CHAPTER 7.

SPEECH ACTS
(Hành vi lời nói)
QUESTIONS:
1. What is a speech act? What are the three dimensions of speech acts?
2. What are the Felicity Conditions?
3. Give examples to show the difference between direct speech and indirect speech
acts.

The theory of SPEECH ACTS was introduced by John Langshaw Austin (1911-1960)
who countered a commonly held view by semanticists that the sole purpose of making
assertions is to describe some states of affairs.

Speech act theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended
actions and how hearers infer intended meaning from what is said.

7.1. Definitions

- Speech acts are all the things we do with words when we speak. (Austin, 1962).
Examples: making apologies, making requests, expressing gratitude, and making refusals.

- A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication (Richards, Platt &

Webber, 1985:265) .

- Speech acts include real-life interactions and require not only knowledge of the language
but also appropriate use of that language within a given culture.

- Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts (Yule, 1998: 47)

7.2. Three dimemtions of Speech Acts

Example:

Mike (talked to Annie): “Give me some cash.”

-Mike uttered the words Give me some cash which can be paraphrased as : “ Hand some
money over to me”, with me referring to Mike. (locution) (tạo lời)

-In saying Give me some cash, Mike performed the act of requesting Annie to give him
some cash (illocution) (tại lời)

- Mike’s utterance could have any of the following results (1) Mike persuaded Annie to
give him the money ; (2) Annie refused to give him the money. (perlocution) (sau lời)
1
[Peccei, 1983:44]

LOCUTIONS (tạo lời)

Locutionary acts are the actual form of words used by the speaker and their semantic
meaning(Peccei, 1983:44)

Locutions are acts of saying something (Verschueren, 1999: 22)

Locutionary act: the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.
(Levinson, 1983:236)

Locutionary act: producing a meaningful linguistic expression (The basic act of utterance)
(Yule, 1996:48)

ILLOCUTIONS (tại lời)

Illocutionary acts ( Illocutionary force) are what the speaker doing by uttering those
words: Commanding, offering, promising, threatening, thanking (Peccei, 1983:44).

Illocutions are what is done in saying something (Verschueren,1999:22)

Illocutionary act: the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by
virtue of the conventional force associated with it(Levinson, 1983:236)
Illocutionary act: We form an utterance with some kind of function in mind (Yule,
1996:48)

PERLOCUTIONS (sau lời)

Perlocutionary acts are the actual result of the locution. It may or may not be what the
speaker wants to happen but it is nevertheless caused by the locution. Perlocutions are
defined by the hearer’s reaction. (Peccei, 1983:44)

Perlocutions are what is done by saying something (Verschueren,1999: 22)

Perlocutionary act: the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the
sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances of the utterance (Levinson, 1983:
236)

Perlocutionary act: We do not, of course, simply create an utterance with a function

without intending it to have an effect. (Yule, 1996:48)

2
- Different locutions, same illocutionary force.
E.g.: - It’s hot in here.
- I’m thirsty.
- Could you give me a glass of water, please?

A request for a drink.

- Same locution, different illocutionary forces depending on the context.

E.g.: This tea is really cold.

This could be a Praise/Complaint (Peccei, 1983:44)

ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE INDICATING DEVICES (IFIDS)

- Performative verb (Vp): động từ ngôn hành

I (Vp) you that…

Example:

I promise you that I will pay you back tomorrow.

I warn you that the gun is loaded. (George Yule,1996:50)

- Word order, Stress and Intonation

Example:

“You are going” [You’re going! [I tell you Y-G]

You’re going? [ I request confirmation about Y-G]

Are you going? [ I ask you if Y-G](George Yule,1996:50)

7.3. Felicity Conditions

There are certain expected or appropriate circumstances, technically known as felicity

conditions, for the performance of a speech act to be recognized as intended. (Yule, 1996)

Felicity conditions of an illocutionary act are the conditions that must be fulfilled in the
situation in which the act is carried out if the act can be said to be carried out properly or
felicitously. (Austin,)

3
- Preparatory Conditions

Preparatory conditions include the status or authority of the speaker to perform the speech
act, the situation of other parties and so on. So:

The speaker is authorized to perform the act.

The listener must recognize the speaker’s authority.

Examples:

I appoint you chair of the Linguistics Department

I sentence you to ten years’ imprisonment

- Propositional content conditions

Specification of a future state of affairs. (Verschueren, J, 1999:23)

State of affairs predicated in utterance.

Example:

for both a promise and a warning, the content of the utterance must be a future event. A
future content condition for a promise requires that the future event will be a future act of
the speaker.

- Sincerity conditions

The speaker/ writer believes that the future state of affairs will indeed be as decribed.
(Verschueren . J, 1999:23)

Example:

This is clearly not the following case unless the speaker is a Superman:

I promise that I’ll jump over the skycraper if I pass my exam.

