Geomorphology and Earthquake Rupture Along The Paghman Active Fault, West of Kabul

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1 Manuscript to be submitted to Geomorphology
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3 Geomorphology and earthquake rupture along the Paghman active fault, west of Kabul,
4 Afghanistan, from detailed mapping and photogrammetrical analysis
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6 Zakeria SHNIZAI1,2, Richard WALKER2 and Hiroyuki TSUTSUMI3
7 1 St John’s College, University of Oxford: zakeriashnizai@gmail.com
8 2
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Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford: richard.walker@earth.ox.ac.uk
9 3 Department of Environmental Systems Science, Doshisha University:

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10 htsutsum@mail.doshisha.ac.jp
11 Corresponding author
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12 Zakeria Shnizai
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13 Department of Earth Sciences,
14 University of Oxford
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15 South Parks Road

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16 Oxford, OX1 3AN
17 UK
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This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4347974
18 zakeriashnizai@gmail.com
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19
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20 Abstract
21 The city of Kabul, Afghanistan, lies within the Kabul Block, which is bounded to the
22 east by the Sarobi fault and to the west by the Paghman fault, the northern extension of the
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23 Chaman fault. These two faults are active, and accommodate oblique convergence between the
24 Indian and Eurasian Plates. The northeast-striking Paghman fault poses a major seismic hazard
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for Kabul, and is a likely source of the Mw 7.3 1505 earthquake that damaged the city. In this
26 paper, we describe the structure and tectonic geomorphology of the Paghman fault. It is
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27 predominantly left-lateral with a minor dip-slip component along the Paghman Mountain front.
28 The fault displaces Quaternary to Paleogene units with clear displacement of Holocene
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29 deposits. Continued left-lateral movement of the Paghman fault has caused stream deflection,
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30 capturing, abandonment, and ultimately incision of alluvial deposits inside the Kabul Basin.
31 We identify several stages in the alluvial fan development and displacement. These alluvial
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32 fans were once a continuous unit displaced left-laterally as a single block but are now incised
33 by beheaded and offset stream channels flowing from the Paghman Mountains to the Kabul
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34 Basin. We identify an approximately 30-km-long surface rupture, which we infer to relate to

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35 the 1505 historical earthquake in the area along the Chaman and Paghman faults. The surface
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36 rupture along the faults is straight and convex to the hanging-wall, and is commonly composed
37 of several fault segments that are separated by discontinuities such as stepovers.
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38 Keywords: Paghman fault; Mapping and photogrammetrical analysis; earthquake
39 rupture; Kabul Afghanistan
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41 1. Introduction
42 The >80 km long Paghman fault accommodates left-lateral motion between the Indian
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43 and Eurasian plates (Fig. 1a). This fault is the northern extension of the Chaman fault and shows
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44 an intricate pattern of fault strands along the northern end of the Kabul Block. The strike of the
45 Paghman fault ranges from N18°E to N38°E (Fig. 1b). According to Ruleman et al. (2007), this
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46 fault is interpreted as a transform plate boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates, though
47 more recent mapping has shown it to be one of several major faults distributed across this part
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48 of Afghanistan (e.g., Shnizai and Tsutsumi, 2020). The dominant left-lateral strike-slip motion
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49 on the Chaman fault switches to left-lateral oblique-thrust motion on the Paghman fault along
50 the Kabul Basin.

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51 The Paghman fault has caused moderate to large earthquakes, and is the likely source
52 of the 1505 Mw 7.3 earthquake, with damage centred on the district of Paghman, and with
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53 apparent reports of surface rupture along the base of the Kuh-e-Paghman Mountains, coincident
54 with the fault (e.g., Quittmeyer and Jacob, 1979, as cited in Heuckroth and Karim, 1970;
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55 Oldham, 1882) (Figs. 2a, b). The fault, together with the Chaman fault to the south, is
56 considered to be one of the most active faults in the region with GPS-derived slip rate of 18
57 mm/year (Mohadjer et al., 2010). This is about half of the rate of motion of the Indian plate
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58 with respect to the Eurasian plate, ≥39 mm/yr (e.g., Ambraseys and Bilham, 2003; Ruleman et
59 al., 2007) (Fig. 1a). Shnizai and Tsutsumi (2020) reported that the elapsed time since the most
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recent earthquake on the Paghman fault and northern end of the Chaman fault is close to the
61 calculated average recurrence interval, such that the possibility of a future damaging earthquake
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62 is high.
63 The Paghman fault separates the western margin of the Kabul Block from the
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64 Afghanistan accreted terrain (Fig. 1a) that is also called the Afghan Block or microplate. The
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65 geomorphic expression of the fault has been studied by previous researches (Ruleman et al.,
66 2007; Shnizai, 2020a; Shnizai et al., 2020; Shnizai and Tsutsumi, 2020). Shnizai and Tsutsumi
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67 (2020) mapped the entire fault trace based on the interpretation of ALOS (Advanced Land
68 Observing Satellite) PRISM (Panchromatic Remote-sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping)

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69 satellite images, and SRTM (Shutter Radar Topography Mission) DEM (Digital Elevation
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70 Model) three-dimensional anaglyph images.
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71 The fault extends from west of Kabul city northeastward along the base of the Paghman
72 Mountains to Jabal Saraj (Fig. 2). Based on 10Be cosmogenic dating of alluvial fans offset by
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73 the northern Chaman fault near Kabul, Shnizai et al. (2020) found that the Chaman fault
74 accommodates at least 3.5-4.5 mm/yr of left-lateral strike-slip, which is much less than the 40
75 mm/yr of overall relative motion between the Indian and Eurasian plate (Fig. 1b). However,
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76 there is no independent late Quaternary geological slip rate estimate for the Paghman fault
77 inside the Kabul Basin. Also, the precise surface trace locations, offset geomorphic features,
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and rupture extent of historical earthquakes are poorly known in the Kabul Basin. These data
79 are essential to better understand the active tectonics of the Paghman fault and the northern end
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80 of the Chaman fault. In addition, the seismic hazard evaluation of the fault has important
81 implications to Kabul, with a population of more than 4 million. This metropolitan city has
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82 recorded the largest absolute increase in population in the last two decades.
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83 To better understand the seismic hazard posed by this fault, we mapped the Paghman
84 fault based on stereo pairs of CORONA satellite images available from the United State
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85 Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) and ALOS PRISM
86 images from the Earth Observation Data Utilization Promotion Platform

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87 (https://satpf.jp/spf/?lang=en). From March to the middle of April 2022, we also conducted

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88 field observations along the southwestern 60 km of the Paghman fault from Arghandi of Kabul
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89 to the south of Charikar city, Parwan Province. We found recent tectonic geomorphic features
90 as well as potential evidence of surface rupture that may be associated with the 1505 earthquake
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91 (Fig. 2b).
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93 2. Tectonic setting and seismicity
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94 The active tectonics of Afghanistan and surrounding regions is predominantly
95 controlled by the northward movement of the Indian plate relative to Eurasia. After the initial
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96 collision at 55-60 Ma, the Indian subcontinent has under-thrusted beneath the Eurasian
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97 continent along a series of large thrust faults, whose movement causes destructive earthquakes
98 (Shnizai et al., 2022; Tapponnier and Molnar, 1979; Wheeler et al., 2005). Further south and
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99 west, oblique India-Eurasia convergence is partitioned onto predominantly left-lateral
100 structures such as the Chaman fault and adjacent fold and thrust belts (e.g., Quittmeyer and
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101 Jacob, 1979; Shnizai, 2020) (Fig. 1a).

