this, the following examination
are made:
1. Physical inspection: using ultraviolet light, observation with light striking the surface at a
sharp angle, and observation under the microscope maybe considered.
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible stain, but in most instances not the
slightest semblance of a stain remains.
Usually in chemical erasing the writing is effaced by the use of liquid ink eradicator.
Chemical eradicators are made in solution which bleaches the color out of ink, making the
writing appear invisible. Frequently, the eradicator can be detected by the peculiar odor
removing in the paper or with litmus paper which reveal evidence of tampering. A chemical
alteration may sometimes be detected by the appearance of pale yellow stains or discoloration
around the suspected alteration/changes.
b. Indented writing – usually applied to the partially visible depressions appearing on a

sheet of paper underneath the one which the visible writing appears. These depressions or
indentation are due to application of pressure on the writing instrument and would appear
as a carbon copy if a sheet of a carbon paper had been properly inserted. Indentation may
also appear on a blank sheet of paper. If such is used as a backing sheet while typing out
a message on a typewriter. Methods of examination are:
1. Physic methods maybe used by passing a strong beam of nearly parallel light almost
horizontally over the surface of the paper.
2. Fuming the document maybe of values in some cases.
3. Powders of various kinds maybe used without changing the document.
c. Burned or charred paper – a piece of paper maybe subjected to the action of a limited
amount of heat causing it to become scorched and retaining a certain amount of its
identity or it may be subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and losing identity.
However, if the combustion is incomplete, a certain amount of success maybe realized
provided the pieces are large enough to form a coherent message. Of primary importance
is the proper packing and shipping of this type of the following methods maybe applied
to decipher the original message contained thereon:
1. Photographic methods, using various types of filters and different angles of illumination
may determine the writing contained thereon without changing the appearance of the
charred fragments.
2. Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or bathing charred pieces with solutions of
different chemical reagents
3. Photographic plates maybe utilized by allowing the charred paper to remain in contact
with the emulsion sides in total darkness from one to two weeks.
b Adding Machines – the construction of an adding machine differs greatly from the typewriter
but the methods and principles of identification are related. Manufactures use different types of
numerals and from time to time change their design. The spacing between columns is also not
standardized for all machines. Those factors form the basis of determining the “make” of the
machine and for estimating the period in which it was built. Another kind approach is the ribbon
impression, for the ribbon is made and operates very similarly to the typewriter.
XV. HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
1. It is basic requirement, that when a document becomes disputed and deposited in court or
with the attorney, in order to maintain its original condition, it should be kept unfolded and
in a separate, proper size envelope or folder. This is true not only for the disputed documents,
but for many other important documentary evidence.
2. It is also advisable that right after the document becomes disputed or questioned, it is
important to make not only the usual photo static copy (Xerox), but also a proper photograph
or photo-enlargement, if possible by the document examiner or under the supervision of the
document expert.
3. When working in the preparation of the case, if it is often necessary for the lawyer or court to
handle repeatedly the disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of handling and
working with the original document, the photograph should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document, can change the
physical condition of the case. For example, touching with wet hands or fingers can create
smearing in the ink; pointing with pencil can leave marks that create a suspicion of previous
pencil marks, or experiment as proof of attempted forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp stick, cause slight damage
which although it cannot be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks under the
microscope or on the enlarge photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for example, the
oldfashioned ink test, which was used to determine the age of the ink-writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the presence of chemist or in
court or in front of both parties involved the case.
B. DO’s and DON’T’s in the Care, handling and preservation of document

1. DO’s
a. Take disputed papers to document examiner’s laboratory at the first opportunity.
b. If the storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from excessive heat strong
light.
c. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in transparent plastic envelop
or evidence preserver.
2. DONT’s”
a. Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase, impress rubber stamps,
sticker, write on, or otherwise alter any handwriting.
b. Do not smear with fingerprint powder or chemicals.
c. Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet, notebook or brief case
on ground of interviews.
d. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in pocket for a long
time.
e. Do not marked disputed documents (either by consciously writing instruments or
dividers)
f. Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or
punching for filing purposes.
g. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests;
do not treat or dust for talent fingerprints before consulting a document
examiner.
C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENT

1. Those extremely fragile must be handled as little as possible and transporting them to the
laboratory requires extraordinary care. With forethought and caution they can be brought
from the distant fire scene to the laboratory.
2. They should be moved in the container in which they are found whenever possible. When
the fragments are not packed tightly, they should be padded with lightweight absorbent
cotton. If jarring cannot be entirely eliminated jarring box must be kept minimum.
3. Thus every precaution must be taken in handling and transporting the charred residue in
order to prevent the large pieces from becomingly unnecessarily and badly broken. The
fragment must be held firmly without crushing and prevent movement or shifting when
finally packed in a sturdy container.
CHAPTER III
HANDWRITNG IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION
HANDWRITING – It is the result of very complicated series of acts, being used as whole, combination
or certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort.
Some defined handwriting as “visible speech.”
I. KINDS OF WRITINGS:
1. Cursive – connected; writing in which one letter is joined to the next.
2. Script – separated or printed writing.
3. BLOCK – all CAPITAL LETTERS.
II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

A. In Wignore’s Principle of Judicial Proof, Handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily
movement which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from
fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
B. Environment, education and occupation affect individual so variously in the formation of these
muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes as almost automatic succession of facts
stimulated by these habits.
C. The imitation of the style of writing by another becomes difficult because the other person
cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular combination from the first
writer.
Is Handwriting/signature identification an exact science?

 In the hands of a qualified examiner operating under proper conditions, identification by means
of handwriting/signature is certain. Proper conditions include-
1. Sufficient questioned handwriting
2. Sufficient known writing
3. Sufficient time
4. Use of scientific instruments
III. PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING
Two groups of muscle involve in handwriting:

1. Extensor muscle – push up the pen to form the upward stroke.
2. Flexor muscle – push the pen from the download strokes.
10 | Q u e s t i o n e d D o c u m e n t s E x a m i n a t i o n
Four groups of muscles employed writing: those which operate the joints of the finger, wrist, elbow, and
shoulder.
IV. VARIATION IN HANDWRITING

Variation is the differences in one’s handwritings. The hand ordinarily is an instrument of
precision and therefore we may not expect every habitual manual operation to be absolutely uniform.
The greater this skills in the art of penmanship, the less variations there will be in the form of
individualize letters as well as in the writing as a whole.
A. Causes of variation
1. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available space.
2. Abnormal condition such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation’s, emotion and deception.
3. Position of letter – all the letters are to be found initially, medially and finally. The fact of a
different position especially in combination with another and particular letter may modify any of
them in some way or another.
B. Importance of variation
1. Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important
element of identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its
extent. It becomes necessary to determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly
duplicated in two individuals that such a conscience becomes practically impossible and his
multitude of possible variations when combined is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size, lateral
spacing and proportions actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily
in superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of care given in the act, design, slant,
shading, vigor, angularity, roundness and direction of strokes.
V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

A. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
B. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow the school model.
C. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
D. In the course of trial and error, modification are made, simplification and elaborations, addition
and omission occurs.
VI. SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (school model) – refers to the standard of handwriting instruction
taught in particular school.
A. System of handwriting
1. Old English round hand – in fact Italian hand popular in 1840.
2. Modified round hand – early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and
Scribners copy book. (1840-1860).
3. Spencerian – there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. And
a general tendency toward plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were
very ornate – 1860-1890.
4. Modern vertical writing 1890-1900.
5. The arm movement writing – the manner or method of writing, instead of the form alone
a especially emphasized.
B. Some Modern Scirool Model Forms
1. Palmer Copybook-commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.

2. D’Nealian Copybook-commonly used in the United States since 1980
3. British Copybook
4. French Copybook
5. German Copybook
Significance of school copy forms or system characteristics as basis in the identification of

handwriting:
1. Similarities of form are not indicative of identity unless they concern unusual form or what are
termed deviations from the unusual form or what are termed deviations from the normal.
Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but such similarities in form are indicated of
non-identity.
2. All differences in form are indicated of non-identity.
3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply indicate the class or genus or the differences
that does not differentiate maybe nearly superficial.
4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences of system of writing have as important
bearing on the question of genuine or of forgery and in other cases, the presence of European
characteristics in handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.
Importance of the design of the letters (System of Writing) – May point:

1. To the nationality of the writers
2. To the system learned
3. To the date when the writing was acquired and
4. To some of the influence that surrounded the writer
Terminologies related to Handwriting Identification

1. Alignment – the relation of parts of the whole writing or line of individual letters in
words to the baseline. It is the alignment of the word. The relative alignment of letter.
2. Angular Forms – sharp, straight strokes that are made by stopping the pen and changing
direction before continuing.
3. Arcade Forms – forms that look like arches rounded on the top and open at the bottom.
4. Cacography – it refers to bad writing.
5. Calligraphy – it is the art of beautiful writing.
6. Characteristics – any property which distinguishes and in document examination
commonly called to as the identifying details.
7. Collation – side by side comparison, as use in this subject, it means the critical
comparison on side by side examination.
8. Comparison – the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their identifying
qualities; it refers not only a visual but also mental in which the element of one item are
related to the counterpart of other.
9. Disguised writing – it is handwriting in which the writer alters his handwriting
characteristics to conceal his identity. A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual
writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness
are termed disguised handwriting.
10. Downstroke – the movement of toward the writer.
11. Form – the writer’s chosen writing style. The way the writing looks, whether it is
copybook, elaborated, simplified or printed.
12. Garland forms – a cup-like connected form that is open at the top and rounded on the
bottom.
13. Gestalt - the German word that means “complete” or “whole”. A good gestalt needs
noting added or taken away to make it “look right”. Also a school of handwriting
analysis that looks at handwriting as a whole picture.
14. Graphoanalysis – the study of handwriting based on the two fundamental strokes, the
curve and the straight strokes.
15. Graphometry – analysis by comparison and measurement.
16. Graphology – the art of determining character disposition and amplitude of a person
from the study of handwriting. It also means the scientific study and analysis of
handwriting, especially with reference to forgeries and questioned documents.
17. Hand lettering – any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately; also called hand printing.
18. Left-handed writing
19. Letter space – the amount of space left between letters.
20. Line direction – movement of the baseline. May slant up, down, or straight across the
page.
21. Line quality – the overall character of the ink lines from the beginning to the ending
stroke. These are two classes: Good line quality and poor line quality. The visible records
in the written stroke of the basic movements and manner of holding the writing
instrument is characterized by the term “line quality”. It is derived from a combination of
factors including writing skills speed rhythm, freedom of movements, shading and pen
position.
22. Line space – the amount of space left between lines.
23. Manuscript writing – a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of
writing is taught in young children in elementary schools as the first step in learning to
write.
24. Margins – the amount of space left around the writing on all four sides.
25. Model Handwriting/Signature – it refers to the handwriting or signature which is the
basis of forgery.
26. Movement – it is an important element in handwriting. It embraces all factors which
related to the motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm,
emphasis, tremors and the like. The manner in which the writing instrument is move that
is by finger, hand, forearm or whole arm.
27. Natural Handwriting – any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt
to control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality or execution.
28. Natural variation – these are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individual handwriting.
29. Pen emphasis – the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the surfaces. When the
penpoint has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, but more rigid writing points
heavy points can occur in writing without any evidence of shading; the act intermittently
forcing the pen against the paper with increase pressure.
30. Pen Hold – the place where the writer grasps the barrel of the pen and the angle at which
he holds it.
31. Pen Position – relationship between the pen point and the paper.
32. Pen pressure – the average force with which the pen contacts the paper. Pen pressure as
opposed to pen emphasis deals with usual of average force involved in the writing rather
than the period increases.
33. Printscript – a creative combination of printing and cursive writing.
34. Proportion or ratio – the relation between the tail and the short letter is referred as to
the ratio of writing.
35. Quality – a distinct or peculiar character. Also “quality” is used in describing
handwriting to refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement
himself.
36. Rhythm – the element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic
resources. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in its quality; the flourishing
succession of motion which are recorded in a written record. Periodicity, alteration of
movements.
37. Significant writing habit – any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently
uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental point in the identification.
38. Simplification – eliminating extra or superfluous strokes from the copybook model.
39. Size – may refer to the overall size of the writing or the proportions between zones.
40. Skill – in any set there are relative degrees or ability or skill and a specimen of
handwriting usually contains evidence of the writer’s proficiency; degree, ability, or skill
of a write proficiency.
41. Slope/slant – the angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline.
There are three classes: to the left, to the right; and vertical slant. There are also writing
that manifest variable slant.
42. Speed of writing – the personal pace at which the writer’s pen moves across the paper.
43. Speed (speedy) writing - not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of
the speed of writing may be significant identifying element. Writing speed cannot be
measured precisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms
of slow, moderate, or rapid.
44. System (of writing) – the combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school make up the writing system. Writing through the use of
diverges from the system, but generally retains some influence of the basic training.
45. Tension – the degree of force exerted on the pen compared to the degree of relaxation.
46. Thready Form – an indefinite connective form that looks flat and wavy.
47. Variability – the degree to which the writing varies from the copybook model.
48. Variation – the act or process of changing.
49. Word space – the amount of space left between words.
50. Writing collection - both the circumstances under which the writing was prepared and
the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write at the time of execution. It includes the
writer’s position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support and backing, and the
writing instrument; writing ability may be modified by the condition of the writer’s
health, nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
51. Writing habit – any repeated executed with opposite hand that normally used; a.k.a as
with the awkward hand.” It is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of a right-handed
person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for the common terminology
for this class of disguise as “left-hand writing.”
52. Writing impulse – the result of the pen touching down on the paper and moving across
the page, until is raised from the paper.
MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
i. Kinds of movement
1. Finger movement – the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in
actual motion. Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand movement – produced by the movement or action of the whole hand, with the
wrist as the center of attraction.
3. Forearm movement – the movement of shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the
table.
4. Whole forearm movement – action of the entire arm resting. i.e., blackboard writing.
ii. Quality of movement