(Peccei, 1999:50)

- Essential conditions

The utterance counts as an act committing the speaker/ writer to the likelihood of the
future state of affairs to be as described.

Which covers the fact that by the act of uttering a promise to create an obligation to carry
4
out the action as promised.

utterance recognizable as instance of particular illocutionary act

Ex: for a directive to have the force of a request the hearer must recognize that the speaker
is attempting to get the hearer to do X

Felicity conditions: REQUEST

Propositional content condition

Future act A of H
- Preparatory condition
(i) H is able to do A.
(ii) It is not obvious to both S and H that H will do A in the normal course of events
- Sincerity condition
S wants H to do A
- Essential condition
Counts as an attempt to get H to do A
(Searle 1969: 66)

Felicity conditions: QUESTION

- Propositional content condition: Any proposition

- Preparatory condition
(i) S does not know the answer
(ii) It is not obvious that H will provide the information without being asked
- Sincerity condition
S wants this information
- Essential condition
Counts as an attempt to elicit this information
(Searle 1969: 66)

Felicity conditions: ADVICE

- Propositional content condition Future act A of H

- Preparatory condition

(i) S has some reason to believe A will benefit H

(ii) It is not obvious to both S and H that H will do A in the normal course of events

- Sincerity condition

S believes A will benefit H

5
- Essential condition

Counts as an undertaking to the effect that A is in H‘s best interest

(Searle 1969: 66)

Felicity conditions: WARNING

- Propositional content condition: Future event E

- Preparatory condition

(i) S thinks E will occur and is not in H’s interest

(ii) S thinks it is not obvious to H that E will occur

- Sincerity condition

S believes E is not in H’s best interest

- Essential condition

Counts as an undertaking that E is not in H’s best interest

(Levinson 1983: 240)

Felicity conditions: GREETING

- Propositional content condition: None

- Preparatory condition

S has just encountered (or been introduced to, etc.) H

- Sincerity condition: None

- Essential condition

Counts as courteous recognition of H by S

(Searle 1969: 66)

Felicity conditions: CONGRATULATING

- Propositional content condition: Some event, act, etc., E related to H

6
- Preparatory condition

(i) E is in H‘s interest

- Sincerity condition

S is pleased at E

- Essential condition

Counts as an expression of pleasure at E

(Searle 1969: 66)

Felicity conditions: PROMISE

- Propositional content condition

The speaker has said they will carry out an action at some future date.

-Preparatory condition

The speaker intends to do the action.

The speaker believes he can do the action.

The speaker would not have done the action in the normal course of events.

- Sincerity condition

The speaker believes the hearer wants him to do the action.

- Essential condition

The speaker intends to be placed under an obligation to do an action.

Together with the IFIDs (Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices), Felicity

Conditions must be taken into account to help the hearer recognize the intended
illocutionary force. (Yule: 1996)

7.4. The Performative Hypothesis (giả thuyết ngữ vi)

One way to think about the speech acts being performed via utterances is to assume that
underlying every utterance (U) there is a clause [ I ( hereby)(Vp) you that …] presented
earlier to, containing a performative verb (Vp) which makes the illocutionary force
7
explicit. This is known as the performative clause shown as the performative hypothesis.

I (hereby) (Vp) you that …

I: 1st person

(hereby): Indicating that the utterance” count as” an action by being uttered

(Vp): In the present tense

You: 2nd person

that: Will be made explicitly

Examples:

I admit I was wrong.

I think I was wrong.

I know I was wrong.

I apologize to you.

I amuse you.

I flatter you.

We promised to leave.

He admits he was silly.

I warned you to stop

7.5. Classification of Speech Acts

- Representatives: here the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using such verbs as:
affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report.

- Directives: here the speaker tries to make the hearer do something, with such words as:
ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request

- Commissives: here the speaker commits himself (or herself) to a (future) course of
action, with verbs such as: guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake, warrant.

8
- Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs, using such
verbs as: apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank, welcome.

- Rogatives: through which speakers ask for information. In rogatives the hearer rather
than the speaker will make the words fit the world (asking, querying, questioning)

- Declarations: the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object or situation,
solely by making the utterance: I now pronounce you man and wife, I sentence you to be
hanged by the neck until you be dead, I name this ship...

Typical linguistic expressions of speech act

7.6. Direct and Indirect Speech acts

- Direct Speech Acts

“… a direct relationship between a structure and a function…” (Yule, G., 1998: 54-5)

e.g. “Move out of the way!” imperative – request

- Indirect Speech Acts

“… an indirect relationship between a structure and a function…” (Yule, G., 1998: 54-5)

“An utterance in which one SA is performed indirectly by performing another.” (Searle,

1975)

e.g. “Do you have to stand in front of the TV? interrogative – request

“You’re standing in front of the TV.”

9
 declarative – request

EXERCISES

I. Using the locution, illocution, perlocution analysis, analyse the underlined utterance in
each of the following dialogues.

E.g. Mike (talked to Annie): “Give me some cash.”