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102 Northeastern Afghanistan contains several north-northeast-trending shear zones and
103 faults, particularly along the boundary between the Cimmerian and Variscan domains (e.g.,
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104 Shnizai, 2020a; Siehl, 2017) (Fig. 2a). The Kabul block is approximately 300 km long and up
105 to 70 km wide, with a relatively aseismic interior without obvious signs of late Quaternary
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106 faulting (Figs. 1b, 2a). The western margin of the block is bounded by the Paghman and
107 Chaman left-lateral active faults, separated from Central Afghanistan to the west, and the
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108 eastern margin is bounded by the Sarobi right-lateral fault (Figs. 1a, b). The northern margin of
109 the block is bounded by the right-lateral Herat fault. The active tectonics in the northern part of
110 the Kabul block changes to a system of E-W right-lateral faulting, which accommodate regional
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111 N-S left-lateral shear by anticlockwise rotation, in a mirror image of the east of Iran in which
112 E-W left-lateral faults accommodate N-S right-lateral shear through clockwise block rotation
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(e.g., Walker and Jackson, 2002). The elongated Kabul Block itself is composed of a series of
114 large basins such as the Kabul and Katawaz Basins, which are mainly attributed to dilatational
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115 jogs related to the left-lateral strike-slip motion at the block boundaries (Figs. 1a, 2).
116 The Kabul block and other associated Central Afghan blocks are remnants of small
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117 tectonic domains that collided with Eurasia during the late Cretaceous-early Paleogene, and
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118 which are preserved along various parts of the Himalayan margin (Collett et al., 2015;
119 Tapponnier et al., 1981; Treloar and Izatt, 1993). The Kabul and Helmand blocks are separated
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120 by the Chaman and Paghman strike-slip faults. The northernmost part of the Kabul block
121 reaches the Central Hindu Kush and the Herat-Panjshir suture zone. The Katawaz basin, east of
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122 the Kabul block (Fig. 1b) is interpreted as a large flexural basin (Treloar and Izatt, 1993), which
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123 may be associated with pull-apart structures, particularly toward the north. According to
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124 Andritzký (1967), the present position of the Kabul block is the result of northward wedge
125 tectonics between the Nuristan and Helmand blocks. Nakata et al. (1991) stated that the
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126 Kandahar and Kohistan (Nuristan fault block) arcs resulted from mostly Mesozoic subduction
127 along the southern margin of pre-collision Asia (Fig. 1a, b). North of these arcs is a set of micro-
128 continental blocks developed during earlier collision episodes, and eventually the Paleozoic
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129 Eurasian continental mass is reached (Figs. 1a, 3).
130 Seismic hazard in the Kabul basin has been studied by the analysis of high-resolution
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satellite images (e.g., Ruleman et al., 2007; Shnizai and Tsutsumi, 2020). Several prominent
132 faults cut the western half of the basin, with the Paghman fault being the most prominent one.
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133 The region has suffered moderate to large earthquakes throughout its history. The study area
134 was severely hit by shallow earthquakes in 1505, 1874, 1992 and 2022 (Ambraseys and Bilham,
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135 2014) (Fig. 2b). The 1505 earthquake, which caused destruction and loss of life in Paghman
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136 and the surrounding region, including Kabul, is thought to have produced surface rupture along
137 the Paghman fault (e.g., Quittmeyer and Jacob, 1979, as cited in Heuckroth and Karim, 1970;
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138 Oldham, 1882).

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139
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140 3. Geology of the study area
141 Geologically the study area is located south of the Hindu Kush Mountain Ranges, which
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142 is a part of the young Eurasian mountains range complex that has risen since the late Paleogene
143 period (Figs. 1a, 2a). The region is characterized by complex geology, with numerous distinct
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144 rock types of Paleoproterozoic age, and later sediments of Late Permian through Late Triassic
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145 age. Early Cretaceous gabbro and monzonite intrusions are present in the Paghman Mountains
146 from near the southern end of the Paghman district to Farza (e.g., Mack et al., 2010). The
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Paghman Mountains are deeply dissected. The Paghman fault separates thick unconsolidated
148 Quaternary and Paleogene sediments in the Kabul basin to the east, from a sequence of thrusted
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149 metamorphic and intrusive rocks to the west (Fig. 3). The composition of the rocks beneath the
150 valley-fill sediments of the Kabul basin is not well known, but is probably similar to the
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151 predominant Sherdarwaza (Paleoproterozoic gneiss and migmatite) bedrock which outcrops in
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152 the surroundings of the basin, as well as in a few isolated outcrops within it (Doebrich et al.,
153 2006; Mack et al., 2010).

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154 The central Kabul basin gently slopes up toward the surrounding Koh-e Safi, Koh-e
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155 Quragh, and Pahgman Mountains. The basin sediments can be divided into younger and older
156 units (e.g., Böckh, 1971). Lithologically, the sediments are composed of conglomerates,
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157 sandstone, sands, gravels and loess. The sediments are coarsest near the Paghman Mountains,
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158 which is the main source area for the Kabul basin, and become progressively finer toward the
159 center of the basin. Most loess sediments are distributed along the Paghman and Kohe Quragh
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160 Mountain fronts, but they are largely absent near perennial and ephemeral streams, and are also
161 largely removed by erosion over the northern end of the Paghman Mountains. The sediments
162 south of Kabul city are composed of Holocene-Pleistocene alluvial fans crossed by the
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163 Paghman strike-slip fault. The sediments along the mountains are dissected and characterized
164 by a drainage network (Fig. 3).
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166 4. Tectonic geomorphology
167 4.1. Data and Methods

