PRACTICAL RESEARCH -2 (Quantitative)

HANDOUTS

Chapter- 1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

 Be sure to include a hook at the beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something
sufficiently interesting to motivate your reader to read the rest of the paper, it is an important/
interesting scientific problem that your paper either solves or addresses.
 1st section- global analysis of the problem supported by the literature from different continents (at
least 3 authors)
 2nd section- local situational analysis of the problem
 3rd section- gap in the literature that the study intends to address, differences of the study from
other previous studies, compelling reasons of the writer for choosing the problem

ACTIVITY: Write the Background of your Study

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

 A theoretical framework presents a theory that explains why a problem under study exists
(Mercado, 1994) and explains the connection between certain factors and the problem.
 A theory is a conceptual intervention that is used to describe, explain, predict, or understand a
certain phenomena. A good theory expands vision and guides thinking, professional practice, and
research . A theory is an attempt to develop a general explanation for a phenomena. It defines non-
observable constructs that are inferred from observable facts and events and thought to have an
effect on the phenomenon under study
 Not all research studies need a theoretical framework because it depends on the availability of
information. If there were no previous studies conducted, likely that no theories are available for
that matter.
ACTIVITY: Give at least two theories related to your proposed study. Fill in the blanks with
the necessary information.
Proposed Study: ________________________

Theory Title: ________________________

Theorist(s): _________________________
Theory Statement: ___________________
Theory Explanation: __________________
Relationship of the Theory to the Present Study: _________________
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

 The conceptual framework is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete terms. It is

anchored on the theoretical framework. It specifies the variables of the study and the expected
flow of relationship among them.
 It explains in more details the variables to be observed in the study and the assumed connections
between the independent and dependent variables.
 The conceptual framework is summarized in a paradigm or schematic diagram. Identifying the
hypothesized link between the independent and dependent variables, independent/dependent
and intervening variables (if any), controlling for the effect of another variable.

Example- Title: The Effects of Curfew on the Attitude of Students towards their Studies and Academic
Performance

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

 Attitude of Students towards
Exposure to Curfew their Studies
 Academic Performance
Example- Title: Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of Senior High School Students

Antecedent Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Sex Extent of Exposure to Reading Ability

Readiness Print Media
Parents’ Education

Example- Title: The Relationship Between Exposure to Social Media and Academic Performance Among
Senior High School Students

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Exposure to Social Media Academic Performance

Example- Title: Knowledge of the Dangers of Smoking, Attitudes towards Life and Smoking Habits of
Senior High School Students
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Knowledge of the Dangers Attitudes towards Life Smoking Habits

of Smoking

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

 Research objectives are statements of what the researcher intends to do. Two types are: General
and specific objectives.
 General objective relates directly to the research problems and states clearly what the researcher
will do and express to find out. It specifies the activity that will take place and the variables that will
be examined.
  Specific Objectives may be viewed as sub-objectives of the general objective. The specific variables
examined in the study are identified. The variables are expressed in measurable terms.

HYPOTHESiS

 Is defined as an educated guess or a tentative answer to a question. It is a statement about an

expected relationship between two or more variables that can be empirically tested.
Types of Hypotheses:
1. Null Hypothesis – is a negative statement which indicated the absence of a relationship
correlation between 2 variables , an absence of a significant difference between the proportions
of 2 groups of people or objects possessing a characteristic .
Example: There is no significant relationship between social media exposure and academic
performance of senior high school students.
2. An alternative hypothesis- is the positive form of the null hypothesis. It may state the presence of a
significant relationship between the independent and dependent variables, or the presence of a
significant difference between 2 means or 2 proportions.
Example: There is a significant relationship between social media exposure and academic
performance of senior high school students.
3. Directional hypothesis – states whether the relationship between 2 variables is direct or inverse or
positive or negative. A positive or direct relationship is present when the value of one variable
increases with the increase in the value of another. The relationship is negative when the value of
one variable increases as the value of another decreases.
Example: The higher the advertisement expenses of food establishments, the higher their
monthly income gross sales.
4. Non-Directional hypothesis –does not specify the direction of relationship between variables.it
merely states the presence or absence of a relationship between 2 variables or that one variable
influences another , or there is a significant difference in the mean values of 2 variables.
Example: Students who attend tutorial classes perform better than those who do not attend.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study must discuss importance of the study to the society, the country, the
government, the community or the institution, the agency concerned, the curriculum planners and
developers, and to other researchers.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

