EmotionsEmotions are feelings that we experience in response to different

situations. They can be positive (like happiness) or negative (like sadness).

Nature:
Emotions are complex and involve three key components:
1. Subjective experience: This is how you feel inside. For example, feeling happy when you see a friend.
2. Physiological response:This is how your body reacts. For example, your heart might beat faster when you are
scared.
3. Behavioral response: This is how you express your emotions. For example, smiling when you are happy or
crying when you are sad.

Physiological Changes During Emotions

When we experience emotions, our body undergoes several changes. These changes can be observed in
different parts of the body:
1.Neural Changes:
Our brain plays a big role in processing emotions. Different parts of the brain, like the amygdala, are involved in
recognizing and reacting to emotions. For example, the amygdala helps us feel fear when we see something
scary.
2. Cardiol Changes (Heart)
Our heart rate can change depending on our emotions. For example, it might beat faster when we are excited
or scared.
3. Visceral Changes (Internal Organs):
Our stomach might feel queasy when we are nervous. This is because our internal organs respond to our
emotions too.
4. Glandular Changes:
Our glands release hormones that affect our emotions. For example, adrenaline is released when we are
stressed or scared, making us feel more alert.
Galvanic Skin Response:
This measures the electrical conductance of our skin, which changes with sweat levels. When we are stressed
or excited, we sweat more, and this increases skin conductance.
Pupillometrics:
This involves the study of how our pupils (the black part of our eyes) change in size with emotions. Our pupils
might dilate (get bigger) when we see something we like or when we are in a low-light environment.
Theories of Emotion
Several theories explain how and why we experience emotions. Let's look at three main theories:
1. James-Lange Theory:
This theory suggests that our emotions are caused by our physical reactions to events. For example, you see a
snake, your heart starts racing, and then you feel scared. In other words, you feel afraid because your heart is
racing.
Example: You see a bear, start to tremble, and then realize you are scared because you are trembling.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory: - According to this theory, we experience emotions and physiological reactions
simultaneously. For example, when you see a snake, you feel scared and your heart starts racing at the same
time.
Example: You see a bear, and at the same moment, you feel fear and your heart starts pounding.
3. Schachter-Singer Theory: This theory, also known as the two-factor theory, suggests that emotions are
based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. First, you experience physical arousal
(like a racing heart), and then you label this arousal based on the situation, which leads to the emotion. For
example, if your heart is racing and you see a snake, you interpret this as fear.
Example: Your heart is pounding after a jog, and you see a bear. You realize your heart is pounding because of
the bear, and you feel fear.
Learning:
In psychology, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a
result of experience. This change can be the result of various processes, such as conditioning, reinforcement,
observation, or cognitive processes. Learning involves acquiring new information, skills, attitudes, or behaviors
through experiences, and it can occur consciously or unconsciously.
Classical Conditioning:
is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a
conditioned response.
Example: Pavlov’s Dogs
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Food
Unconditioned Response (UR): Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell ringing
Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation in response to the bell
Operant Conditioning:is a type of learning where behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the
consequences that follow them. It focuses on how the consequences of actions influence the likelihood of those
actions being repeated in the future. It was founded by B.F Skinner via his famous Skinner box experiment.
Reinforcement :2. Punishment 3.Schedules of reinforcement
Observational Learning
Insight learning
Thorndike sums up the following stages in the process of learning
1- Drive 2-Goal 3-Random Movements 4-Chance Success 5-Selection (of proper movement) 6-Fixation
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory suggests that people learn from one
another through observation, imitation, and modeling. It emphasizes the importance of observing the behaviors,
attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
Intelligence:
intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationaly and use resources effectively when faced
with challenges.
complex concept that encompasses a variety of cognitive abilities. It is often defined as the capacity to learn
from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and apply knowledge to
manipulate one’s environment.
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences:
proposed in 1983, suggests that intelligence is not a single, unified ability. Instead, Gardner identified eight
distinct types of intelligence, each representing different ways of processing information. These intelligences
are:
1. Linguistic Intelligence 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 3.Spatial Intelligence 4. Musical Intelligence
5.Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
6. Interpersonal Intelligence 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
8. Naturalistic Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence
Crystallized Intelligence
Thinking
The process of considering or reasoning about something.
The action of using your mind to produce ideas, decisions, memories.
representation may take the form of a word, a visual image, a sound, or data in any other sensory modality
stores in memory.
Thinking transforms a particular representation of information into new and different forms, allowing us to
answer questions, solve problems, or reach goals.
Tools of Thinking: •Concepts
•Images •Language •Brain •Symbols
Concrete Thinking
Concrete thinking is a type of reasoning that focuses on physical objects, immediate experiences, and exact
interpretations. It is sometimes called literal thinking, and is the opposite of abstract thinking
Abstract Thinking
Thinking about concepts that are not concrete or physically present or higher order thinking about ideas or
principles that are hypothetical or symbolic.
Examples of Concrete Thinking
Predicting the likely outcome of a physical event
Reading a map and understanding the points of the compass
Focusing on the olive branch as part of an olive tree, rather than understanding that the olive branch represents
a peace offering
Decision Making and Critical Thinking
1. Identify the decision that needs to be made 2. Gather relevant information 3. Identify alternative solutions 4.
Weigh the evidence
5. Choose among the alternatives 6. Take action 7. Review your decision and its impact (both good and bad)
Reasoning :
The use of reason to draw inferences or conclusions.
The process of forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences from facts or premises.
Using rational processes of thinking and cognition to generate new knowledge.The ability of the mind to think
and understand things logically.“Reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is aware of a
problem identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.
Problem solving is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying, prioritizing,
and selecting alternatives for a solutions.
There are three main steps:
Reparation(Understanding and diagnosing problems)
Production(Generating solutions)
Judgment (Evaluating solutions)
Memory:
refers to the cognitive process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time. It plays a fundamental
role in virtually all aspects of human cognition and behavior.
Retrieval:
is the process of accessing stored information from memory when needed. It involves searching through
memory traces and bringing the relevant information into consciousness. Retrieval can be influenced by various
factors, including retrieval cues, context, and the strength of memory associations
RETENTION:
Retention is to the ability to remember or retain information over time. It's a crucial aspect of memory processes
and involves the storage and retrieval of information learned or experienced. Retention can vary based on
factors like the strength of the memory, the significance of the information, and various cognitive processes.

Recall:
in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past.For a memory to be recalled it
must be retrieved first.
RECOGNITION:
refers to a cognitive process by which individuals identify or remember something they have encountered
before. It involves the ability to retrieve information from memory when presented with a cue or stimulus that
triggers familiarity.
FORGETTING:
Forgetting in psychology refers to the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored in an individual's
long-term memory. It is a fundamental aspect of human cognition and memory processes.
CAUSES OF FORGETTING:
1. Decay 2. Interference 3. Retrieval Failure 4. Motivated Forgetting
5. Amnesia 6. Other factors
NATURE OF FORGETTING:
1. *Normal and Adaptive Process 2. Selective 3.Gradual
4. Interference of new info 5. Influenced by health and lifestyle
Individual Differences
According to B.F. Skinner, individual differences are any measurable aspect of a person’s personality. These
differences can include physical characteristics, habits, skills, interests, temperaments, abilities and attinments.