1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting
2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
3. Strong, heavy and forceful
4. Nervous and irregular
5. Smooth, flowing and rapid
iii. Speed – slow and drawn; deliberate; average; and rapid

iv. Different movements employed affect writing in – smoothness; directness;
uniformity; continuity of strokes; and connecting or curves between letters
MOTOR COORDINATION – it is the special way in which the various muscles used in writing work
together to produced written forms.
Characteristic of motor coordination

1. Free, smelt rounded curves
2. Gradual changes of directions
3. Pressure is always in state of change, moving from the light to heavy or from heavy to light.
4. Speed
5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the lines whereas in writing
produced with a slow motion as in the finger movement, the shading often has a “bunchy”
appearance, in which the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.
RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING – Succession of connected, uniform strokes, working in full
coordination. This is manifested by clear-cut accentuated strokes which increases and decreases in
which like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state of change moving from the light to heavy from
heavy to light.
A. Lack of rhythm – a succession of awkward independent, poorly directed and disconnected
motions.
B. Importance of rhythm – one can determine if the writer normally and spontaneous ly or write
with hesitation as if he is attempting to for signature.
Letter of Connection – it is a mean indictor of the neuromuscular function words are formed by
connection letters to one another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward and downward
stokes. These types of connection are:
1. Arcade – a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. Arcaded handwriting are usually connected
with ligatures on top letters.
2. Garland – links the downward stroke to the upstroke with a flowing curve swinging from left
to right.
3. Angular connective form – characterized by an abrupt stop and start in each turning point.
4. The threadlike connective form – the joining of downward and upward strokes in slurred to a
threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at both top and bottom produce a double curve.
These forms appear both in the shaping og letters within the word.
THE WRITTEN STROKES

Strokes – refers to the series of line or curves written in a single letter; one of the lines of an alphabet or
series of lines or curves within a single letter; the path traced by the pen on the paper.
Stokes structure is the most important point in the comparative analysis of handwriting. It is the
only point that many people check when they doubt a particular handwriting. Stroke is usually the
starting point for an inexperience student of handwriting examination.
People develop certain habit of construction in their letter formations and the minute strokes, the
pieces and parts of single letters become quite fixed. The habitual stroke structures give or handwriting
its individual character, making identification through handwriting more certain
Understanding how these strokes characteristics are structured or formed is the key to the
identifying the indications of forgery and genuineness in handwritings and signatures.
Terminologies concerning stroke Characteristics

1. Arc – a curved formed inside the top curve of loop are in small letters “h”, m, n, p.
2. Arch – any arcaded form in the body of a letter found in small letters which contain arches.
3. Ascender – in the top portion of a better or upper loop.
4. Baseline – maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary alignment of writing; is the
ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
5. Bead - preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital letters. A letter
having this is called beaded letter.
6. Beard – is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
7. Blunt – the beginning and ending stoke of a letter (without hesitation).
8. Body – the main portion of the letter, minus the initial of strokes, terminal strokes and the
diacritic, of any. Ex. The oval of the letter “o” is the body, minus the downward stroke and the
loop
9. Bowl – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete a letter into “o”.
10. Buckleknot/buckle – a loop made as flourished to the letters, as a small letter “k & b”, or in
capital letters “a”, “k”, “p”; the horizontal end loop stroke that are often used to complete a
letter.
11. Descender – opposite of ascender, the lower portion of letter.
12. Diacritic – “t” crossing and dots of the letter “i” and “j”. The matters of the Indian script are also
known as diacritic signs; an element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a
dor.
13. Eye/eyelet/eyeloop – a small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur inside the
oval of the letters “a, d, o”; the small loop form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as in
small letters.
14. Ending/Terminate stroke of stoe – the end stroke of a letter.
15. Foot – lower part which rest on the base line. The small letter “m” has three feet, and the small
letter “n” has two feet.
16. Habits – any repeated elements of details, which may serve to individualize writing.
17. Hesitation - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when writing
slows down or stop while the pen take stock of the position.
18. Hiatus/pen jump – a gap occurring between continuous strokes without lifting the pen. It
usually occurs due to speed; may be regarded also as a special form of pen lift distinguish in a
ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear in the writing.
19. Hook - It is a minute curve or a ankle which often at the end often occurs at the end of the
terminal stroke and sometimes, it occurs at the beginning of an initial stroke. It is also defines as
the minute involuntary talon liker formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke
or the end terminal stroke.
20. Hump - upper portion of its letter m, n, h, k, the rounded outside of the top of the bend stroke or
curve in small letter.
21. Knob – the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of
the pen from the paper (usually applicable to fountain pen and felt tip pens).
22. Ligature (connection) – the stroke which connects two letters, characterized by connected
stroke between.
23. Long letter – those letters with both upper and lower loops.
24. Loop – a oblong curve such as found on the small f, g, t and letter stroke “f” has two. A loop
may be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open space.
25. Majuscule - a capital letter.
26. Minuscule – a small letter.
27. Movement impulses – this refers to the continuity of stroke, forged writing is usually the
produced by disconnected and broken movements and more motion or movement impulses than
in genuine writing.
28. Patching – retouching or going back over a defective portion of a written stroke. Careful
patching is common defect on forgeries.
29. Pen lift – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.
30. Retrace/retracing – any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon the original strokes. Ex.
Vertical stroke of the letters d, t, while coming downward from the top to bottom will have a
retracing stroke; any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke. In handwriting there
may be instances in which the pen doubled back over the course.
31. Shading – it is widening of the ink strokes due to the added pressure on a flexible pen point or to
the use of a stub pen.
32. Shoulder – outside portion of the top curve, small letter “m” has three shoulders and the small
letter “n” has two, the small letter “h” has one shoulder.
33. Spur – a short initial or terminal stroke.
34. Staff – any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long downward of the letter b, g.
35. Stem/shank – the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally seen in
capital letters.
36. Tick/hitch – any short stroke, which usually occurs at the top of the letters.
37. Tremor – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is described as writing
tremor.
38. Whirl – the upstroke of a looping ascender.
Other terminologies concerning strokes

1. Airstroke – the movement of the pen as it is raised from the paper and continues in the same
direction in the air.
2. Covering stroke – a stroke that unnecessarily covers another stroke in a concerning action.
3. Final – the ending stroke on a letter when it is at the end of a word.
4. Upstroke – movement of the pen away from the writer.
5. Sequence of strokes – the order in which writing are placed on the paper is referred to as their
sequence.
6. Supported strokes – upstrokes partially covering the previous downstrokes. Originally taught in
European school.
7. Trait stroke – a school of handwriting analysis that assigns personality trait manners to
individual writing strokes.
Qualities of stroke
1. Expansion – whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect to both
vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Co-ordination – whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky,
continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed – whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has been steady or
variable.
4. Pressure – whether the pressure exerted in the movement and its upward and downward reach.
5. Direction – left ward and right ward trend of the movement and its upward and downward reach.
6. Rhythm – in the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain similar phases
recur at more or less regular intervals.
GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED HANDWRITING
A. Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt is made to discard one’s own writing and
assume the exact writing personality of another person.
B. Disguised – those writings that are disguised and in which the writer seeks to hide his own
personality without adapting that of another.
With these purpose of handwriting examinations is to determine whether handwriting is forged or

whether it is genuine or that of another.
HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

Writing habit – these are repeated elements on one’s handwritings. In handwriting identification, the
characteristics are the bases of examination. The handwriting class characteristics are the initial points
of comparison and if similarity is established, the individual characteristics are compared.
Characteristic in handwriting pertain to any features or distinguishing properties or qualities to one’s

handwriting. In handwriting analysis the usual characteristics of considerations are; line quality, spacing
of words, and letters, ratio and proportion, pen lifts and separation, connecting strokes, beginning and
ending strokes, unusual letter formation, shading or pen pressure, slant, baseline habits, flourishes and
embellishments, and diacritic placement.
A. General (Class) characteristics – these characteristics refer to those habits that are part of
writing system or which are modifications of the system handwriting found among so large a
group of writes that have only slight identification value.
B. Individual characteristics – these are characteristics which are the result of the writer’s
muscular control, coordination, age, health, and nervous impairment, frequency of writing,
personality and character. These are also found in the following; pen pressure, writing
movement, frequency of writing, personality and character. They are also found in the
following; writing movement, form and design of letters, motor coordination, pen lift between
letters, speed, slant as writing habit; proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or habit;
quality of stroke or line quality, variation and muscular control or motor control.
C. Types of handwriting according to muscular control

1. Loose writing – this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of
regulation. This is noticed especially in the letter forms.
2. Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom and inhabited movements. It gives the
impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty. The writing movement is
small. There is distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility.
D. Classification of individual characteristics

1. Permanent characteristics – found always in handwriting.
2. Common or usual – found in group of writers who studied the same system of writing.
Examples of these are;
a. Ordinary copy-book form
b. Usual systematic slant
c. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
d. Conventional spacing
3. Occasional – found occasionally in his handwriting
4. Rare – special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of
one hundred individuals.
E. How individual characteristics are acquired
1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental physical traits of the writer as affected by education and by
occupation.
F. Examples of some of the Individual characteristics
1. Hook to the right hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of “i” dots “t” crossing
3. Idiosyncrasies – unusual features or writing habits
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters
7. Simple and compound and grateful endings
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of the Greek M.
PRINCIPLE OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