The scope of the study is determined by the major variables while the delimitation is identified by
the sub-variables and their characteristics, and attributes or the indicators. It is also beneficial to mention
the locale or setting of the research and when the data will be gathered.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Conceptual definition – when a term is defined using books and dictionaries…

 Operational definition – when a term is defined according to how it is used in the study.
 A combination of the two methods is often very helpful…
 Terms must be defined alphabetically…
 Chapters II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A review of related literature is the process of collecting, selecting, and reading books, journals,
articles, reports, abstracts, and other reference materials , including electronic sources (CD-ROM) and the
world wide web (www/http) to get relevant information about the problem under investigation. From the
various sources, information on the following may be collected:

Where to Review and Where to Get the Materials

General References: General references show where to locate other sources of information related to a
certain topic. Examples of general references available in most of the libraries are indexes, reviews
and abstracts. Indexes are usually published by field of specialization.
Primary Sources: These are journals and monographs being published. Results of many research studies
are published in journals. These articles or reports are generally written by those who actually
conducted the study, thus they are called primary sources.
Secondary Sources: These are publications where authors cite the work of others. The most common
secondary sources are books, reviews, yearbooks and encyclopedias. Secondary sources are good
references for overview of the problem.

Sample of a Bibliography for a journal

Perez, Nerissa N. (2015). “Risk and Health Seeking Behavior and STDs Among
Female Sex Workers in Zamboanga City”. CPU Research Journal.22 (1)
Pages 38-45
Sample of a Bibliography for a Book
Perez, Nerissa N. (2015). Understanding and Doing Research. Rex Book Store, Philippines.
Sample of a Bibliography for a Thesis
Mustaham, Judith C. (2008). Oral Literatures of the Yakans in Basilan: A Cultural
Heritage. Unpublished Thesis, Universidad de Zamboanga, Zamboanga City.
Sample of a Bibliography for Internet Resources
Krashen, S.D. (1997) Foreign Language Education. The Easy Way.
California:Language Education . Retrieved from:
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/listening-young-learners . Date Accessed:
[ July 07, 2016]

Writing the Literature Review

Introduction : The introduction briefly describes the nature of the research problem and explains what led
the researcher to investigate the question.
Body: The body of the review briefly reports what experts think or what other researchers have found
about the research problem. The common findings of several studies are summarized in one or two
sentences and only when necessary, some specific findings of each study may be presented.
Summary/Synthesis: The summary/synthesis of the literature review “ties together” the major findings of
the studies reviewed. It presents a general picture of what has been known or thought of about the
problem to date. It points out similar results, as well as conflicting findings.
Conclusion: This part presents the course of action suggested by the literature. Based on the state of
knowledge revealed by the literature, the researcher could further justify the need for his/her study.
Consider the 5C’s in reviewing and writing.
1. CITE by keeping on the primary focus on the literature
2. COMPARE the various arguments, theories, methodologies, approaches and or findings expressed
in the literature. What the authors agree on? Who employ similar approaches? What are their
findings?
3. CONTRAST the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies
expressed in the literature. What are the areas of major disagreement, controversy or debate?
4. CRITIQUE the literature. Which argument is more persuasive and why? Which approach, finding or
methodology seem the most reliable, valid or appropriate and why? Pay attention to the verbs you
use to describe on what the author says or does?
5. CONNECT the literature to your own research area. How does your own work draw on or depart
from the reviewed literature?
Some important points to consider.

Rules in using quotes:

1. If less than 40 words are borrowed verbatimly, put the borrowed words under quotation marks
and as part of the text.
2. If more than 40 words are used, separate the copied sentences in the main paragraph of the text
and flush it 0.5 to 1 inch and never enclosed it in quotation marks.
3. Always indicate the source or apply in-text citation and indicate also the page of the source where
the verbatimly words or sentences or paragraph was lifted.
4. After each quoted sentences or paragraph, follow it up with the author’s or researcher’s
interpretation.
Less than 40 words verbatimly copied

Bogdan & Biklen (1998) cited that, “When the intent is to capture one person’s interpretation of his
or her life, the study is called a life history” (p.3). They believe that life history is the meaning that a
person is giving to his/her past experiences.