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168 All remote mapping was undertaken using stereo CORONA imagery (ground resolution
169 around 12.9 m, acquired 1960 to 1970), 2.5-m resolution ALOS PRISM images (taken during
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170 2008) for two small parts of the region, and the 1-arcsecond SRTM digital elevation model
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171 (DEM), together with the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) base map. We
172 prepared 3D anaglyph images from the SRTM DEM using Simple DEM Viewer Software
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173 (Katayanagi, 2019) and Adobe Photoshop. We also created hill-shade images using GIS and
174 Global Mapper software to serve as a base map for comprehensive fault mapping. We use the
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175 same fault trace designations and symbols that Shnizai and Tsutsumi (2020) used for
176 categorizing the prominence and clarity of the fault features. Two categories of active faults
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177 were employed; active faults and presumed active faults, indicated with red and black lines on
178 the map, respectively. Active faults with strong evidence of displacement in the late Quaternary
179 (i.e., Late Pleistocene and Holocene) ground cover are shown as red solid lines, while presumed
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180 active faults with no strong evidence of late Quaternary deformation are shown as black solid
181 lines. Faults with indistinct evidence of deformation are mapped by a long-dash line, and
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concealed faults by a dotted line (e.g., Shnizai, 2020a; Shnizai and Tsutsumi, 2020) (Fig. 4).
183 Our remote-sensing analysis was supplemented by two weeks of detailed field survey
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184 along the Paghman fault from the northern end of the Chaman fault (34.4494241°N,
185 68.9250189°E) to Charikar City (35° 7’32.48”N, 69°13’54.83”E), in March and April 2022.
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186 During the field work we validated observations made from satellite imagery and DEMS, and
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187 built detailed observations and interpretations of the local fault structure and interaction with
188 the landscape. Combining field and remote sensing analysis allowed us to identify the locations,
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189 geometries, lengths, presence of fault scarps, zones of fresh outcrops in bedrock eroded terraces,
190 offset and beheaded stream channels, pressure ridges, amplitude of horizontal and vertical
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191 displacement for different individual fault strands with active faults scarps and/or their
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192 topographic expression along the main Paghman fault.
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194 4.2. Tectonic geomorphology of the Paghman fault
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195 The Paghman fault transects the western portion of Kabul city and extends
196 northeastward along the base of the Paghman Mountains, and terminates near the intersection
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197 of the Herat and Panjshir faults. To the south, the fault extends across the hilly terrain of the
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198 Koh-e Quragh Mountains (Fig. 4). Based on satellite image interpretation and fieldwork, we
199 identified recent geological formations offset by the fault, including Holocene deposits (Fig. 3).
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200 The part of the fault we examined during our field visit traverses the Kabul highland and
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201 Shomali lowland in a region covered by alluvial fans and debris materials originating from the
202 Paghman and Koh-Quragh Mountains (Figs. 2b, 4). This part of the fault is characterized by
203 left-lateral oblique slip indicators.

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204 There are numerous indicators of surface deformation in the study area. The most
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205 striking fault scarp lies along the northwestern foot of the Koh-e Quragh Mountain, where
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206 alluvial deposits up to 40 m thick are displaced. Through measuring the fault scarp height, we
207 observed the most recent vertical offset along the mountains front in Holocene deposits. We
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208 noticed during fieldwork morphological anomalies and the scarps along the left-lateral fault are
209 up to 3 m high although the fault plane is greatly eroded due to weathering. The vertical fault
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210 offsets range from ~0.5 to 30 m along the mountain front.
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211 To facilitate our geomorphic description along the Paghman fault, we divide the
212 mapping area into four sections: 1) Maidan Shar to Arghandi substation (Koh-e Qruagh
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213 Mountain front), 2) Arghandi to end of Samuchak Village (southern), 3) Shakardara to Farza
214 (central) and 4) Istalif to Ghorband River Valley (northern). From Maidan Shar (capital of
215 Wardak Province) to Arghandi substation, we describe a section of the Chaman fault together
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216 with the Paghman fault that is located inside Kabul. This segment of the Chaman fault runs
217 from Sayed Abad District of Wardak through the Koh-e Quragh Mountains to Arghandi
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substation, and mostly consists of a single fault line. The fault passes about 10 km to the west
219 of Kabul (Fig. 4). The southern section of the Paghman fault extends ~17 km from Kabul-
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220 Kandahar Highway to Samuchak village (34°37'38.90"N, 69° 0'6.87"E). The central section
221 extends for about 27 km from Shakardara to Farza (34°48'58.58"N, 69° 4'11.49"E). Lastly, the
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222 northern section extends approximately 30 km from Istalif district of Kabul Province to Jabal
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223 Saraj near to the Herat right lateral strike-slip fault (Fig. 4).
224 The Paghman fault zone is characterized by distributed, parallel, left-lateral strands in a
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225 zone as wide as 2 km. Much of the fault zone is linear, and most of the traces are within young
226 Quaternary deposits (Holocene and Late-Pleistocene), though sometimes also bound older
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227 bedrock hills such as in Paghaman and Shakardara Districts (Fig. 3).
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4.2.1. Maidan Shar to Arghandi Substation (Koh-e Qruagh Mountain front)
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229 This section includes the northernmost part of the Chaman fault, and the intersection
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230 with the north-south Paghman fault (Fig. 4). The fault is expressed as linear and continuous
231 northwest-facing fault scarps (Fig. 5a). Along most of the southern part of the fault, the fault
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232 zone is 1-2 km wide. The fault cuts all geological units vertically. It bounds bedrock hills, but
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233 most of the traces are within Quaternary deposits (Figs. 3, 5a), where the most recently active
234 trace is identified as mole tracks along the front of the mountains. The fault movement has
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formed a linear valley from Maidan Shar to the start of Arghandi region (Fig. 5a, b). There is
236 surface deformation along the fault, from which water and sand have been extruded in parts of
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237 the valley toward south. Narrow ephemeral streams with well-defined banks have incised the
238 alluvial fan surfaces (Fig. 5c). The fault scarp in the most recent deposits has a vertical offset <
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239 1m, which may have arisen due to the 1505 earthquake (Fig. 5e). For a 6.5 km long stretch
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240 between the linear valley and Arghandi substation, the cumulative fault scarp is as high as 35
241 m on an older alluvial fan on the southeastern side of the Kabul-Kandahar Highway (Figs. 5d,
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242 6a). The scarp is remarkably straight with a strike of N15°E along the Koh-e Quragh Mountains.
243 In a small area, the fault has two strands that have displaced an older alluvial fan left-laterally.
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244 Towards the north (near the Kabul-Kandahar highway), the scarp disappears due to landscape
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245 alteration by farming and building constructions.
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246 The alluvial sediments originally formed a continuous unit but are now incised by
247 southeast-flowing ephemeral drainage systems, which, due to left-lateral displacement have
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248 been offset and, in one case, beheaded (Fig. 5c-d, 5g). The maximum steam offset is 120 m.
249 Where the Chaman fault enters the Arghandi area, it is marked by a series of aligned pressure
250 ridges, which are about 450 m long, 150 m wide and 30 m high. These pressure ridges gradually
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251 disappear when the fault extends in the Arghandi valley, at the northeastern termination of the
252 Koh-e Quragh Mountain. The pressure ridges are present in the vicinity of the Kabul Gate
253 (Chawki Arghandi) (Fig. 5f).