- Locution: Mike (talked to Annie) to hand some money over to him.

- Illocution: Mike performed the act of requesting Annie to give him some cash

- Perlocution: Mike’s utterance could have any of the following results (1) Mike persuaded
Annie to give him the money ; (2) Annie refused to give him the money.

1. The bus won’t move until your boys move in out of the doorway.
+ Locutionary act: The driver is saying she won’t move the bus with people
standing in the doorway.
+ Illocutionary act: An order to clear the doorway.
+ Perlocutionary act: The boys move out of the doorway.
2. It’s hot in here.
+ Locutionary act: The woman performed the act of saying it is hot (referring to the
temperature.
+ Illocutionary act: Request (Turn on the fan)/ Complaint.
+ Perlocutionary act: Someone turned on the fan.
3. May I borrow your laptop?
+ Locutionary act: The man performed the act of saying if he could borrow my
laptop.
+ Illocutionary act: Polite request.
+ Perlocutionary act: Whether I give it to him or not.

10
II. Using the locution, illocution, perlocution analysis, analyse the underlined utterance in
each of the following dialogues.

(1) Mrs Smith’s neighbour: ‘I was so sorry to hear about your loss.’

Mrs Smith: ‘Thank you. It was a great shock, but I must get used to it.’

Locution:

Illocution:

Perlocution:

(2) A: ‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’

B: ‘Yes, please.’

Locution:

Illocution:

Perlocution:

(3) Son: ‘Can I go out for a while, Mum?’

Mother: ‘You can play outside for half an hour.’

Locution:

Illocution:

11
Perlocution:

1. Give a situation in which each of the following utterances occurs, interpret its meaning
and then classify it according to different types of speech acts.

1. ‘Let’s go to our place for a beer.’

A:

B:

2. ‘I don’t know how to answer this question.’

A:

B:

3. ‘Mind your head!’

A:

B:

4. ‘How nice to see you!’

A:

B:

5. ‘Who will believe this story?’

A:

B:
12
6. ‘Is it right to cheat in any exam?’

A:

B:

7. ‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’

A:

B:

8. ‘I was so sorry to hear about your loss.’

A:

B:

9. ‘I’m dead tired now!’

A:

B:

10. ‘I’m awfully sorry I wasn’t at the meeting this morning.’

A:

B:

11. ‘If you don’t try your best, you’ll fail in the exam.’

A:

13
B:

12. ‘Why don’t you take a seat?’

A:

B:

13. ‘How dare you speak to her like that?’

A:

B:

14. ‘You look lovely today in your new dress.’

A:

B:

15. ‘I’d sell it if I were you.’

A:

B:

16. ‘I’ll be right back.’

A:

B:

17. ‘I beg you to reconsider your decision.’

14
A:

B:

18. ‘Do you think I’m an idiot?’

A:

B:

19. ‘May I hand in my final paper the day after tomorrow.’

A:

B:

20. ‘We select Alfred as the head of our group.’

A:

B:

21. ‘I’ll pay you back in two days.’

A:

B:

15
22. ‘We are going to turn you in.’

A:

B:

23. ‘I would appreciate it if you went away.’

A:

B:

24. ‘Can I help you?’

A:

B:

25. ‘I’ve stopped smoking.’

A:

B:

26. ‘Goodness!’

A:

B:

27. ‘Drink a cup of coffee.’

16
 A:

B:

28. ‘That doesn’t sound very serious.’

A:

B:

29. ‘I’ve got to go now.’

A:

B:

30. ‘Someone said you got fired.’

A:

B:

III. For each of the following utterances, provide two situations so that one utterance
performs two different acts. Interpret the utterances and identify the acts performed in the
light of the situations you provide.

1. ‘Do you feel better today?’

SITUATION 1:

A:

B:

17
SITUATION 2:

A:

B:

2. ‘I beg your pardon.’

SITUATION 1:

A:

B:

SITUATION 2:

A:

B:

3. ‘It’s going to rain.’

SITUATION 1:

A:

B:

SITUATION 2:

A:

B:

18
4. ‘It’s snowing.’

SITUATION 1:

A:

B:

SITUATION 2:

A:

B:

5. ‘I said I didn’t.’

SITUATION 1:

A:

B:

SITUATION 2:

A:

B:

19
 TÀI LIỆU THAM KHẢO

1. Austin, J. L. (1962) How to do things with words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Grice, H. P. (1967) Logic and conversation. Unpublished MS. Of Williams James
Lectures, Harvard University
3. Leech, G. (1983) Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman Group Limited
4. Levinson, S. C. (1983) Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
5. Peccei, Jean Stilwell. (1999) Pragmatics Language Workbooks. Taylor & Francis
6. Routledge
7. Peccei, Jean Stilwell. (1999) Pragmatics. Taylor & Francis Routledge
8. Yule, G. (1996) Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press
9. Searl, J. R. (1981) Speech Acts. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press

20