Note: The introduced quote was given with interpretation by the researcher. Or

“When the intent is to capture one person’s interpretation of his or her life, the study is called a life
history” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998:3). The authors believe that life history is the meaning that a person is
giving to his/her past experiences.

More than 40 words verbatimly copied

Armstrong (1987) explains:

The life history method had its early development in Chicago at approximately the same time
that interactionism was being given its initial impetus, and this is no accident (p. 54).

The life history method assigns significance and value to the person’s ‘own story,’ or to
interpretations that people place on their own experiences as an explanation for their own behaviour
(p. 8).

This must be followed by the researcher’s idea

EXAMPLE This part of Literature Review was lifted from:

Labay, P.M. (2005). The social history of a hobby that turned into a livelihood strategy: The case of
butterfly livelihood in rural Philippines (Master’s thesis: Wageningen University & Research Centrum,
The Netherlands).

Introduction

3.1 The rural livelihood approach

Since the main theme of my research is on the workings of agency, specifically on actors involved in
the development of butterfly livelihood in rural Philippines, it is worth mentioning the principles and
frameworks of rural livelihood from where I derived some concepts and ideas in drawing up the
theoretical framework.

A lot of discussions on issues of livelihoods, e.g. approaches, have been discussed in various texts,
especially on the issues of sustainable development (Chambers & Conway, 1992).

Body ( Cite the concept or theory )

Drawing on Chambers’ & Conway’s (1992) definition and as cited by Carney (1998) and Scoones
(1998): “A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets [both material and social resources] and
activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover
from stresses and shocks maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, while not undermining the
natural resource base.”

Cite other concepts

The IDS sustainable rural livelihoods’ framework cited in the paper of Scoones (1998) and Carney
(1998), they mention the following key terms: … “Given with particular context [e.g. policy setting,
politics, history, agro ecology and socio-economic conditions], what combination of livelihood
resources result in the ability to follow what combination of livelihood strategies [e.g. agricultural
intensification / extensification and livelihood diversification] with what outcomes [e.g. income,
security, well-being, sustainable use of resources and other productive and reproductive goals].? Of
particular interest in this framework are the institutional processes [embedded in a matrix of formal
and informal institutions and organizations] which mediate the ability to carry out such strategies and
achieve (or not) such outcomes.”

Critique the concepts

Therefore, it can be noted that the context, which includes the structures and processes (laws,
policies, institutions, norms and values) constitute also the trends, shocks and stresses that affect
individuals’ decisions and actions, positively and negatively.

In addition, Ellis (1998) says that, “A livelihood encompasses the income generating activities
pursued by individuals and their households, and the social institutions, intra-household relations, and
mechanisms of access to resources through the livelihood’s life cycle.”

Contrast the concepts

In contrast, the Wageningen approach to rural development focuses on the actors’ ability and skills
as important dimensions for livelihood development—the human ingenuity to adapt to stress and
shock refers to his ‘agency’.
 This approach is known as the actor-oriented approach of Norman Long. Central to this approach is
‘agency’, which refers to “attributes of individual actor, his capacity to process social experiences and
to devise ways of coping with life, even under the most extreme forms of coercion” (Long & Long
(1992).

Furthermore, Long (2002) states that, “values and meanings are culturally constructed by actors as
they follow and practice their individual choices [vis-a-vis chosen livelihood activities], thereby
generating ‘new cultural standards’.

Come-up with your stand

It is emphasized therefore that whatever the case is, it is the ‘agency’ that serves as the hinge
between actors, within a group, household, community, market and structure.

Cite further in support to your stand

Haan (2000) further defines structure as “the shell in which the five capitals (human, social, natural,
physical and financial capital) are embedded. The structure has three parts: A social that consists of the
rules that govern common norms and values, an economic that is defined by the forces of supply and
demand, and a political part that is expressed by power relations.” He further states that “though
structure often determines the direction of the outcome, structure may also change through agency.”