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254 At the Arghandi substation southeast of the Kabul-Kandahar highway, the Paghman
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255 fault scarp has a fresh morphology, with left-lateral offsets between different terraces and
256 modern stream channels ranging from 60 to 90 m (Figs. 5e, g). An electricity substation
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257 (68°57'6.33"E, 34°28'31.21"N) was built along the fault trace in 2016, largely destroying the
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258 evidence of recent deformation and geomorphic offsets (Figs. 5a, g). The vertical displacement
259 is less than one meter, and the fault on this alluvial fan makes a southeast-facing fault scarp
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260 toward the Koh-e Quragh Mountain. The small scarp, combined with the large lateral
261 displacements, indicates that the fault is predominantly strike-slip (Fig. 5g). Northward from
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262 Arghandi, the fault trace is marked by transtensional deformation, with linear depressions
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263 developed along the fault zone.
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4.2.2. Arghandi to Samuchak (Southern Section)
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265 The Paghman fault starts in the south at the Koh-e Quragh Mountains and extends across
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266 the hilly terrain of the Paghman District (Fig. 4). For a 17 km long stretch between the Kabul-
267 Kandahar highway to Samuchak Village (northern boundary of the Paghman District), the fault
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268 is identified as a series of mostly east-facing fault scarps (Fig. 7a). From Arghandi Substation
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269 to Paghman River, the fault trace is expressed in some places as a series of scarps and pressure
270 and shutter ridges (Fig. 6b, c). In other places (from 34°28'56.71"N, 68°57'25.49"E to
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34°35'48.38"N, 68°58'43.97"E), the geomorphic expression is subtle because the fault trace is
272 eroded or covered by farmland and young sediments (fluviatile and aeolian boulders,
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273 conglomerates, sands and clay).
274 The fault crosses the Kabul-Kandahar highway but there is no sign of a fault scarp
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275 because the fault scarp is destroyed by lateral erosion of the Paghman River and its tributaries,
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276 particularly the Arghandi River (Fig. 7a). The tributary has destroyed most of the southern
277 portion of the fault, while west of Kabul City the central portion of the fault is occupied by
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278 villages and farmlands. At the location near the highway, (34°29'22.82"N, 68°57'14.11"E), the
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279 left-lateral offset of a modern stream channel is approximately 140 m. Most of the sediments
280 in this area are Holocene, and the Arghandi valley bottom is formed by fluvial accumulation
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281 (Fig. 3).
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282 North of Arghandi, there are anticlinal uplifts west of the fault trace toward the Paghman
283 Mountains (Fig. 7b). The largest anticline is about 2 km long, tens to hundreds of meters wide,
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284 and a few to ~60 m high (Fig. 6b). The eastern edge of the anticline is bounded by the Paghman
285 fault (Figs. 7b, c). The southwest displaced part of the anticline has acted as a shutter ridge in
286 the shaping of the stream network in the area. South of this shutter ridge (anticline), there is a
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287 sharp restraining bend of the fault trace across which the direction of vertical displacement
288 changes. Transverse streams in this area progressively cut across the shutter ridge that has
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developed at the downstream side of the Paghman fault (an example is seen at 34°31'23.66"N,
290 68°57'59.85"E). The east-facing scarp bounded ridge is comprised of large remnants of alluvial
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291 deposits, which were possibly a continuous apron of deposition that has now been incised by
292 stream channels (Figs. 7b, c). In the study area, we also observed that shutter ridges have
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293 developed along the western side of the fault until Noorkhail Village, showing left lateral strike-
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294 slip movement of more than 180 m (Fig. 7b).
295 Between the Paghman River and Samuchak Village (northern end of the Paghman
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296 District), a fresh east-facing scarp exists. East of the fault trace, the Qargha reservoir is located,
297 which has gradually been filled with sediments and become shallower with time. North of the
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298 Paghman Hill (Park Tap-e Paghman), the fault cuts an old alluvial fan and displaces it left
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299 laterally (Fig. 7e). Field studies in this area show valley deflections, aligned and elongated hills
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300 of Quaternary (Late Pleistocene) sediments as well as faulted Holocene deposits (Figs. 3, 7e).
301 These morphological deformations strongly indicate recent activity and surface rupture on this
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302 fault. The long-term activity of the fault has caused the formation of a north-south valley (Fig.
303 7c, d). The lithology of the area consists of fine-grained sediments such as slit, clay and sand
304 deposited by flowing water on floodplains and riverbeds, but now displaced left-laterally (Fig.
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305 7f).
306 The main trace of the Paghman fault becomes clear west of the Qargha reservoir, along
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the eastern margin of north-trending low mountains on which the Noorkhail village is located
308 (Fig. 7e). At this site, an east-trending terrace riser is offset left laterally. North of Noorkhail
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309 village, the fault trace is recognized as left-stepping, east-facing scarps more than 3 km long.
310 Here we mapped four separate parallel fault strands (Fig. 7a).
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311 This portion of the Paghman fault also intersects the east-trending Onay fault system
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312 (Fig. 4). The Onay fault has continuous and discontinuous linear and arcuate, range-front and
313 piedmont scarps mostly within the Paghman Mountains, in accreted terrain central Afghanistan
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314 (Figs. 1a-b). In Samuchak Village, deflected streams and displaced fan surfaces show left-
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315 lateral strike-slip faulting (Fig. 7g). Based on geological mapping, middle to late Pleistocene
316 and Holocene deposits are offset (Figs. 3, 7d). The collection of small faults in the study area
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317 may be related to internal deformation within the Kabul Block. The fault zone in this area
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318 consists of a few short parallel surface traces, which may coalesce within the bedrock. The
319 scarps are up to 20 m high, but only about 0.5 m high or less on younger alluvial fans (Fig. 7f).
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320 These small east-facing fault scarps in recent deposits appear to be very young, though we
321 cannot confirm whether they represent rupture of the Paghman fault in the 1505 earthquake
322 without paleoseismic trenching.
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323 It is reported that a landslide occurred due to the 1505 earthquake between Paghman
324 and Begtut, the valley just north of Paghman (Ambraseys and Bilham, 2014), which we assume
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is somewhere next to Samuchak Village where the Paghman active fault strands dissect the
326 landforms and underlying exposed bedrock (Fig. 7g). The bedrock is metamorphic and igneous
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327 rocks, with Early Cretaceous gabbro and monzonite intrusions also exposed in the Paghman
328 Mountains. The overlying Quaternary deposits mostly consist of loess, with minor amounts of
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329 sand and clay. The landslide took place in the upper layer of loess which has good water
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330 permeability and collapsibility, and is prone to failure in earthquakes.
331 4.2.3. Shakardara to Istalif (central section)