A. When any two specimen of handwritings contain a combination of corresponding or similar and
specifically oriented characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the
possibility of their occurrence by mere coincidence, and there are no unaccounted for difference,
it may be concluded that they are similar in writing characteristics and therefore written by one
and the same person.
B. Handwritings are fixed habits.
C. These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic and unconscious that even by the
most strenuous effort, it is almost impossible to change them. It is one of the most permanent of
human habits.
D. No duplication of handwriting by two individuals.
Correct Conclusion
1. To reach the conclusion that two writing are written by the same hand, characteristics or “dents”
and “scratches” should be in sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental coincidence
to reach the conclusion that writings are different hands, we may find numerous likeliness in
class characteristics but divergence must be something more than mere superficial differences.
2. If the conclusion of identifying as reached, there must not remain significant differences that
cannot reasonably explained. This ignoring of the differences or the failure properly to account
for them is the cause of the errors in handwriting examination.
3. Although there no specific approach, the document examiner always observed; Analysis,
Comparison, Evaluation, & Verification
HANDPRINTING
A. The procedure and the principle involved are similar to that of cursive handwriting.
B. In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individual rest principally in design, selection,
individual letter construction, size ratios and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting
examination is to determine whether the questioned handwriting and standards were
accomplished with:
1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with a
measure or skill in handwriting of conversely.
2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with
or disguise in the subject’s handwriting.
CHAPTER IV
STANDARDS AND EXEMPLARS
I. Definition of Terms
1. Standard – these are known writings which indicates how a person writes. A writer manifests
fixed habits in his writing that identify them. This fact provides the basis for an opinion of
conclusion regarding any writing identification problem.
2. Exemplars – specimen of writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The term
standard is a general term referring to all authenticated writing od the suspects while exemplars
refers to a specially to a specimen of standard handwriting offered in evidence or obtained or
request for comparison with the questioned handwriting.
3. Sample – a selected representative portion of the whole is known as sample. In this text, the
terms “samples” follows closely on the statistical usage.
II. OBJECTIVES OF STANDARDS
This is to illustrate, fairly and completely their author’s personal habit in the creation of such
handwriting as is under question or in dispute. Accurate, complete standards which demonstrate the
author’s habit in the light of the handwriting which is in question provide the basis for reliable sound
conclusion. As questioned document examiner, the sufficient amount and proper standard should be
collected.
USEFUL SUGGESTION REGARDING HANDWRITING STANDARDS FOR COMPARISON

A. Types of Handwriting “standards”
1. Collected standards are known (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as signature
and endorsements on cancelled checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public
and legal paper letters, commercial, official, public and private document and other
handwriting such as letters memoranda, etc. Written in the course of daily life, both
business and socials.
2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printing) written by an
individual upon request for the purpose with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.
3. Post Litem Motam Examplars – writing produced by the subject after evidential
writings have come into dispute and society for the purpose of establishing his
contentions.
B. Types of standards Desirable for comparison use in the most common types of Questioned
document problems.
1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both individual case.
2. When anonymous letter writing other than signature are in questioned:
a. Submit request standards writing of general nature from both victims
andsuspects (as much standards writing as possible to obtain within reason).
b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or printed) – at
least 3 writings by the suspects and in some instanced by the victim.
C. Suggested procedure for taking request handwriting standards in all types of questioned
document problems:
1. Have subject seated in a natural position at table or desk having smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used in questioned
writings lie; paper should be the same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned
document: if questioned document is in furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned documents.
4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no
assistance in spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed which will
produce the subject natural writing habits.
5. Remove each specimen upon completion by the subject matter in consequence date, time
and identify by initiating each request subject to sign each specimen.
6. Observe all writing done by the subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, and
whether subject appears to be normally right or left-handed, etc.
D. Special procedure for taking request handwriting standards where checks forgery is
suspected.
1. Furnish with check blanks similar to the questioned checks/s.
2. Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
a. Date – same as shown on question checks
b. Payee - -do-
c. Amount - -do-
d. Signature - -do-
e. Any other handwriting shown on the questioned checks
3. Give the subjects to help or suggestion in completing checks
E. Miscellaneous
1. The laboratory should be informed of the age apparent health and physical condition of
the time standard are written.
2. Do not fold, staple or pin document: handled questioned documents with care.
3. Indicate in the sample handwriting the time, place, date signature of writer as well as
witness of the handwriting.
III...HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS? – Factors to

Consider in the selection of standards
A. The amount of standards written

 At least ten to twenty five signatures (10-25). (the PNP-CLO recommends at least eight
(8) standard signatures)
 Writing – usually four or five pages of natural writings (the PNP-CLO recommends at
least five (5) pages of handwriting standard and observance of similar language or
dialect.
B. Similarly of subject matter – if the questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand printed
standard or exemplars.
 Extended writing – determine whether the questioned writings are purely cursive, or
script block or combination of the three or two styles of writing.
C. Relative dates of the questioned and the standard writing standard signatures or writing must be
those written five (5) years before of five (5) after of the date of the questioned signature or
writing. This means that the investigator should collect standards that were nearest to the
possible date of the writing in questioned.
 Importance of contemporaneous standards:
a. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s hand writing or signature.
b. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation
D. Conditions under which both the questioned and the standard are prepared. Look for
standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper rested on the knee; standing;
sitting; lying down; and/or while on moving vehicle.
E. Writing instrument and paper – same instrument used in the preparation of the questioned
document must be obtained in the standards. If ballpoint was used, the procured collected and
detailed standards written by the use of ball point pen. If coupon bond was used, then procure
also collected and requested standards written on coupon bonds.
V. HANDWRITING/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - Some problems

are complicated and harder to solve that includes:
Types of Signature Remedy
 Signature of the careless or highly erratic A. Collected standards
writer.
 Receipt Signature B. Other receipt signatures
 Near illiterate writer C. Requested standards if writer is still living
 Signature of physically impaired writer D. For physically impaired matters
Intoxicated signature Collect standards written in the same
Old age deterioration situation
The sick bed signature Collect 2 or 3 times more standards
Similar to old age deterioration
 Disguised signature of writing E. Specimen written in normal condition could
not be used therefore consider
collected and requested standards
VI. DIGUISES IN HAND WRITING

A. COMMON IN DIGUISES
1. Abnormally large writing
2. Abnormally small writing
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand)
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (within a single signature)
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms.
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing,
B. KINDS OF DISGUISES
1. Change of slant – from right to left or vice versa.
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block from or vice versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one’s handwriting
6. Using the wrong hand
 Ambidextrous refers to individuals who can use or write using either hands
with equal, skill, movement, and speed
VII. EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

A. Physical and Mental effects – intoxication affects the psychological being of an individual
hence; the manner of handwriting is also affected.
B. Evidence of alcoholic intoxication in handwriting
1. Bizarre letter forms
2. Greatly enlarged writing.
3. Illegible forms an writing generally.
4. Uneven baseline
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing.
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters
VIII. ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARDS WRITINGS
A. Standard writings which are admissible for comparison purposes:

1. Standard writing witnessed
2. Standard writing admitted
3. Record maintained in regular course of business as standard writings
4. Government document in standard writings
5. Ancient writings
6. Other writing standards – among writing admissible as standard are signature on
spelling motion or other instrument, such as an appearance bond, which may without
further proof of genuineness be used as a standard.
7. Familiarity sometimes establishes standard writings.
8. Genuineness of standard decided by court – the sufficiency of the proof of the
genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be decided by the court.
CHAPTER FIVE
INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES
SIGNATURE – it is name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.

Or it is a name or mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he its author or that he
ratifies its content.
Microsoft Encarta reference library has these to say about signature:

1. Signed name
2. Signing of name
3. Distinctive characteristics
(mid-16th century. Directly or via French from medieval Latin signature, from Latin signare (see sign),)
Preparing of falsified and counterfeited documents is very easy with the advancement of science and
technology particularly in the area of computerizing printings. However, procuring the signature of a
personis difficult because of the importance of affixing one’s signatures on a document. With his
difficulty, forgers and falsifier resort to forgery of signatures. (dbgd)
OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. Assisted signature. See guided signature.
B. Cross mark – historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X. This
authenticating mark still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand
for a authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally
stand for a signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of the common
practice of marking with an X.
C. Evidential Signature – it is not simply a signature, signed at particular time and place, under
particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular physical and mental
condition, using particular implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for recording
his name.
D. Fraudulent signature – a forge signature. It involves the writing of a name as a signature by
someone other than person himself, without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.
E. Freehand signature - a fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation rather than
by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
F. Guided signature – a signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arms is steadied in
any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal document
provided it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures are most
commonly written during a serious illness or on a described. G. Imitated signature –
synonymous with freehand forgery.
H. Model signature – a genuine that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced forgery.
I. Theory of comparison – the act of setting two or more signature in an inverted position to
weigh their identifying significance, the reason being that those we fall to see under normal
comparison may readily seen under this theory.
II. THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED

BRANCHOF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING
REASONS:
A. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
B. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
C. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
D. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production
and is a written automatically.
E. A signature is the only word illiterate can write confidence.
III. TYPES OF SIGNATURE

A. Formal (Conventional or Copybook forms) – complete correct signature of an important
document such as will.
B. Informal (cursory) – usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. Personalised – the name or family name is not readable
2. Semi-personalised – the name or family name is readable
C. Careless scribble – for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.
IV. FORGERY – it is a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but also
and intent to fraud. However, it is also used synonymously with fraudulent signature or
spurious document.
V. CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES (CATEGORIES OF FORGERIES OF
SIGNATURES)
A. Simulated or Freehand Imitation Forgery – executed purely by simulation rather than by
tracing the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as freehand imitation or simulated
forgery. Or it refers to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model signature.
1. Simulated with the model before the forger
i. DIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works directly with ink. ii. INDIRECT – forger
works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with ink.
B. Traced forgery (Traced signature)
1. Direct tracing – tracing is made by transmitted light.
2. Indirect tracing – forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which he will trace
the forced signature under the document bearing the model signature with a carbon paper
between the two.
TYPES OF TRACED SIGNATURE:

1. Carbon process
2. Indention process
3. Transmitted light process
C. Spurious Signature (Simple forgery) – forger does not try to copy a model but writes
something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For this, he uses a false (spurious)
name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called
disguise.
D. Forgery by means of a stamped facsimile of a Genuine or model
E. Forgery by computer scanning
VI. SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE:

A. STEP 1 – Place the questioned and the standard signature in the juxta-position or slide-by-slide
for simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
B. STEP 2 – The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of
execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc.). The fundamental difference existing between a genuine
signatures and an almost perfect forgery in the manner of execution.
C. STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors, smooth,
fluent or hesitation. Defect in the quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is
made.
D. STEP 4 – Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether
the appearance blunt, club shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
E. STEP 5 – design and structure of the letters- Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity
and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design. F. Steps 6 – look for the
presence of retouching or patching.
G. Steps 7 – connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
H. Step 8 - do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses are the
often changed according to the whim of the winter.
VII. INDICATION OF GENUINENESS

A. Carelessness
B. Spontaneous
C. Alternation of thick and strokes
D. Speed
E. Simplification
F. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
G. The upward strokes to threadlike tracing
H. Rhythm
I. Good the quality
J. Variation
VIII. INDICATION OF SIMULATED (Direct & Indirect Techniques) and TRACED

forgeries
A. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, indicating points at writer has
temporarily struck.
B. No rhythm
C. Alteration of thick and thin strokes
D. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
E. Slow writing – angular writing
F. Blunt beginning and endings
G. Placement of diacritical mark
H. Absence of spontaneity - lack of smoothness of letters
I. Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom or “inhibited” movements that gives the impression
that every stroke is made with great difficulty. This writing small.
J. No variation
VII. INDICATION OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS FORGERY – Writing habits of the writer