Connect the concepts to your research work / Conclusion

As such, Long’s actor-oriented approach for rural livelihood development is more useful in the
analysis of this study. Based from previous information, though optimistic, the butterfly livelihood in
Marinduque was told as an outcome of actors’ interests and ingenuity [e.g. Romeo Lumawig’s interest
to discover new specimens named after him, Angelito and Grelando’s perseverance to improve the
breeding techniques introduced to them by Nishiyama], despite the limits of capital assets [e.g.
financial, physical, human (preferably education), etc.], uncertainty [e.g. market, social relations, etc.]
and other constraints [e.g. village people’s pressure, state intervention, etc.]. The actors, like the
Layron brothers are not stopped by these limitations, they are continuously strategizing to solve
problems, intervene in social events and observe how others react to their actions.
 Chapter 111
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Research design
 Research locale
 Population and Sampling Design
 Ethical Considerations
 Data Gathering Tools
 Validity and Reliability of Instrument
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Statistical Treatment

RESEARCH DESIGN

 refers to the plan, structure, and strategy of research--the blueprint that will guide the research
process. It is a plan or course of action which the research follows in order to answer the
research questions or solve the research problem. It becomes the basis for determining what data
will be collected, and how they will be analysed and interpreted.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

 Experimental research design is a quantitative research design that bases its research method on
a scientific activity experiment, in which a test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or
controlled environment is done to determine the validity or truthfulness of such thing.
 This design involves 2 groups of subjects: the experimental group on which the condition,
treatment, or intervention is applied and the control group that is not given any treatment or
condition.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
1. True Experimental Design
 Uses random selection of participants. It is a bias-free selection that ensures objectivity of
results. This design is the best way to examine causal relationship.
2. Quasi-experimental Design
 Means partly, partially or almost. A research with the capacity to yield findings that are
seemingly or more or less true. Prone to bias caused by your purposive, rather than
random selection of participants, quasi –experimental design is incapable of establishing
cause-effect relationships.
Types of Quasi-experimental Design
1. Matched comparison group design
 Get a set of participants that shows close similarities with the experiment or treatment
group based on one or more important variables.
2. Time-series quasi-experimental design
 Your act of controlling the variables in this case is through multiple observations of the
subjects before and after the treatment or condition applied to the experimental group.
The purpose of serial observations is t see the connection between the pre-test and the
post-test based on the taking place of the treatment or condition.
3. Counter-balanced quasi-experimental design
 Here, control is applied to one group to examine the effects of all treatment and
conditions to control variables. For instance, negative results coming from three-time
observations as counterbalanced or given weight that is equated with positive results
from four-or-five observations.
4. Single-subject quasi-experimental design
  This design is used when the population is so large that you find difficulty in choosing a
group to study. So, you decide to apply the condition or treatment to a single subject like
a class of learners then later find out the effects of the treatment on the entire class.

NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 Is a quantitative research design that is capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data,
but more on qualitative data; hence, this is often used in the field of social sciences. It
involves variables the way they naturally exist on earth.

TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 Descriptive- depicts an image or a picture of an individual or a group.
 Comparative-states the differences or similarities between or among people, things,
objects, etc.
 Correlative- shows the extent and direction of variable relationships, that is, whether a
negative or positive relationship exists between or among them.
 Survey- describes the attitudes , preferences, views, feelings, views, and other
behavioural patterns of a big number of people for arriving at a certain conclusion about
social concerns and issues.
 Ex-Post Facto-translates itself into these English words, “which is done afterwards” and
has the purpose of deriving data from things that are by nature taking place, so as to
obtain explanations about past events. (Litchman, 2013).
SAMPLING
 is the process of choosing a representative portion of a population or some elements in a
population that will represent the entire population. It is assumed that the characteristics of the
chosen elements, called sample, reflect the characteristics of the entire population. It contrast total
enumeration or census requires the study of all elements in the population.

POPULATION
 this refers to the total number of elements (e.g. items, objects, areas, or individuals) to be studied.
Example, “Sexual Attitudes and Practices of Students in Public High Schools in Province A.
RELIABILITY
 refers to the consistency , stability and dependability of the data.

VALIDITY
 refers to the extent to which a measurement does what it is supposed to do, which is to measure
what it intends to measure. A researcher must yield a true and accurate information and avoid
factors that can invalidate study results.