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332 From Shakardara district to Istalif, the Paghman fault consists of a series of strike-slip
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333 faults, with several of the faults also having measurable dip-slip motion. Northwest-trending
334 discontinuous scarps form a prominent lineament across bedrock terrain (Fig. 8a). Generally,
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335 the fault zone is 0.5 to 4 km wide along most of this section, but is less well organized along
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336 the eastern portion in the vicinity of Ghaza Village (34°38'31.88"N, 69° 0'4.49"E), where
337 evidence for recent activity has been largely destroyed. South of Ghaza village, two linear
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338 valleys have been made along the fault (Fig. 8a). The fault offsets alluvial fans and stream
339 channels by different amounts ranging from 50 to 300 m, and beheaded stream channels can be
340 clearly seen toward the south and central of the valley both in field and satellite imageries (Fig.
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341 7g and 8b).
342 North of Ghaza village, we mapped an alluvial fan that has been displaced left-laterally
343
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along the fault zone, as well as left-lateral displacements of active streams and river channels
344 on some fault strands (Fig. 8b). The alluvial fans here are highly dissected, and appear older
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345 than other alluvial fans in the Shakardara District (Fig. 8c). The old alluvial fan has been moved
346 northward along the fault strands relative to its original source drainage (Fig. 8b). Near the
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347 source drainage, the height of the fault scarp in the oldest fan is about 1-10 m (Fig. 8d) and the
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348 total lateral offset is >250 m (Fig. 8b). These fans are now adjacent to small mountain drainages,
349 which appear insufficient to be the sources of such large alluvial fans (Fig. 8d).
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350 Between the offset alluvial fan and Shah wa Arus Dam, the surface trace of the fault is
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351 not clear due to human activity, erosion, and/or sedimentation of the Shakardara River and its
352 tributaries. We also observed an increase in the relative influence of human activity in this area.
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353 While in the hilly terrain, a clear east-facing fault scarp extends north of the offset mapped fans.
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354 On the western side of this alluvial fan, the fault has made a west-facing scarp toward the
355 Paghman Mountains with a height more than 50 m (Fig. 6c). In this portion, various fault strands
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356 run approximately parallel to one another (Fig. 8a).
357 The ~70 m high Shah wa Arus Dam is located between the Paghman fault strands. It is
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358 a concrete gravity dam built on the Shakardara River near a village with the same name located
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359 about 24 km northwest of Kabul City. As the dam is located within the Paghman fault zone,
360 this site has been strongly affected by tectonic activities, and the rocks are fractured showing
361
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brittle deformation. In the vicinity of the Shah wa Arus Dam, the Shakardara stream channel is
362 offset by the fault for more than 300 m (Fig. 8b). This offset is located 500 m from the water
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363 reservoir (Fig. 8a). East of the Shah wa Arus Dam, the trace is in vegetated farmlands, and
364 cannot be recognized in the field.

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365 Toward the west of the Shah wa Arus Dam, we also mapped a reverse fault west of and
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366 almost parallel to the left-lateral Paghman fault strands (Figs. 8a, 6c). A west-facing fault scarp
367 extends northward to the Farza District of Kabul. The total length of the reverse fault is about
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368 22 km. The fault trace with reverse component is also obvious in both satellite imageries and
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369 in the field (Fig. 8a). The reverse fault has been observed in places between metamorphic strata
370 and Quaternary deposits that clearly impact the landscape. We also observed a section of the
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371 reverse fault, which is completely in bedrock terrain. In this area, a series of ridges are uplifted
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372 from adjacent topography, suggesting recent localized uplift from reverse faulting has occurred.
373 The ridges are mostly continuous but alternate between east and west-facing scarps. The west-
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374 dipping reverse faults on the western side of the Paghman fault are second-order features, which
375 have been formed due to left-lateral slip and compression on the main fault. Comparing the
376 amounts of displacement of the alluvial deposits across the reverse fault and the strike-slip
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377 faults, these reverse fault slip rates are much lower than the strike slip.
378 Further north in the Guldara District, we mapped systematic offsets of modern streams
379
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across a topographic lineament. In the western segment of the Paghman fault system, left-lateral
380 displacement of the old and young alluvial surfaces and rivers across the Paghman Mountain
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381 front has been observed (Fig. 8e). In the Farzad District of Kabul, strands of the Paghman fault
382 cut old alluvial fans and offset its incised drainage directly along the fault trace to the south
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383 (Fig. 8f). The fans are deeply dissected remnants of the late Pleistocene deposits that have been
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384 displaced northwards relative to its source drainage.
385 4.2.4. Istalif to Ghorband River Valley (northern end)

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386 This last section of the Paghman fault is interpreted as the northwestern border-fault of
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387 the Kabul Block (Figs. 1b, 9a). Generally, the fault becomes less and less clear as it approaches
388 the Herat right-lateral strike-slip fault (e.g., Shnizai, et al., 2020). At its northern end near Jabal
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389 Saraj, the Paghman fault trends ~N39°E, more northeasterly than the Chaman fault (Fig. 4).
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390 The network of the Paghman fault strands have a typical northeast trend but some
391 features have variable orientations. The Shamali lowland is located on the right step of the
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392 Paghman fault (Fig. 4). There are also major east-flowing streams around the site. Southwest
393 of the Takhte Istalif, an elongated linear and deep depression extends along the fault (Fig. 9b).
394 The depression is explained as tectonic in origin. East and west of the main fault, there are
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395 several isolated alluvial fans that stand out as low hills. The strata exposed at a hill southwest
396 of Takhte Istalif are mainly composed of reddish yellow unconsolidated conglomerates, coarse
397
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to fine-grained sand, clay and loess with round igneous and metamorphic gravels that range
398 from tens of centimeters to a meter or more in diameter. Tectonic features expressed in bedrock
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399 on top of the Istalif district, but bound alluvial fan in the eastern part.
400 West facing scarps suggest left-lateral oblique faulting along the continuation of the
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401 reverse fault that began in the Shakardara District. The height of the west-facing scarp in this
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402 area ranges from 1 m to tens of meters. These clear west-facing scarps continue north of the
403 Istalif River to Baghe Mola Village (Fig. 9a). Generally, the reverse fault lies ~1 km west of
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404 and parallel to the Paghman fault strand, where an offset active stream channel is present
405 (34°51'50.33"N, 69° 5'52.02"E). This east-flowing channel is deflected to the left for
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406 approximately 120 m. At this location, the offset stream may be associated with the fault strands
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407 that made a linear valley southwest of the Takhte Istalif. There are also many mounds lined up
408 along the Paghman fault south to north making a west-facing scarp (Fig. 9c).
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409 The deformation features observed in the fracture zone indicate strike-slip with minor
410 northeast-strike thrust fault (Fig. 9d). The offset surface of the fault outcrop shows the Paghman
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411 fault strike-slip movements with dip-slip components during the Quaternary. The Middle
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412 Pleistocene sand and gravel with conglomerates and shingly detrital sediments possibly thrust
413 to the northwest above the metamorphic rocks. It can be also traced into the Late Pleistocene
414
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and/or Holocene deposits (Fig. 9e). We observed systematic stream and surface offset here
415 along the Paghman fault (Fig. 9a, 9c). We measured an offset of an active stream channel that
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416 was displaced about 130 m in Qadzyan Village Bagram District of Parwan Province
417 (34°53'50.41"N, 69° 6'10.47"E). But afterward in most places, the fault scarp is destroyed by
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418 land cultivation and lateral erosion by perennial and ephemeral streams.
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419 Farther north, the fault bounds the northern end of the Paghman Mountains (Fig. 3).
420 South and northeast of the Ghorband River Valley, the fault trace is largely obscured by erosion
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421 and sedimentation of the ephemeral streams originating from steep mountains, while in some
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422 places the fault is occupied by houses and farmlands. The unconsolidated sediments is younger
423 in age and consist of gravel, sand, talus, and loess, where the gravel and sands were deposited
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424 along the river channels. The fault trace is continuous except for places where sedimentation or
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425 erosion of modern steam channels obscures tectonic landforms such as close to the Ghorband
426 River Valley. Southwest of Charikar City, tectonic geomorphic features of the Paghman fault
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427 are well preserved (Fig. 4).
428
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429 5. Discussion
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430 Our observations along the Paghman fault show abundant evidence for activity in the
431 late Quaternary, and an expression in the geology that confirms its importance in the transfer
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432 of N-S left-lateral shear across the Kabul basin (Fig. 3, 10a). The fault trace is commonly
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433 composed of a series of left-stepping en echelon faults that correspond to Riedel shears. Slip on
434 the Paghman fault is therefore distributed onto several subsidiary fault segments, that display a
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435 range of styles from transpressional to transtensional faulting (e.g., Ruleman et al., 2007). The
436 pronounced segmentation and discontinuous fault structure may play a controlling role in
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437 limiting the length of individual surface ruptures (e.g., Wesnousky, 2006). Deformation
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438 features such as linear troughs and springlines are commonly observed along the fault zone.
439 The dip of the Paghman fault in the south is close to vertical based on the remarkably straight
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440 fault trace. The faulted geomorphic features gradually become less distinct and the amount of
441 offset diminishes towards the northern end of the fault.