( forger) is evident in the forged signature.
VIII. INDICATION OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE
SIGNATURE
A. Flat strokes
B. No contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
C. Deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.
D. No variation – all signature will superimpose over each other
CHAPTER VI
FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSFICATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. Counterfeiting – it is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and banknotes.
Literally, it means to make a copy of, or imitate; to make a spurious semblance of, as money or
stamps, with the intent to detective or defraud. Counterfeiting is something made to imitate the
real thing used for gain.
B. Falsification – the act/process of making the content/s of a document not the intended content.
C. Forgery – the act of falsely, making materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing
which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy of the foundation of legal liability.
In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of another person, or of
fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters, forges or
counterfeits any – checks, drags – due bill for the payment of money or property – or counterfeits or
forges the seal with the same intent the same to fake, altered forged or, counterfeited, with intent to
prejudice, damage or defraud any person. . . is guilty of forgery.
PAPER MONEY (CURRENCY)

A. Historical facts about money
1. Around 100,000 years ago – barter trading or exchange of commodities was the common
method of trading.
2. Around 300B.C in Mesopotamia – first usage of the term shekel for currency, this was
originally a unit of weight, and referred to a specific weight of barley.
3. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money – often, the shell
of the cowry.
4. According to Herodotus, the Lydian’s were the first people to introduce the use of gold
and silver coins. Modern scholar believed that these first stamped coin were minted
around 650-600 BC.
5. The system of commodity money eventually evolved into a system of representative
money. Representative money occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks
would issue receipts to their depositors – redeemable for the commodity money
deposited. Eventually, these receipts become generally accepted as a means of payment
were used as money.
6. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song Dynasty. These
banknotes known as “jiaozi”, evolved from promissory notes that had been used since the
7th century.
7. In the 13th century, paper money became known in euro[e through the accounts of
travellers such as Marco Polo and William of Rubnuck. Marco Polo’s account of paper of
paper money during the Yuan Dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, “the
Travels of Marco Polo.”
8. Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholm’s Bianco in 1961.
9. The Gold standard – the medium exchange are paper notes that are convertible into
preset, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17 th-19th
centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender and redemption
into gold coin was their legal tender with fixed amounts of golds.
10. By the beginning of the 20th century almost all countries had adopted the gold standards,
backing their legal tender notes with fixed amount of gold.
B. Evolution of Philippines Money (excerpted from the Bangko Sentral ng Pilippinas Website)
1. Pre-Hispanic Era – barter trading was also common; soon some objects were used for
exchange; gold was common as one of these objects included the “piloncitos,” small
bead-like gold bits considered by the local numismatist as the earliest coin of the ancient
Filipinos, and gold barter rings.
2. Spanish Era – at the end of the Spanish regime, Philippine was a multiplicity of
concurrencies that included Mexican pesos, Alfonsino pesos and copper coins of other
currencies.
a. Cobs or macuquinas of colonial mints – earliest coins brought in by the galleons
from Mexico and other Spanish colonies.
b. Silver dos mundos or pillar dollar – considered one of the most beautiful coins.
c. Barilla, a crude bronze or copper coin worth about one centavo – first coin struck
in the country.
d. Coins from other Spanish colonies also reached the country were counter
stamped.
e. Gold coins with the portrait of Queen Isabela were minted Manila.
f. Silver pesos with the profile of young Alfonso XIII were the last coins minted in
spain
g. Pesos Fuertes, issued by the country’s first bank, the El banco Español de Isabela
II, were the first money circulated in the country.
3. Revolutionary period – the Philippine Republic of 1898 under General Emilio
Aguinaldo issued its own and paper currency backed by the country’s natural resources.
a. One peso and five peso notes printed as Republika Filipina Papel Moneda de Un
Peso and Cinco Pesos were freely circulated.
b. Two (2) centimes de peso copper were also issued in 1899
4. American period – the monetary system, was based on gold pegged the Philippine peso
to American dollar at the ratio of 2:1. The US Congress approved the coinage act for the
Philippines in 1903.
 The coin issued under the system bore the designs of Filipino engraver and
artist, Melacio Figueroa. Coins in denomination of one-half centavo to one peso
were minted. The remaining of El Banco Español Filipino to Bank of the
Philippine Islands in 1912 paved the way for the use of English from Spanish in
all notes and coins issued up to 1933. Beginning May 1918, treasury certificates
replaced the silver certificated series, and a one-peso note was added.
5. Japanese Occupation – Two kinds of notes circulated during this period .
a. War notes in big denominations by the Japanese Occupation Forces
b. Guerilla notes or resistance currencies were issued by provinces and
municipalities, most of which were sanctioned by the Philippine government In-
exile, and partially redeemed after the war.
4. Philippine Republic – having gained independence from the United States following the
end of World War II, the country used as currency old treasury certificates overprinted
with the world “victory”.
a. Central Bank of the Philippines was established in 1949
b. First currencies issued were the English series notes printed by the Thomas de la
Rue & Co., Ltd. in England.
c. Cities were minted at the US Bureau of Mint
d. Filipinazation of the Republic coins and paper money began in the late 60’s and
is carried through the present
e. In the 70’s the Ang Bagong Lipunan (ABL) series notes were circulated,
printed at the Security Printing Plant starting 1978
f. Flora and fauna coins initially issued in 1983 – these featured national heroes
and species of flora and
g. Banknotes issued in 1985 replaced the ABL series
h. 2005 – new set of coins and notes were issued carrying the logo of the Bangko
Sentral ng Pilipinas.
F. Making of Paper money – most banknotes are made from cotton paper sometimes mixed with
linen, abaca, or other textile fibers with a weight of 80 to 90 grams per square meter. Generally,
the Paper (known as the substrate) used is different from ordinary paper: it is much more
resilient, resists wear and tear (the average life of a banknote is two years), and also does not
contain the usual agents that make ordinary paper glow slightly under the ultraviolet light.
Unlike most printing and writing paper, banknote paper is infused with polyvinyl alcohol or
gelatine, instead of water, to give it extra strength.
1. Engraving – it is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal
by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and
the extra ink wiped-off the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in
the holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink will be felt to be raised above
the surface. The engraving process is used for the production of all genuine bank
notes.
2. Letterpress Printing – is the most common form of printing books, magazine,
letterheads and the usual printing in common uses. In the process, the letters are made on
raised pieces of metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper in the
same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a bank note are usually
added by this letterpress process after the note has been produced by an engraving.
3. Offset printing – is the method a photograph is taken of the desire material and a print is
made on a special prepared aluminium plate. The plate is kept with water. When ink is
applied, it sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The aluminium
plate is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the ink to the papers. The
offset process is quite used in small printing plants. Because it was photographic process,
it is the most common modern used by counterfeiters to make false paper money.
BANK NOTES PAPER

Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not used, they would soon
wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old two peso bill usually wears out and
has to be replaced at the end of thirty days.
Note: In the most modern printing, papers have chemical added to make look whiter. These chemicals
cause brilliant fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Bank notes paper does not have this filter and does
not show.
EXAMINATION OF THE PAPER BILL (CURRENCY)
KNOWING THE PHILIPPINE CURRENCY (From Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas website)

The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) has sole power and authority to issue currency with the
territory of the Philippines. Every day, these issued currency notes and coins continually circulate or
change hands among public.
The general public accepts and/or passes them on a legal tender, without full knowledge if the
currency is genuine.
The new Philippine currency denominations are from 20 peso (which is the smallest amount) 50
peso, 100 peso, 200 peso, 500 peso and 1000 peso (largest amount). The highest denominations are:
1. 2000 peso – the BSP issued only 300,000 pieces pf this 216mmx133mm 2000 Philippine peso
centennial commemorative legal tender. Banknotes. Another version, with legal tender
banknotes. Another version, with the same design but measured at 160mmx66mm, was also
planned to be issued as legal tender in 2001, but due to the ouster of President Estrada during
Edsa revolution, the notes were stored in vaults of the BSP. As of 2010, the bank was
considering destroying bulk of the unissued notes (known as the “New Millennium” or Erap
notes), saving only 50,000 of the five million pieces to be demonetized fro “historical
educational, numismatic, or other purposes”. However it was not until 2012 that the bank began
selling the numismatic product in a folder that clearly stipulates that the notes are not legal
tender.
2. 100,000-peso centennial notes, measuring 8.5”x14”, are accredited by the Guinness Book of
World Records as the World’s largest legal tender notes in terms of size. 1000 pieces were issued
during the celebration of the centennial of the Philippines Independence in 1898.
STEPS IN RECOGNIZING GENUINE BSP NOTES

Study and familiarize yourself with the characteristics, design and distinct features of BSP
banknotes by following these steps:
1. Paper – Feel the paper – the genuine note is printed on a special kid of paper which is rough
when you run your fingers thru it. It does glow under the ultra-violet light. During the paper
manufacture, the water mark, security fibers, security treads and the indecent band are included.
2. Watermark – Examine the watermark on the unprinted portion of the note – the watermark
is the silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the note. Sharp details of the light and the
shadow effect can be seen when the note is viewed against the light. The contours of the features
of the silhouette can be felt by running the fingers over the design on relatively new notes.
3. Security fibers – Inspect the security fibers – embedded red and blue visible fibers are
scattered at random on both surface of genuine notes and can be readily picked off by means of
any pointed instrument.
4. Embedded security thread – View the embedded security thread – the embedded security
thread is a special a thread vertically implanted off-center of the note during paper manufacture.
This can be easily be seen when the note is viewed against the light. It appears as a broken line
for 5’s, 10’s and 20’s and straight line 50’s, 100’s, 200’s, 500’s and 1000’s.
5. Windowed Security Thread – The window security thread is a narrow security thread vertically
located like “stitches” at the face of the note with clear text of numerical value in repeated in
color from magenta to green or green to magenta depending on the angle view.
6. Portrait (Recognized the Portrait) – appears be like. The eyes of sparkle are formed by the fine
lines that give the portrait a characteristics facial expression which is extremely difficult to
replicate.
7. Serial number (Check the serial numbers) – composed of 1 or 2 prefix letters and 6 or 7
digits. The letters and numeral are uniform in size and thickness, evenly spaced and wellaligned;
and glow under the ultraviolet light. A banknote with six “0” digit serial number is a specimen
note and not legal tender note.
8. Background/lacework design (scan the background/lacework design) – the background
design are made up of multicoloured and well defined lines. The lacework designs are composed
of web-crisscrossing lines which are continuous and traceable even at the intersection.
9. Vignette (verify Vignette) – the lines and dashes composing the vignette are fine, distinct are
sharp; the varying color tone gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it “stand outs” of the
paper.
10. Value panel (check the numeral found at the four corners of the front and back of the not –
the numerals denote the denomination of the note.
11. Color
12. Flourescent Printing – look at the fluorescent print when the note is exposed under the light
violet light – the fluorescent print is the invisible numerical value located off-center of the face
of the note glows when exposed to ultraviolet light
13. Micro printing - verify under the lens the presence of the microprinting on the denomination.
Micro printing are the minute and finely printed words “Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas” or “Central
Bank of the Philippines” located at the face or back of the note that are clearly printed and
readable.
14. Concealed Value - Check the concealed value on the 500-piso denomination This Concealed
value is located at the lower left corner of the face of the note and is recognized when the Note is
held at eye level.
15. Optical Variable Ink – Check the optically variable ink on the 1000-piso denomination It
changes color from green to blue or green when the note is held at different angles.
If you suspect a counterfeit note