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442 A significant historical earthquake with M 7.3 is known to have occurred in Kabul
443 (34.53°N, 69.13°E) in 1505 (Fig. 10a). The 1505 earthquake is the largest reported along the
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444 Chaman fault system in Afghanistan. It was felt at Delhi and its neighbouring area, but no major
445 damages can be attributed. As for other large earthquakes, the effects of the 1505 earthquake
446 are well documented in historical records (Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003; Jackson, 2002;
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447 Quittmeyer and Jacob, 1979; Rajendran et al., 2013; Rajendran and Rajendran, 2005).
448 Historical documents indicate that on July 6, 1505 an earthquake caused massive damage and
449
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loss of life in the Paghman District, with destruction reported from Istarghij, through Tibeh,
450 where most houses were destroyed, to Paghman, where all houses were destroyed and 70-80
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451 people were killed. There were numerous casualties in other nearby towns and villages. It is not
452 clear from the text where the Isterghij and Tibeh places are located. Iserghij may refer to
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453 Estarghech (34°53'49.8"N, 69°06'08.8"E) located on the northern side of the Istalif (Fig. 10b).
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454 There is also no place by the name of Tibah in Kabul, but it may refer to Qola village
455 (34°40'31.1"N, 69°00'15.6"E) located in Shakar Dara District, where the alluvial fan has been
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456 displaced for a long distance (Figs. 8b, 10b). According to Ambraseys and Bilham (2014), the
457 geographic coordinate of Tibah or Tipa is 34.68N and 69.01E matching with the Qola village.
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458 The Bala Hissar fortress of Kabul, approximately 20 km east of the Paghman fault (Fig. 10b),
459 was damaged and required a month of hard work to repair. About 30 aftershocks were felt in
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460 one day and the earth shook two or three times every 24 hours for the following month. The
461 distribution of damage, with destruction of towns and villages along the Paghman fault, are
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462 suggestive of the Paghman fault as the source.
463 The earthquake is reported to have produced primary surface rupture (e.g., Ambraseys
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464 and Bilham, 2014; Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003; Quittmeyer and Jacob, 1979; Rajendran and
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465 Rajendran, 2005), with a contemporary account stating that for a distance of 31-42 km (6-8
466 farsakhs) between Estarghech (Istarghij) and the plain the ground rose in places as high as an
467
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elephant, and in others, sank as deep (reported in Ambraseys and Bilham, 2004, who also note
468 an ambiguity in whether Maidan, plain, refers to the mountain pediment or the nearby town of
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469 Maidan-Shahr at the southern end of the Paghman range, west southwest of Kabul). The
470 ruptures were apparently substantial in size, with a statement that in many places the rupture
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471 was so wide that a person might have hid himself in the gap (Jackson, 2002). Quittmeyer and
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472 Jacob (1979) report 60 km long surface faulting, and Beveridge (1979) stated in Babur-nama
473 six farsangs (24 miles) (Figs. 10a, b). Ambraseys and Bilham (2004) interpret the historical
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474 records to suggest at least 40 km of surface rupture along the Paghman fault. From the
475 descriptions, the contemporary sources suggest vertical offsets of up to 3 m, with the general
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476 tectonics, and the descriptions of fissuring suggesting this was accompanied by an unknown
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477 amount of strike-slip faulting.
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478 To better determine the source of the 1505 earthquake we mapped possible surface
479 ruptures through observations and measurements made during field work. Ruptures were
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480 identified from a qualitative assessment of the freshness of the scarp, from the ‘moletrack’
481 morphology along some parts of the fault, and from the consistent vertical offset of alluvial fan
482 surfaces. We restrict our observations to those places where we see the youngest alluvial and
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483 fluvial surfaces, where the small scarps can be distinguished from cumulative features
484 preserved on older surfaces. Within farmlands near the Arghandi and Paghman rivers we could
485
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not identify discrete primary surface rupture, with the fault expressed as anticline folding
486 northeast of the Kabul-Kandahar highway (Figs. 7a, b). The southern and northern extent of the
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487 rupture is poorly defined, largely because of poor geomorphic preservation as well as man-
488 made features. In the south, the surface rupture termination coincides with an elongated valley
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489 almost parallel the Koh-e Quragh Mountains.

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490 Based on our field observation, the approximate length of the surface rupture due to
491 1505 earthquake is about 30 km along the Chaman and Paghman faults (Fig. 10). The rupture
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492 is generally continuous along its southern part, and in the northern part is typically composed
493 of shorter fault segments separated by discontinuities appearing as steps in ground and map-
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494 view. In the northern section we identified and mapped the dominant, primary, rupture to
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495 generate a consistent rupture length (Fig. 10b). We found a systematic offset of 8 ± 2 m, which
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496 is the smallest (Fig. 10c). A commonly observed feature is the vertical component of
497 displacement, typically less than 1 meter (Fig. 10c). In general, the vertical offset ranges from
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498 1-30 m, but the smaller offset (1-3 m) may be associated with the last surface rupture earthquake
499 in 1505 (Fig. 10d). Several mounds lined along a straight line north of Paghamn District
500 marking a west-facing fault scarp. Also in west of the Samuchak village, many springs occur
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501 along the Paghman fault strands possibly due to vertical enhancement of groundwater flow.
502 The moletrack morphology suggests a strike-slip component (Figs. 4, 10b). From the relative
503
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amounts of strike-slip and vertical slip recorded on older, cumulative, scarps we expect this
504 component to be the dominant component, though were not able to find measurable markers to
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505 quantify the amount of lateral slip in the most recent earthquake. The vertical component
506 appears related, at least in part, to local factors: the fault trace contains small-scale steps and
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507 bends that are related to local uplift or subsidence in the Kabul Basin.
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508 Detailed mapping of the surface rupture helps us to improve the overall understanding
509 about the tectonics and the fault-related hazards of the Kabul Basin. The numerous small fresh
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510 scarps and displacements identified here may represent rupture in the 1505 earthquake, though
511 confirmation requires detailed palaeoseismic work. Based on the empirical relation between the
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512 moment magnitude (Mw) and the surface rupture length, the Chaman and Paghman faults could
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513 produce an Mw 7.3 to 7.8 earthquake in the study area (Shnizai, 2020b). Since the 1505
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514 earthquake, the elapsed time since on the northern Chaman fault and Paghman fault is close to
515 the calculated recurrence interval (Shnizai and Tsutsumi, 2020).
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516
517 6. Conclusions
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518 The ~80 km-long Paghman fault is the northern extension of the Chaman fault, and
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519 connects the eastern margin of the Kabul Block with the Afghanistan accreted terrain across an
520 intricate pattern of fault strands. We mapped the Paghman fault from satellite imagery, digital
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521 topography, and field survey. We divide the Paghaman fault into four sections to better facilitate
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522 geomorphic description: 1) Maidan Shar to Arghandi Substation, 2) Arghandi to end of
523 Samuchak Village, 3) Shakardara to Farza, and 4) Istalif to Ghorband River Valley. The
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524 Paghman fault is identified through a series of mostly east-facing fault scarps. From Shakardara
525 district to Istalif, the Paghman fault is manifest at the surface as strike-slip fault strands with
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526 several of the faults also having measurable dip-slip motion. Continued left-lateral movement
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527 of the fault has offset a number of incised range-front alluvial fans, with amounts ranging from
528 tens to 300 m. The fault zone is 0.5 to 4 km wide, and is most diffuse along the eastern portion
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529 in Shomali lowland. We also identify possible surface ruptures of the historical 1505
530 earthquake, extending for 30 km along the rangefront in the Arghandi and Paghman region, and
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531 extending across the connection from the Chaman fault in the south, to the Paghman fault in
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532 the north. We interpret vertical displacements along this rupture to be predominantly caused by
533 local structural complexity and bending of the fault, such that the predominant slip is left-lateral.
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534 We also mapped a systematic streams offset ranging from 8 – 300 m. The vertical offset ranges
535 from <1 to ~30 m in height along the fault strands, but it remains much smaller than the
536 horizontal component. The fault strand cuts young gullies, displaying left-lateral-slip motion
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537 with some vertical component.
538
539 Acknowledgements
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540 We would like to express our profound gratitude to Cara (academics at risk), IIE-SRF
541 (Institute of International Education-Scholar Rescue Fund), and St. Johns College Oxford for
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542 supporting Z. Shnizai through a post-doctoral fellowship. We thank the Leverhulme Trust for
543 support through the program EROICA (the Earthquake Ruptures of Iran and Central Asia, RPG-
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544 2018-371), and the NERC-funded COMET (GA/13/M/031). The authors would like to thank
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545 to Prof. Takashi Nakata for making anaglyph images from 1-arcsecond SRTM DEM and
546 Hamedullah Torabi for helping us with the fieldwork.

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547 References
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631 360. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05275

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632 Wheeler, R.L., Bufe, C.G., Johnson, M.L., Dart, R.L., 2005. Seismotectonic Map of
633 Afghanistan, with Annotated Bibliography. US Geol Surv Open-File Rep 2007–1264 31.
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634
635
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636
637 Fig. 1. a) Tectonic map of Afghanistan and the surrounding region. A and B show regions of
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638 oblique convergence; A is the Sulaiman thrust-fold belt and the Chaman fault system, and B is
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639 the Himalaya Collison zone and the Salt Range that contain the outermost hills at the northern
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640 fringe of the collision zone. b) Location of the study area at the northern end of the Kabul block.
641 The Kabul Block together with other Afghan blocks are located along the Hindu Kush
iew
642 Mountains Ranges. The Kandahar Arc and Kohistan Arc (Nuristan fault block and Konar block)
643 resulted from mostly Mesozoic subduction along the southern margin of the pre-collision of the
644 Erusian and Indian plates. Micro continental blocks such as Afghan block (central
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645 Afghanistan), Afghanistan North Pamir and North Afghanistan Platform developed during
646 earlier collision episodes (Nakata et al., 1991). The red circles are the sites ehere the 10Be
647
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terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides (TCN) exposure dating method was used for slip rate estimation
648 (Shnizai et al., 2020). The rectangle shows the location of Fig. 4.
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649
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650 Fig. 2. a) Tectonic sketch map of Afghanisan orgonic segments simplified from (Abdullah et
651 al., 2008; Shnizai, 2020b; Siehl, 2017). b) Map of the Kabul basin and all crustal earthquakes
iew
652 with depth less than 40 km from 1964-2004. The Kabul Basin can be divided tectonically into
653 two zones: Shomali Lowland and Kabul Highland. Geomorphologically, the basin consists of
654 six subbasins: upper Kabul, lower Kabul, Logar, Dehsabz, Panshir and Shomali. Each subbasin
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655 is separated topographically from adjacent basin by prominent bedrock outcrops shown in Fig.
656 3. The yellow star indicates location of the Kabul.

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657
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659 Fig. 3. Geological map of the study area modified from Doebrich et al. (2006). The map shows
660 faults with known and suspected displacement in Quaternary deposits along the Paghman
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661 Mountainous terrain. The area west of the Paghman fault is topographically elevated terrain
662 underlain by Early Cretaceous gabbro and monzonite intrusions, which are exposed in the
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663 Paghman Mountains.

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665 Fig. 4. Detailed map of the Paghman fault. Active faults are divided into two categories: active
666 fault (red lines) and presumed active fault (black lines). Dotted and dashed lines donate
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667 concealed fault and fault with site indistinct, respectively.
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668
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669 Fig. 5. a) Detailed fault map from Maidan Shar to Arghandi substation. The bullet-tailed arrows
670 with numbered capital letter P show the locations and look direction of field photographs shown
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671 in Figs. 5b-5f. b) Oblique view of a linear valley southwest of the Kabul City. c) View of the
672 ephemeral streams and fans that have been displaced left-laterally. d) View of the Arghandi
673 alluvial fans that has been relocated by a strand of the Chaman fault toward north from the main
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674 fan body in the south. e) Less than 0.5-m-high fault scarp on alluvial fan, which might be
675 related to the 1505 earthquake. f) A pressure ridge along the Chaman fault near to Chawki
676
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Arghandi. g) ESRI basemeap image that were captured in 2017. The fault forms southeast-
677 facing fault scarp with a maximum height of 1 m.