1. Do not return it to the passer.
2. Delay the passer by some excuse, if possible, without risking harm.
3. Observe and record the passer’s appearance and that of his/her companion/s.
4. Note the license plate number and make of the passer’s car
5. Write your initials and the date on an unprinted portion of the suspect bill.
6. Peace the note in a prospective envelope.
Pertinent laws and regulation to protect and maintain the integrity of the currency
1. Art. 168, RPC Illegal possession and use of false treasury or bank notes and other instrument of
credit.
2. Art. 166 (RPC) Forging treasury or banknotes or other documents payable to bearer, importing,
and uttering (issuing or circulating) such false notes and documents.
3. Art. 176 (RPC) Manufacturing and possession of instrument or implement for falsification.
4. Art. 163 (RPC) making and importing and uttering (issuing or circulating) false coins.
5. PD 247 – Defacement, mutilation, tearing, burning or destruction of Central Bank (BSP) notes
and coins.
6. Chapter II, Circular 61. Series of 1995. Reproduction and/or use of facsimiles of legal tender
Philippine currency notes/coins.
COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTES/BILLS
A. Main Print
1. Generally smooth
2. The fingers will hardly feel the main prints of the front and back even on new notes.
3. This is brought about by offset print the most common process by counterfeiters.
4. The prints are mere stains on the on the coating of the sensitized paper which is
glossy.
B. Portrait
1. It appears dead
2. The eyes do not sparkle
3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy and poorly printed.
4. Hair is lifeless
5. The face and/or forehead are often naturally white or pale due to absence of the most of
the details.
6. The concentric lies depicting the eyes often merged into solid printed areas.
7. The background often blends with the portrait and is actually “scratchy”.
8. The lines are thick with rough edges.
9. The multi-colored prints on genuine notes are extremely difficult to duplicate and as a
result, counterfeit notes are usually off-color & not of the right shade or tone.
C. Watermark
1. The imitated by printing white ink or dry block on the finished paper.
2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium is stamped to give transparency to the portion
where the designing appears.
3. Printed outline is placed on the inner sheer where merely a paper cut-out is placed inside.
As a result course or harsh and occasional irregular lines & sometimes opaque areas are
very obvious.
D. Metallic Threads – counterfeit by means of printing on the back of the notes, on the inner side
of the paper, insertion of twin thread or simply folding the note vertically where the thread
appears on the genuine bills.
E. Colored Fibers or Security Fibers – on counterfeit, this is simulated by printed lines, cannot be
picked off, but can be easily erased with ordinary rubber or by agitating with the wet fingers.
F. Lacework Design - on counterfeit, these geometric patterns are often blurred, round on the
edges & blotch on the joints. Its continuity could not be traced. The color appears faded.
G. Color of each denomination – look pale
H. Serial numbers
1. On counterfeit, the letter & number are poorly printed. They are usually of different style.
2. Most often, they are evenly spaced and poorly aligned.
3. The numbers are too big or too small, too thick or too thin & in certain cases shaded on
the curves.
I. Vignette
1. On counterfeit usually dull and poorly printed.
2. It appears too dirty
3. The lines are comparatively thicker with rough edges
4. There is no variation in color so that the picture appears flat.
J. Clearness of print – in general, a spurious not exhibits a second handlook. It is dirty to the
sputtering of link on the interior area. Over-inked are visible instantly. The shadings &
ornamentations of the letters and figures are thick and usually merged.
EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT BANKNOTE

1. As well as inspection under ultraviolet light, the investigator should look at the banknote with a
hand lens.
2. He should pay particular attention to the quantity of the portrait in the banknote. This is the one
extremely fine detail of a good engraved plate.
3. The color of the ink should be compared with the color genuine banknote. It is very difficult for
counterfeit to match exactly the same shade of ink by a genuine manufacturer.
VIII. COINS – these are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or
collectively referring to metal currency.
IX. Making of Coins
Casting is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing as image of
gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with lead or tin. Some molds are used for high
temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy. Striking or Stamping is the making of an
impression of a coin or metal bank pressure.
Characteristics
1. Genuine coins show an even flow metallic grains. The details of the profile, the seal of the
Republic of the Philippines, lettering & numeral are high relief, so that it can be readily let
distinctly by running the fingers on the. The beadings are regular and the readings are deep and
even.
2. Counterfeit coins feel greasy and appear slimy. The beading composed of tiny round dots
surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular and elongated depressions & are not sharp &
prominent as in the genuine. The letterings & numerals are low & worn out due to the lack of
sharpness of details. The surroundings are even & show sign of filling.
Counterfeit Metal money or coin – coin made of gold was to widely use but are not now often see
Government kept their gold in the form of heavy bars called bullions and then issue papers for the value
of gold. Metal coins is issued nowadays are mostly in amount for less than it’s faced value. In most
countries, the possession of gold coins is now forbidden except for coin collectors.
Examination of Counterfeit coins – should be remained by:
1. A magnifying lens and
2. Comparing it with a known coin
DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY:

1. Formation of air bubbles, or
2. Removal of small parts of the sole along with the coin.
The best place to examine a counterfeit coin is on the edge since there are usually special milling
marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin by machinery.
COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they are quite complicated in design and manufacture.
The most usual method of forgery is to steal a genuine passport and make change in it. Many safety
features are incorporated in passport and are easily detected by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very
useful in the type of examination.
The investigator should look particularly at the photograph in any passport as identification card.
This is always necessary because sometimes forgers remove and change or substitute the picture. Hence,
the imposition of perforation caused by staples and another pasting device should be studied carefully
LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTEFEITING AND FALSIFICATION – (Pursuant to title

four, chapter one, Revised Penal code – Crimes against Public interest)
A. Forgeries – What are the crimes called forgeries?

1. Forging seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief executive (Art.
161).
2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163)
3. Mutilation of coins (Art. 164)
4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer (Art. 166)
5. Counterfeiting instrument not payable to bearer (Art. 167)
6. Falsification legislative documents (Art. 172)
7. Falsification by public officer , employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister
(Art.171)
8. Falsification by private individuals (Art. 172)
9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art. 173)
10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art. 174)
B. Acts Punishable under Art. 161
1. Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines
2. Forging the signature of the President.
3. Forging the stamp of the President.
C. Counterfeiting of coins – in the Philippines, these crimes are seldom encountered because of
the very low intrinsic value of metals used in manufacturing coins. However, there may be instances
that old gold and silver coins be counterfeited to deceived artefacts’ collector.
D. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are:
1. Making and importing and uttering false coins (Art. 163)
2. Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art. 164); and
3. Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance (Art. 165)
E. When is a coin false or counterfeited?
 A coin is false or counterfeited, if it is forged or it is not authorized by the government
as legal tender, regardless of its intrinsic value.
F. Definition
1. “Import”, means to bring them into port. The importation is complete before entry
ath the Custom House (US vs. Lyman, 26 Fed. Cas. 1024)
2. “Utter” means to pass counterfeited coins. It includes their delivery or the act of giving
them away. A counterfeited coin is uttered when it is paid, when the offender is caught
counting the counterfeited coins preparatory to the act of delivering them, even though
the utterer may not obtain the gain he intended. (Decision of the Supreme Court of Spain
of Jan. 11, 1913; Jan 4, 1893; Nov. 13, 1988; and Dec. 24, 1985) hence, damage to
another is not necessary.
3. “Mutilation” means to take off part of the metal either by filling it or substitution it for
another metal of inferior quality.
G. Acts Penalized Under Art. 166:
1. Forging or Falsification of treasury or banknotes or other documents payable to bearer.
2. Importation of such false or forged obligation or notes.
3. Uttering of such false or forged obligation or notes in connivance with the forgers or
importers.
H. How “forging” and “falsification” are committed (Art. 169)? Forging is committed by
giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument payable to bearer or to order the appearance
of a true and genuine document and falsification is committed by erasing, substituting,
counterfeiting, or altering by any means the figures, letters, words or sign contained therein.
I. Forgery includes falsification and counterfeiting. With the definition given in this article, the
crime of counterfeiting of forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer or
to includes
1. Acts of counterfeiting or forging said instrument, and
2. Acts falsification
J. Meaning of “obligation” or “security” of the Philippines. The world “obligation or security of
the Philippines Islands” shall be held to mean all –
1. Bonds
2. Certificates of indebtedness
3. National bank notes
4. Coupons
5. Treasury notes
6. Fractional notes
7. Certificates of deposits
8. Bills
9. Checks
10. Drafts for money, and
11. Other representatives of value issued under any Act of Congress.
K. Reason for punishing forgery – Forgery of currency is punished so as maintain the integrity of
the currency and thus insure the credit standing of the government and prevent the imposition on
the public and the government of worthless notes or obligation.
L. Acts of Falsification (Art. 171 & 172)
1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;
2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any proceeding when they did not
in fact so participate;
3. Attributing to people who have participated in an act or proceeding statement other than
those in fact made by them.
4. Making untruthful statements in narration of facts;
5. Altering true dates;
6. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its meaning;
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be copy an original document
when so such original test exist, or including in such copy a statement to, or different
from, that of the genuine original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol, registry,
or official book.
M. Must there be a genuine document in falsification? In Falsification by – 1. Making
alteration or intercalation or
2. Including in a copy different statement, there must be a genuine document that is falsified.
N. Documents may be simulated or fabricated.
1. In falsification of a public document, the falsification needs to be made on an official
form. It is sufficient that the document is given the appearance of, or made to appear
similar to, the official form (People vs. Tupasi, C.A., G.R. 290-292, March 22, 1937)
2. The simulation of public, official or mercantile document is also contemplated in
falsification of those documents (People vs David, C.A., GR No. 44368, Nov. 27, 1936)
O. Requisites of counterfeiting of signature (Art. 171) – imitation of another’s signature need not
to be perfect. It is necessary only –
1. That there be an intent to imitate, or an attempt to imitate, and
2. That the two signatures or handwritings, the genuine and the forged, bear some
resemblance to each other, (US vs Rampas, 26 Phil. 186)
P. There must be an intent or attempt to imitate attempt – the attempt or intent to imitate may
be shown be a comparison of the handwriting or signature on the document alleged to have been
falsified with the genuine handwriting or signature supposed to have counterfeited. If there is
sufficient resemblance between the genuine and the forged signatures, it can be concluded that
the accused had the intention and attempted to imitate the signature of the offended party (US vs,
Rampas, supra)
Q. The forged and the genuine signatures or handwritings must bear some resemblance to
each other.
1. The resemblance must be such that it is likely to device an ordinary person receiving or
dealing with document (US vs Rampas, Sura)
2. Thus, it has been held that the fact of imitating a person’s signature on a check in such a
way that the same, when presented for collection “might have passed in the rush of
business,” although the handwriting is a little bit different, constitutes falsification (US
vs. Litonjua, 4Phil, 485).
R. When any of the requisites of counterfeiting is not present. If there is no attempt whatsoever
by the accused to imitate the signatures of other persons so that they are entirely unlike the
genuine signatures of those persons, the accused may be found guilty under paragraph 2, Art.
171, in causing it to appear that those persons have participated in the act when they did not in
fact so participate (US vs Friemuth, 3 Phil. 318; US vs Cinco, et al., 42 Phil. 839; people vs
Liave, C.A, 40 O.G. 1908).
S. Imitating (Forging) – the Spanish test of Art. 171 uses “fingiendo” for imitation. In feigning,
there is no original signature, handwriting or rubric that does not exist. To feign means to
represent by a false appearance; to give a mental existence to; to imagine.
CHAPTER VII
WRITING MATERIALS
A. Anachronism – it refers to something wrong in time and in place. This means that the forger has
trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing material to the exact date was supposed to have been
written.
B. Paper – these are sheet of intercalated fibers usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes
from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to
felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.
C. Watermark – certain papers are marked with translucent design, a watermarks impressed in
them during the course of their manufacture.
D. Writing material – any material used primarily for writing or recording such as paper,
cardboard, board papers, Morocco papers, etc.
II. WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS – The common (probable)