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680 Fig. 6. a) Profile along offset alluvial fan in front of the Koh-e Quragh Mountains (see fig. 5a
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for location of the cross section). b) Longitudinal profile across shutter ridge near Arghandi
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681
682 River that is cut by some ephemeral steams. The elevation decreases from north to south (see
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683 fig. 7a for location of the cross section). c) A topographic profile across the upslope-facing
684 scarp west of strike-slip fault section in Shakardara District (see fig. 8a for location of the cross
685 section).
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686
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687
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688 Fig. 7. Detailed fault map of the Paghman fault from Arghandi to the end of Samuchak Village.
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689 The P6-P9 show field photographs capture location and look direction shown in Figs. 7c-7e-f).
690 b) The ASTER DEM generated hillshade map of the fault showing shuttle ridges and displaced
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691 alluvial fans. c) Oblique view of the shutter ridges south of the Park Tap-e Paghman. d) ESRI
692 image of offset alluvial fans and fault strands of the Paghman fault. The main faults are marked
693 by red dashed line and the direction of the lateral displacement is marked by reddish arrows.
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694 e) Oblique view looking south along the Paghman fault showing typical left-lateral incision of
695 the old alluvial fan. f) Photograph of a linear side-hill valley along the Paghman fault strand in
696
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Samuchak Village. g) Displaced fan, beheaded and offset channels along the fault zone that
697 contains multiple strands.

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698
699 Fig. 8. a) Map of the Paghaman fault strands from Shakardara to Farza District of Kabul. The
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P10-P13 shows location of figs. 8c—8f. b) ASTER hillshade of the fault strands and left-laterally
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700
701 displaced channels by different distance. c) Photo of offset alluvial fan along the fault zone in
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702 west side of the Shomali subbasin. c) Incised alluvial fan near the source drainage network in
703 Shakarda District. The white arrows show the fault trace. d) Systemic stream offsets along the
704 fault east of the Paghman Mountains near the Guldara District. e) Oblique view of old alluvial
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705 fan on the northern side of the Farza District that has been displaced left-laterally along the
706 fault and made west facing scarp.

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707
Fig. 9. a) Detailed map of the Paghman fault strands from Istalif to Ghorband River Valley. P14-
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708
709 P16 shows location of Figs. 9b-d. b) Location of an elongated linear and deep depression along
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710 the fault south of the Takhte Istalif. c) Oblique view of mountains lined-up along the fault strand
711 from south to north. d) A photograph of the fault strand in outcrop area (34°51'9.49"N, 69°
712 5'19.13"E) north east of the Istalif District. e) Pleistocene sediments thrust to the northwest above
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713 the metamorphic rock (34.875701, 69.095238).
714
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716 Fig. 10. a) Paghman fault map, seismicity and location of the surface rupture. b) Map of surface
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717 rupture of 1505 historical earthquake along the Paghman and Chaman faults. The surface
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718 rupture is straight and convex to the hanging-wall along the Paghman Mountains. c) Field
719 photograph of a stream offset looking west toward the Paghman fault. d) There are mounds
iew
720 lined-up along the Paghaman fault strand on the western side of the Samuchak village.
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Geomorphology and Earthquake Rupture Along The Paghman Active Fault, West of Kabul

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Geomorphology and Earthquake Rupture Along The Paghman Active Fault, West of Kabul

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1 Manuscript to be submitted to Geomorphology

4 Afghanistan, from detailed mapping and photogrammetrical analysis

7 1 St John’s College, University of Oxford: zakeriashnizai@gmail.com

9 3 Department of Environmental Systems Science, Doshisha University:

13 Department of Earth Sciences,

15 South Parks Road

16 Oxford, OX1 3AN

34 Basin. We identify an approximately 30-km-long surface rupture, which we infer to relate to

37 of several fault segments that are separated by discontinuities such as stepovers.

39 rupture; Kabul Afghanistan

50 the Kabul Basin.

68 Observing Satellite) PRISM (Panchromatic Remote-sensing Instrument for Stereo Mapping)

70 Model) three-dimensional anaglyph images.

85 Geological Survey (USGS) Earth Explorer (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) and ALOS PRISM

86 images from the Earth Observation Data Utilization Promotion Platform

87 (https://satpf.jp/spf/?lang=en). From March to the middle of April 2022, we also conducted

99 west, oblique India-Eurasia convergence is partitioned onto predominantly left-lateral

101 Jacob, 1979; Shnizai, 2020) (Fig. 1a).

102 Northeastern Afghanistan contains several north-northeast-trending shear zones and

138 Oldham, 1882).

153 2006; Mack et al., 2010).

164 by a drainage network (Fig. 3).

167 4.1. Data and Methods

192 topographic expression along the main Paghman fault.

194 4.2. Tectonic geomorphology of the Paghman fault

203 left-lateral oblique slip indicators.

210 offsets range from ~0.5 to 30 m along the mountain front.

245 alteration by farming and building constructions.

253 (Chawki Arghandi) (Fig. 5f).

263 developed along the fault zone.

273 conglomerates, sands and clay).

281 (Fig. 3).

294 slip movement of more than 180 m (Fig. 7b).

322 without paleoseismic trenching.

330 permeability and collapsibility, and is prone to failure in earthquakes.

331 4.2.3. Shakardara to Istalif (central section)

364 cannot be recognized in the field.

384 displaced northwards relative to its source drainage.

385 4.2.4. Istalif to Ghorband River Valley (northern end)

441 offset diminishes towards the northern end of the fault.

477 amount of strike-slip faulting.

489 almost parallel the Koh-e Quragh Mountains.

515 the calculated recurrence interval (Shnizai and Tsutsumi, 2020).

546 Hamedullah Torabi for helping us with the fieldwork.

555 Baluchistan 1892-2001. Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am. 93, 1573–1605.

558 Tibet on JSTOR [WWW Document]. Curr. Sci. URL

559 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24107477#metadata_info_tab_contents (accessed 11.17.22).

561 (Afghanistan) und seiner Randzonen. Geol. Jahrb. 64, 617–636.

562 Beveridge, A.S., 1979. Babur-nama, Reprinted. ed. New Delhi,.

567 463–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00710-015-0371-9

576 pp. 147–159.

577 Katayanagi, Y., 2019. “SimpleDEMViewer” Available at: www.jizoh.jp/english.html.

596 395, 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TECTO.2004.09.009

599 Inferences. Seismol. Res. Lett. 6, 1098–1108. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220130077

611 Tectonophysics 795, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2020.228593

613 communities vulnerable to earthquakes. Temblor. https://doi.org/10.32858/temblor.266

615 Afghanistan. HARRIS Sci. Rev. DOSHISHA Univ. 61, 96–107.