questioned
on paper is its age, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation
of the questioned documents.
III...HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT – the evolution of writing materials culminated in the
development of paper. The oldest written records still surviving are the Sumerian clay tablets dating
back from the 4th millennium B.C.
A. Papyrus – this came into use about 3500 BC, people of Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Southern
Europe used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grass-like herb) Cyperus
Papyrus to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
B. Parchment – writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats –
was probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It
came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of Pergamum in Anatolia.
C. Vellum – writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name) was
often used all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing, material
for bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts. Almost every portable
surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as writing material during the
early period.
D. Development of Paper Manufacturing
1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to Chinese court
official, CAI LUIN (Tsai Lun), in about AD 105. He is the first to succeed in making
paper from vegetable fibers, tree bark (mulberry tree), rags, and old fish nettings.
2. The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; The Japanese acquired it in the 7 th
century A.D.
3. In AD 751, the arab city of Samankand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some
Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city
Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the
papermaking center of the Arab world.
4. Knowledge of papermaking travelled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East,
the Moorsh invasion of Spain led to the invention (AD 1150) or erection of the first
European paper mill, at JATIVA, province of Valencia.
5. Knowledge of technology spread quickly and by the 16 th Century, paper was
manufactured throughout most of Europe.
6. The first paper mill in England was established in 1945.
7. The first such mill in America in 1960.
8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by the French inventor Nicholas Louis
Robert. The machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants the hand-molding process in
paper manufacture.
9. Robert’s machine was improved by the British stationers and brothers Henry
Fourdrinier and Sealy Fournier, who in 1803 produced the first of the machines that
bear their name.
10. The solution of the problems of making paper from cheap raw material was achieved by
the introduction of the ground process of pulp making about 1840 and the first of the
chemical pulp processes approximately ten year later.
11. Chlorine – this was introduced in the 19th century for bleaching and colored linen could
already be manufactured for paper.
12. Esparto – this is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first
introduced in England in 1861.
13. Straw – this was used to make paper in 1800.
14. Sulphite - this is paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper called
SULPHITE (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890.
15. Oldest manuscript – letters dated AD 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest
manuscript in England on cotton paper dated AD 1890.
IV. TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT) – The age of the document may be
estimated from paper.
A. Watermarks
1. Definition – it is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its
manufacture and appearing lighter than the rest of the street when viewed in transmitted
light. The earliest way of identifying the date of the paper is by the watermark – a brand
put on the paper by the manufacturers.
2. How watermark is made? – the watermark was made when the semifluid paper pulp
(mixture of cotton or other fibers) was being drained on a grid of laid (warp) and chain
(woof) wires. Fine wires forming the desired design were tied on top of the grid and
impressed into pulp. This impression made the paper thinner, and therefore, more
transparent, when it appeared.
3. Origin – watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than
100 years after art papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from the Middle
East. Early in the 19th century, papermakers begin the watermark wires to the grid frame,
thus insuring infirmity of impression and aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and
forgery. The first British postage stamps of 1840 bore a watermark, but stamps of the
United States were not so marked until 1895. When the paper began to be machine made,
the watermark winning was simply transformed to the grid cover of the dandy roll, a
turning cylinder that passed over the paper.
4. Concept of document’s age detection thru watermarks.
a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of
watermark, the earliest known dating from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not
all papers contain watermarks.
b. It is impressed into the paper by the “DNADY ROLL” that makes the paper,
and these deigns are changed from time to time.
c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the
patent office.
d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the
paper. However, the questioned documents examiner’s finding is limited only
to the approximate date (YEAR) of the manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks it is necessary to ascertain
the owners of the watermark in question or its manufacture.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once
the manufacturer is determined, then consideration is given to change in design
and defects of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated
inconspicuous changes in their watermark design in order to date their
products.
h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark which was not in
existence at the same time the document purports to have been executed.
5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is implied:
a. Consider any defects in the individual design may furnish a clue as to the age
of the paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This
damage is also known as caused by wear and tear which becomes progressively
more and more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the
watermark of the paper manufactured or all paper that will past through the
damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the
dandy roll’s damaged surface, will coordinate with the paper manufacture
regarding when such damage is occurred in dandy roll used.
B. Discoloration – one way of tracing the age of the paper is through the changes in its physical
characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolour after a passage
of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc. In case
of papers out of the wood pulp, they start to discolour at the edges from 2 & 3 years. While
Rugship Quality papers, they are very old before discoloration starts.
C. Cause of Discoloration – discoloration is highly influenced by storage of the or documents and
condition like the following:
1. Due to process of oxidation thought about by natural means.
2. Brown spots due to mold that is very obvious characteristics both in appearance and
distribution.
3. Exposure to dust and dirt.
4. Occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. Excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. May also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
D. Detailed Examination of Writing Material
1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company or individual and
compare. Consider the physical characteristics of both questioned and standard
documents such as the size, the thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the
general texture of the paper.
2. Check with issuing institution, company or individual about the dissimilarity of writing,
material used in the questioned documents.
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as folding endurance test, folding
test, bursting test etc.
CHAPTER VIII
WRITING INSTRUMENTS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. Flexibility of Pen points – one quality of the rib peen is its partiality. This quality varies which
different pens and can be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of
the ribs or given degree of shading.
B. Fountain pen – a mountain pen is modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially
designed chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages without
refilling.
C. Ink – is fluid or vicious material used for writing or printing.
D. Pen – a tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument used
to apply inks to the paper is a pen. It came from the latin word “penna”, meaning feather.
E. Pen Nibs – the tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.
F. Quill Pens – it is a hollow, horny part of the large feather usually from goose and was used for
writing on parchment. Poland, Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were largest producers of
quill.
G. Writing instruments (writing implements), - writing implements manual devices used to make
alphanumeric marks or in a surface.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
A. Reed Pens/ Swamp Reed
1. It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the
shores of the Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several
months.
2. It was first writing toll had the writing end slightly frayed like a brush. About 2000 years
B.C., this reed pen was first used in near east on papyrus and later on parchment.
B. Quill Pen – although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of
goose, swan crow and (later) Turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6 th Century AD) to
quill pens was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. Isidore of Seville, and this tool was the
principal writing implement for nearly 1300.
C. Steel point pens (Brazen Pen)
1. Although pens of bronze may have been known to Romans, the earliest mention of
“brazen pens” was in 1465. The 16 th century Spanish calligrapher Juan De Yclar
mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of
metal pens did not become widespread until the early part of the 19th century.
2. The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer Bryan Donkin in
1803.
3. The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were William Joseph Gillot, William
Mitchell, and James Stephen Perry.
D. Fountain Pens
1. In 1884, Lewis Waterman, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical
Fountain Pen containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed
ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.
2. By the 1920’s, the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the west and
remained so until the introduction of the ball point after World War 2.
E. Ball Point Pen
1. John Loud, In 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point pen has in its
point a small rotating metal ball that continually links itself as it turns.
2. The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the
socket from a long tube (reservoir) inside the pen.
3. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen with a rolling
ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian Inventor brothers Ladislao Jose Biro (Biro
Laslo Josef) and Georg Biro invent a viscous, oil Based ink that could be used with such
a pen. Hence, they are attributed for the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
4. Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow-drying oil
based ink smudged easily. However, the ball point pen had several advantages over the
fountain pen.
a. The ink was waterproof and almost un-erasable;
b. The ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces;
c. Could e hold in almost any position for writng; and
d. The pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.
5. Ink formulas were improved for smoother flow and faster dying, and soon the ball point
replaced the fountain pen as the universal writing tool.
F. FIBER TIPS PENS
1. In 1963, fiber tip makers were introduced into the US market and have since challenged
the ball point as the principal writing implement.
2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO of Japan in 1962. It was ideally
suited to the strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink
brush.
3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber
tip pen can produce a wide range of color unavailable in ball point and fountain pen ink.
G. Felt-up markers are made of dense natural or artificial fiber impregnated with a dye. These
markers can be cut a variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width.
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INKS

A. Indian inks – the oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or
lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of these compositions are
still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes. In modern carbon ink, the glue or gum
is replaced by a solution of shellac in borax or ammonia. These inks are not affected by oxidants.
It is practically impossible to remove the last traces of the carbon from the paper without causing
damage to it.
B. Log wood Inks – these inks which were used extensively about a century ago, have now because
obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were made from as aqueous extract of logwood
chips and potassium chromate. These inks will be found only on old.
C. Iron Gallonate Inks – this ink has been used as writing for over a thousand years. Formerly it
was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added. The ink was
composed of suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.
D. Fountain pen inks – these ink are regarded as special fountain inks, and consisting of ordinary
iron gallonate inks with low iron content in most cases but with a higher dyestuff content than
normal inks. This type of ink is placed on the market under the name of “blue black permanent”.
The iron content range from .7 Fe/I (e.g. Parker Quick permanent blue) to 2.7 Fe/I (e.g. Pelikan
Filhaltertinte).
E. Dyestuff ink – these inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to which a
preservative and a flux are added. The writing qualities of the ink re improved by addition of
substances such as glycerol, glucose or dextrin. The dark blue and black inks are often composed
of four or more dyes because no black dyestuff of sufficient tinctorial capacity is known.
F. Water Resistant writing and drawing Inks – these inks are special group dyestuff inks. They
consist of a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by means of borax,
liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate. Sometimes the pigment is combined with acid or
basic dyestuff.
G. Alkaline Writing Inks - these are quick dying inks which possess of ph of from 9 to about 11.
They penetrate quickly through the size of the paper allowing ink to penetrate quickly ink into
the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consists of acid dyes, sometimes combined with phthalate
cyanide dyes. These inks are not much in demand because they are rather expensive and because
the material of many fountain pens is affected by them.
H. Ballpoint Pen inks – the ball point pens did not appear on the European market before 1945.
The development of the present pen was accomplished during World War 2 because the Army
and the air Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak at high attitude and where
supplied quick drying water resistant writing.
I. Stamp pad inks – they are made with the acid of substances such as glycerol, glycol, acetin or
benzyl alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad
inks more volatile is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin, the stamp impression
becomes water resistant after dying.
J. Hectograph Inks – these inks very much resemble stamp inks and are exclusively made with
basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic
acid and acetone.
K. Typewriter Ribbon inks – these inks are usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon
black and oil such as olein or castor oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no dyes, but
pigments suspended in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes tend to bleed and would
cause the sharp division between the differently colored halves of the ribbon to merge.
L. Printing inks – printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored pigments, carbon black and a
“base” which may consist of oil, reins, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to
remove printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an aqueous of a suitable
detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the suface of the ink and the detergent facilitates the
suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other ingredients by the writer.
M. Cancelled inks – these inks often contains carbon and this fact should be burned in mind when it
is required to decipher faint and be relied upon to improve the legibility of any marking affected
by a carbon contain cancelling ink. Erasure of cancelling ink on valuable stamps is usually
affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to the surface of the stamp and it is to be
regretted that many cancelling inks are manufactured with media which offer resistance to
attacks so that the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off. This can be usually be detected by
infra-red photography which will reveal the traces of carbon to the surface of the stamp.
N. Skrip ink – these are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company Since 1955. The inks
contains a substance which is colorless in visible light has a stong affinity for the fibers of the
paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators or washed out by soaking on
water. Thus if a writing with “skrip” is obliterated with ink eradicator, the original will produce a
characteristics flouresnce and can be deciphered by reviewing under filtered ultra-violet.
EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK
A. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of examination
centers on the question as to whether the ink of some writings or alterations in a police blotter
is identical with the ink found in the possession of the suspect.
B. For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted for a comparative
examination of certain properties of these inks. However the examination carries with it certain
difficulties as the quantity of material available for examination is small and the examination
can be done only one.
C. It is necessary then that before a chemical exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods
be carried out.
D. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the aid of binocular
microscope as well as photographic examination. They should be used first before any
chemical examination is resorted to.
E. It is necessary therefore to be requested to be acquainted with the composition and
developmental history, method manufacture of the types of ink most commonly used.
Sometimes, antedating can only be proven by identifying a component of the ink, which was
not yet included in inks at the alleged date of the document.
THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK

A. THE CHROMATOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION (THIN
LAYER
CHROMATOGRAPHIC)
1. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also
possible is identify one or more of the component of the dyes.
2. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination.
3. To identify a dyestuff, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of
the various dyes used in the manufacture of inks.
4. The chromatographic separation of dyes maybe carried out by paper chromatography.
B. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF THE INK
1. Determine the age of writing or the difference in the age of different writings, the
document examiner of properties will be determined by the composition of inks and the
circumstances under which the writing ages.
2. Procedure:
i. Ball point pen inks
1. If a document has been written with a ball point pen, the writing in
question is bound to date in all probability from a point of time later than
1945.
2. The analysis of ballpoint inks may yield an important clue to the age of
the ink.
3. The first ballpoint inks were practically without exception based on oleic
acid. These inks will flow out when a drop of benzene or petroleum either
is applied to them.
4. Not until 1950 were these inks made on a basic of polyethylene glycols,
which are resistant to treatment with benzene or petroleum either.
5. However, the presence of oleic acid is not yet proof that the writing in
question is old for oleic acid is sometimes also used in modern ballpoint
inks.
6. In the later case, however the ink will as a rule not flow out with the
petroleum offer because these inks, no water soluble coloring matter is
worked out. Instead pigments and dyestuffs are used that will not dissolve
in petroleum either.
7. The presence of phthalocyanine dyestuff is an indication of an ink
produced later than 1954-1956.
8. Thus, it is not possible to determine the absolute age of ball point. Neither
it is possible to determine the relative age of two ballpoint ink writings,
not even if they are of the same kind. The ink dries rather quickly because
the base is absorbed by the paper.
9. Recent ballpoint writing can be offset, and efforts have been made to use
the copying power for age determination.
ii. Dyestuff Inks
1. The dyestuff inks lack properties that would permit age determination but
the presence of an absolute or modern dyestuff may indicate age of
writing.
2. If a phthalocyanine dye is found in the ink, it would be improbable for the
document to be dated prior to 1953.
iii. Iron gallotannate Inks – these ink hows a remarkable change of color in
maturing. The based on the chemical change of ferrous to ferric in the course of
time. The following are the methods used to show the gradual change of inks:
1. Method based on the change of color of the ink - this method is useful
in those cases where the ink writing received for examination is too
recent that the process of maturing can be observed visually. This kind of
ink must be known and one or more writing of known age must be
available for comparison.
2. Method based on the solubility of the ink – the solubility of iron
gallonate ink decreases considerably as the ink matures. As with the color
change, it can be only be applied successfully to very a recent writing.
This method can be establishing a difference in the age of writing on one
and the same document. The solubility is determined by a visual by a
estimate of the quantity of inks which can be withdrawn with a drop of
water be applied to ink stroke of the same intensity.
3. Method based on the amount of ferrous iron in the ink – in iron
gallonnate ink, the iron is mainly present in the complex bound ferrous
form. As the manufacturing process goes on, the ric gallonnate is
formed. A drop of aa1- dipyridyl reagent (1% of aa 1- dipyridyl in 0.5N
HCL/ Hydrochloric Acid ) is applied to the ink stroke. The reagent is left
in contact with the inks for 1 minute and then recovered with a place of
filter paper. If ferrous iron is still present in the ink, the paper will show a
red zone of ferrous aa1- dipyridyl around the stain of blue dyestuff. By
repeating this test daily, it is possible to check the decrease in the ferrous
iron in the ink by the changes in the coloration of this red zone .
4. Estimation of age used on the detection of the dyes – iron gallonate
inks contain an organic dye, (soluble blue) which is oxidized or at least
becomes insoluble completely or partially as the ink ages. It is claimed
that the organic dye becomes completely insoluble in four to five years.
However, the application of this method appears to yield results in
practice.
CHAPTER IX
TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION
A document prepared today may not raise suspicion or doubt as to its content, origin, authorship,
or age, it may be that years from now such document may become disputed or questioned document.
It is in this regard that typewriting identification is still a major area of concern in questioned
document examination because of typewritten documents prepared decades ago when typewriting
was still the common method of preparing documents may emerge today as disputable.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. Typewriter – a writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures, symbols and the
others resembling printed ones; or a machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or that
can produce printed letters and figures on paper. B. Other significant Terms:
1. Alignment – alignment defects include characters which improperly in the following
respects a twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment, and a
character “Off its feet”. These defects can be corrected by special adjustments to the
type bar and type block.
2. Alignment Defect – include character which writes improperly in the following
respects:
a twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment and a character special
adjustment to the types block.
3. Carbon Impression – Any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action of the
typefaces striking thought carbon paper as a carbon impression. Generally, carbon
impression is “carbon copies”, but sometime original typewriting is made directly
through a carbon ribbon.
4. Character – in connection, with typewriting identification, the term “character” is used
to include letters, symbols, numerals, or points of punctuation.
5. Clogged (Dirty) Typeface – with use the typefaces becomes filled with lint, dirty and
ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as the o, e, p, and g. It is condition is allowed to
progress without cleaning, there comes a time when the written impression actually print
with the clogged areas shaded on a solid block.
6. Defects – the term defects describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter
which is reflected in its works and which leads to its individualization or identification.
7. Natural Variation – these are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens if any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
8. Off Its Feet – the condition of typefaces printing heavier on one side or corner than over
the remainder of its outline.
9. Permanent defect – any identifying characteristics of a type-writer which cannot be
corrected by simply cleaning the type face or replacing the ribbon is classifies as a
permanent defect. Actually, this term is not absolutely accurate since all defects in
typewriter undergo modification and change with time.
10. Platen – the cylinder which serves as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the
blow on the type face is known as a platen.
11. Proportional Space Typewriting – a modern form of typewriting which resembles
printing in that all of the horizontal space as they do with the conventional typewriter.
For example, the “T” occupies two units. The “o” – three and the “m” – five.
12. Rebound – a defect in which a character prints a double impression with the fighter one
slightly offset to the right or left.
13. Ribbon impression – typewriting which is made directly though a cloth ribbon is called
ribbon impression.
14. Ribbon condition – typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with the use and the degree
of determination is a measure of the ribbon condition.
15. Transitory defects – any identifying typewriter characteristics which can be eliminated
by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as transitory defects.
Clogged type is the most common defects in this class.
16. Twisted letter – each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle to the
base line, due to wear, and damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters
become twisted so that they learn to the right or left of their correct slant.
17. Type face – the printing surface of the type block is known as the type face, with the
most modern typewriter this block is attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar
which propels the type face against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter
impression.
18. Type face defects – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the type
face metal is known as type face defects.
EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS
A. The first patient, however, was granted by Queen Anne of England to Henry Mill. In 1714 for a
machine designed to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
B. In 1829, William Austin Burt of Detroit invented the Typographer.
C. In 1823, a French patent was given to the French Inventor Xavier Progin for a machine that
embodied for the first time one of the principles employed in a modern typewriters: the use for
each letter or symbol or separate typebars, actuated by separate level keys.
D. In 1843, American inventor Charles Grover Thurber invented a typewriter which prints through
a metal ring that received that revolved horizontally above the platen and was equipped with a
series of vertical keys or plungers having pieces at the bottom.
E. Several other inventors attempted to produce machines designed to make embossed impressions
that could be read by the blind. One such machine, developed by the American Inventor Alfred
Ely Beach in 1856, resembled the modern typewriter in the arrangement of its keys and typebars,
but embossed its letters on a narrow paper strip instead of a sheet.
F. A similar machine created by the American inventor Samuel W. Francis, and patented by him in
1856, had a circular arrangement of typebars, a moving paper holder, a bell that rang signal the
end of a line, and an inked ribbon. The keyboard arrangement of Francis’s machine resembled
that black and white key of a piano.
G. The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by Christopher Latham Sholes
and patented in 1868. He develop the first practical typewriter in cooperation with two fellow
mechanics, Carlos Gilden and Samuel Soule.
H. Six years later (1874), Christopher Latham Sholes entered in agreement with Eliphalet
Remington and Sons, Gunsmith & Sewing Machine Manufacturers, the company produced the
REMINGTON MODEL, MODEL I.
I. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having booth the lower and upper
case of the alphabet.
J. Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens) was among the first to buy a typewriter and the first to submit a
typewritten manuscript to a publisher.
K. George Bernard Shaw recognized the importance of typewriter when became the first playwright
to use it as stage prop in Candida in 1897.
L. When Thomas Edison visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that typewriters would
one day be operated by electricity.
M. Soon afterwards, Edison built such as typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which made the
machine cumbersome and too expensive to be marketed.
N. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by James F. Samanthers of Kansas
City.
O. In 1933, the international Business Machines, Inc. (IBM), introduced the first commercially
successful electric typewriter to the business world.
P. The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only eliminates type bars and
movable carriages but can use six interchangeable type of typefaces.
Q. The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961. Despite of the revolutionary
advances in typewriting capabilities, one essential element had remained unchanged since the
first Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nicknamed QWERTY for the top line of letters,
was designed to make it easier for salesman to the use the machine.
R. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by August Dvorak. The process of
changing over the DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never ever begun.
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. William E. Hagan in 1984, made the first comment on typewriting examination. He wrote
that all typewriter machines even using the same kind of type become more or less peculiar by
use as to the work done by them. (Osborne as mentioned in
scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu)
B. This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was followed in 1900 by Ames
who wrote that the identity of writing by different operators as well as that done on different
machines can be done with considerable degree – Different operators have their own peculiar
methods which differ widely in the location of date, address, margins, punctuation, spacing as
well as impression from touch. (ibid)
C. In several articles written between 1901 to 1907, Albert S. Osborne, the foremost document
examiner of the early 20 th century, defined the priniciples of typewriting identification used
today. He called it “THE LANDMARK IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION.”
D. Considered as the one of the most sensational in typewriting identification is the Alger Hiss
Case. Hiss who was then working as a high-ranking federal official, was accused of spying for
the Soviet government in the 1930’s to 1940’s. Typewritten documents known as the
“Baltimore Documents” were traced to be from Hiss’s typewriter.
E. Alleged Typewritten Forgery – the killian documents controversy (also referred to as
Memogate Rathergate o Ratherergate) involved six documents critical of President George W.
Bush’s service in the Air National Guard in 1972-1973. Four of these documents were
presented as authentic in a “60 minutes Wednesday” broadcast aired by CBS on September 8,
2004, less than two months before the 2004 Presidential Election, but it was later found that
CBS had failed to authenticate the documents are blatant forgeries. Accordingly, it was not
prepared from a manual Olympia typewriter but rather on a computer Times New Roman
typestyle.
THE LANDMARK IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

A. The typefaces used by the different type writer manufacturer can be differentiated on the basis
of design and have dating significance.
B. Through usage, typewriters develop individuality which can serve to identify the typewriting of
particular typewriter.
C. The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon condition and typeface.
Cleanliness can be used to date a document of fix it written a period time.
D. Horizontal and vertical alignment, titling characters, lack of uniformity of impression
(offfootedness); type-face score, breadths, defects and deformities all serve to identify the type
writing of a particular machine.
E. Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys, spacing, arrangement, punctuation, mistakes,
corrections, can be used to identify a typists.
F. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact register with previous tyoing done
or the sheet of paper.
TYPE OF TYPEWRITERS
A. Conventional Typewriters Using Type Barsw
1. Pica Type – 10 letter/inch
2. Elite Type – 12 letters/inch
3. 6 letters/inch
4. Teletype Machine
5. 14-16 letter/inch – specials typewriters
B. Typewriters using Single Element or Ball – a machine, capable of typing 10 or 12 characters
per inch. Change of horizontal spacing done easily by the flip of a switch.
C. Typewriter using a Print Wheel (Electronic Typewriter) – this has a disc type device called a
print wheel; the printwheel contains of all of character represented on the typewriter keyboard.
This machine has the capability of typing 10, 12 and 15 letters per inch.
Two typewritten documents are said to be typed from one and the same typewriter if they
agree in type face style, design, spacing, alignment and three or four scars or damaged type faces.
IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITER BY THE DEFECTS OF THE STROKE

A. Introduction – each of typewriter has its own individual characteristics that enable one to
differentiate the type character from a similar machine of the same cake. Typewriter of the same
make model but of different age have differences attributed to wear.
B. What to consider?
1. A typewriter coming out fresh from the factory has already some defects which gives
its own personality. Whatever the quality of the manufacture, a typewriter is never
absolutely perfect.
2. Later, through faults of the typist and also by wear, the typewriter will acquire a
stronger individuality by new defects which become more and more prominent and in
time, progressively overcome the initial ones. C. Procedure:
Conduct preliminary examination of the questioned document to determine in the make and model of
typewriter.
1. Their study the defects of the stroke which will distinguish the suspected the typewriter
from the others.
The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or sickness and congeniatal
deformation while its translation on the paper compared to symptoms of the defects. It is the only
permanent faults which permit of a positive identification. D. Defects of a typewriter:
1. Defects of the Character
i. The character may show a distortion in its engraving, “a break” which is known
by an alteration of the design.
ii. Twist of the printing surface which comes in the course of manufacturing.
Irregular tempering gives an abnormal contraction of the metal for the bearing of
the character again the plated and gives a local impression more intense and
more heavily inked.
iii. Misalignment of the two signs engraved on the same character so that they are
not set exactly one under the other. This defect may be due to a bad engraving of
the mold.
2. Positioning of the character on the type-bar: a bad position of the bar on the plate of
the soldering apparatus, results in the bad positioning of the character. It will be bent
forward, backward or sideways. Sometimes a soldier fails in the course of typing. The
character turns over the slides along its support.
3. Defects of the Type-bar – the deformation of a type-bar modify the position of the
character in connection with the platen and alter the originally correct writing.
4. Defects of the ring – on a worn type writer it is not exceptional to find that the more
active type-bars corresponding to the depression – it no longer stops them in their travel
and it does not send them back to their point of contact. It no longer stops them in their
travel and it does not send back to their original position.
5. Disorder of the type bar guide – if the position of the type bar guide is modified for
some reason, the result is a complete disorder of the writing. A guide moved to the right
will raise all signs on the right of the keyboard and will lower all the signs on the left. It
is moved to the left, it will cause the opposite effect.
6. Alteration of the platen – the rubber of the platen gets old and hardens, the surface
formally smooth becomes more and more irregular and rough and does not offer any
more intimate contact with all surface of the sign. The writing becomes inconsistent and
the same sign will print itself partially or entirely and with a greater intensity and more
intensively on the right or the left, on the bottom or top.
7. General Wear of a Typewriter – the typebars are subjected to a lateral play particularly
felt at the top. This gives poor accuracy at the point of impact of the character. The same
signs print themselves on the right on the left of their theoretical point of impact. E.
Typeface Misalignment – synonymous to “alignment defects:
1. Vertical Misalignment – a character printing above or below its proper position.
2. Lateral or Horizontal Misalignment – an alignment defects in which the character
prints the right or left of its proper position is known as horizontal alignment.
3. Oblique Misalignment – the character leans toward the right or toward the left.
4. Rebound – Double impression
5. Off-its-feet – one side of the character is lighter
VIII. OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITER EXEMPLARS

Properly prepared known typewriting samples not only facilitate the examination in the
laboratory but they aid immeasurably in the demonstration in the court room.
IX. HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING:
A. If the typewriter ribbon is obviously new, remove it from the typewriter and send it to the
laboratory with the typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon. (the text of the
material in question may still be discernible of the ribbon)
B. Use paper of about of about the same size as the questioned material, type out a full word or
word copy of the message in question, typographical errors, using as nearly as possible the same
degree of touch as that used in typing the questioned material.
C. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the cloth ribbon, obtain sample of
each character on the keyboard by typing through capon paper which has been inserted carbon
side down over a piece of white bond paper.
D. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial number of the typewriter
from which it was produced as well as the date and initials of the officer.
E. Typewriter specimens should be taken from suspected typewriter/s. It is usually not necessary to
forward the typewriter to the laboratory if complete known exemplars are obtained.
F. If possible, after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a suspected typewriter, the
investigation should insure that the typewriter is kept in its current condition.
G. With evidence thus obtained from typewritten documents, the laboratory experts are in position
to lend valuable assistance to the solution and subsequent prosecution of many cases.
CHAPTER X
PHOTO MECHANICAL PRINTING PROCESS
I. METHOD OF PRINTING
A. Relief Printing (letterpress)
 In this method of printing, the image characters are raised above the level of the
nonprinting areas. The ink applied to raise surface which in turn is applied t paper. The
letterpress process is the oldest of all printing procedures. It prints with cleaner and
sharper letters.
B. Intaglio (Gravure Printing) – these are four types of printing which employ the Intaglio
principles of placing ink as area which has been cut out or etched.
1. Gravure – this is a process in which the ink recessed or sunken letters is drawn out
or sucked out under pressure. The process produces high quality reproduction of
photographs and half-tone, illustrations, but the letters of type reproduced have
slightly fuzzy edges. The printing is done from large copper plates or covered
cylinders on presses of two kinds; sheet-fed gravure presses and web-fed rotogravure
presses for longer runs. The copper plates or cylinders are produced by making film
positives of the art work to be reproduced.
2. Engraving – the paper her is forced into the sudden into the sunken areas of a metal
plate where the ink is. A special plate is made by the artist who removes or scratches
areas in the metal ink are placed. The actual printing process is very slow, and after
the paper is removed from the plate, time must allow for the drying of the ink to
prevent smudging.
3. Planographic – lithographic is the most well known printing process which employs
the principle of putting ink on a chemical treated surface. The commercial application
of the lithography is known as offset. In this process, the copy is placed in front of a
big camera and photographed so that the film is the exact size that the final result is to
be. The film in turn placed over a sensitized plate make of paper, albumen or
chemically treated metal) and exposed to a strong light.
4. Stencil – stencil sheets on which on the copy is typed or drawn are made of a porous
lease tissue, covered with a coating which is impervious to ink. The typing or
drawing pushed the coating aside and expresses the porous tissue. This stencil
wrapped around an inked cylinder and the cylinder is rolled across the paper, forcing
the ink through the porous parts of the stencil.
C. Planographic (lithographic Printing) – in planographic, the image characters are in the same
general plane as the non-printing areas. The ink is applied to a dead level plate which has been
chemically treated such as lithographic and offset.
D. Stencil – it is a process where the letters or image are holes cut in a sheet, or a sheet is made
more porous in the area of the letters and ink is applied to paper through the holes or porous
areas such as mimeograph.
E. Halftone Block Printing – this is offset-related and is used for the reproduction of pictures and
illustrations in little covers. To prepare a halftone block, the model is photograph and its image is
* to a metal surface by photo-printing.
II. IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF PRINTING

A. Letterpress
1. Study of this printing shows that the edges of the letters are more sharply defined than
offset printing.
2. Careful microscopic study and measurement may reveal different “turns” of letterpress
printing which have been made from the same set-up; the “y” type face may exhibit
evidence of damage and the spacing and alignment may be different due o pressure
applied by the frame.
B. Offset
1. The edges of the letters are more irregular than in letterpress;
2. The middle portion and the edges of the letters are more or less the same density; and
3. There is no indentation of the paper in the area of the printed letters as is sometimes
found in letter press printing.
III. IDENTIFICATION OF PRINTING – the identification of printing is based on the general
principles which consider the existence of an adequate combination of class and individual
characteristics exceeding the limits of an accidental coincidence.
A. Class Characteristics – these come into existence as a result of:
1. Body size of a type – responsible for the width of line and depth of a column.
2. Unit measurement – six picas making an inch.
3. The body size in metallic type – varies from six points up to seventy points, larger ones
being made mainly in wood.
4. According to the type – there are eight main designs.
B. Individual Characteristics – these come into existence as a result of:
1. Defective setting in relative space questioning, slant and weight of types faces; or
2. Due to mutations and imperfections in the type faces.
OTHER FORMS OF PRINTING (MODERN METHODS)
A. Computer Printing – Dot matrix – (considered as the earliest form) uses also a ribbon
similar to typewriters; bubble jet; Ink Jet; and laser printing.
B. Photocopying (a.k.a Xerox copying)
C. Risograph Printing – process is like a combination of mimeographing and
photocopying.
D. Telefax Copier (Fax machines)

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QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS INVESTIGATION

II. LEGAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT

Legal basis of documents:

IV. CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

III. DIVISION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION

A. Criminalistics Examination – this involves the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration or

IV. FORMS OF QUESTION DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

A. Handwriting Examination (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)

V. RELATED FIELD OF STUDY

VI. BASIC REQUIREMENTS IN QDE (PNP-CLO SOP)

VII. THE LOGICAL PROCESS OF INQUIRY IN DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

I. FIRST – ASCERTAIN THE FACTS; to select “QUESTIONED”, “DENIED”, or

III. THIRD – QUALIFY THE CASE

VIII. SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

IX. CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

X. PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS

A. THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED

C. Questioned Document Expert must have

D. REASON FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT

XI. INSTRUMENT AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

XII. TECHNIQUE IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS;

XIII. PHOTOGRAPHY AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

XIV. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS

b. Indented writing – usually applied to the partially visible depressions appearing on a

B. DO’s and DON’T’s in the Care, handling and preservation of document

C. HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENT

II. BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

Is Handwriting/signature identification an exact science?

III. PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING

Two groups of muscle involve in handwriting:

IV. VARIATION IN HANDWRITING

V. DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN INDIVIDUAL

B. Some Modern Scirool Model Forms

1. Palmer Copybook-commonly used in the United States prior to 1980.

Significance of school copy forms or system characteristics as basis in the identification of

Importance of the design of the letters (System of Writing) – May point:

Terminologies related to Handwriting Identification

ii. Quality of movement

iii. Speed – slow and drawn; deliberate; average; and rapid

Characteristic of motor coordination

THE WRITTEN STROKES

Terminologies concerning stroke Characteristics

Other terminologies concerning strokes

With these purpose of handwriting examinations is to determine whether handwriting is forged or

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

Characteristic in handwriting pertain to any features or distinguishing properties or qualities to one’s

C. Types of handwriting according to muscular control

D. Classification of individual characteristics

PRINCIPLE OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

II. OBJECTIVES OF STANDARDS

USEFUL SUGGESTION REGARDING HANDWRITING STANDARDS FOR COMPARISON

III...HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS? – Factors to

A. The amount of standards written

V. HANDWRITING/SIGNATURES THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO SOLVE - Some problems

VI. DIGUISES IN HAND WRITING

VII. EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL IN HANDWRITING

VIII. ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARDS WRITINGS

A. Standard writings which are admissible for comparison purposes:

SIGNATURE – it is name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.

Microsoft Encarta reference library has these to say about signature:

OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS

II. THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED

III. TYPES OF SIGNATURE