0045-7949i78/050l-039l/soz00/o
CONSISTENT LINEARIZATION IN ,MECHANLCS OF
SOLIDS AND STRUCTURES
THOMAS
Division of Engineering and Apphed Science.
Department of Civil Engineering.
(Received 4 January 1978)
Abstract-Linearization plays a key role both in formulation as well as numerical
mechanics of solids and structures. This paper provides a unifying definition of linearization
the operattonal consequences Fimte motion of elastic plates is chosen to demonstrate
process may be utilized in the context of motion of initially-stressed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept and operational implications of the process
of linearization permeate solid and structural mechanics.
Linear theories of thermomechanical response govern
most analysis and design procedures; numerical analysis
of nonlinear phenomena invariably is performed by step-
by-step solution of linear problems at each increment of
loading or time; finally, many properties of nonlinear
theories are preserved by their linearized counterparts,
so that linear theories may be used to deduce results
about nonlinear theories.
In mechanics of solids and structures, the sources of
nonlinearity lie in constitutive properties of materials and
in the kinematics of motion of bodies. The terms “phy-
sical” or “material” nonlinearity in the former instance
and “geometric” nonlinearity in the latter are often
employed in the literature to identify these sources.
Linearization is usually associated with dropping terms
of higher order in an expression and is often not pre-
cisely defined.
Our purpose here is to provide a unifying definition of
linearization, to develop some of the operational
consequences of the linearization process and to illustrate
its utility by way of examples. The style of presentation
will be formal and intuitive, omitting technical mathema-
tical details so that maximum clarity of ideas will be
preserved. We note, however, that success in carrying
out numerical analysis of nonlinear problems is closely
related to an understanding of the properties of the
function spaces which must be introduced to permit a
technical presentation of linearization.
Dynamic equilibrium of bodies exposed to force and
temperature fields is expressed in terms of dependent
variables stress and heat flux, which in turn depend upon
the motion of the body (through the deformation gradient
of the motion), the temperature and the temperature
gradient. It is therefore apparent that changes in the
thermomechanical state of a body result from changes in
motion and temperature, and it is this functional rela-
tionship that provides the basis for consistent lineariza-
tion. In Section 2 the linear part of a function is defined
in connection with the directional derivative. This idea is
then applied in Section 3 to kinematic linearization rela-
tive to a finite reference motion of a body. It is then
possible to proceed in Section 4 to linearization of
constitutive equations for an elastic material and in
J. R. HUGHES
California Institute of Technology. Pasadena. CA 91125. USA
and
KARL S. PISTER
Umversity of California. Berkeley. CA 947%. USA
analysis of problems m the
and illustrates some of
how the linearization
materially nonlinear elastic plates.
Section 5 to linearization of the balance of momentum.
Section 6 contains a brief treatment of finite motion of
elastic plates, in which the linearization process is illus-
trated in the context of motion of initially-stressed,
materially nonlinear elastic plates. Section 7 briefly notes
the directions that the plate theory takes when further
specializations are imposed.
To close this brief introduction on a historical note, it
should be pointed out that there exists a substantial body
of literature in mechanics dealing with linearization and
linearized theories. In the theory of elasticity, there is an
extensive literature on “sniall motions superposed on a
finitely deformed body”; Green and Zernail] and
Truesdell and Nol1[2] are bibliographic sources for this
type. of problem. More recently, the treatise by Knops
and Wilkes[3] deals with elastic stability theory in a
similar context. From the standpoint of numerical
analysis of nonlinear problems, the literature is vast,
inasmuch as every analyst is forced to linearize to
produce “numbers” in a particular case. Numerical
analysis of solids and structures is currently a highly
active area of research. We will make no attempt here to
document or evaluate the literature; rather, our objective
is that of presenting and illustrating an expository,
operational view of linearization.
2. DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE-LINEAR FART OF A FUNCTION
We will introduce the idea of linearization through an
example. Let G be a scalar-valued function defined on
92, the real line. We assume G is continuous and has a
continuous tirst derivative; we say “G is of class C’“, or
simply, “G is Cl.” Under these assumptions, G may be
expanded about a point f using Taylor’s Formula:
G(f+u)=G+DG.utR. (2.1)
In this equation, G = G(f), DG = DG(I), “the derivative
of G with respect to x evaluated at.4” the dot signifies
ordinary multiplication, u is an increment and the
remainder R = R(u) has the property
R
hn’O. ( 2.2)
Figure 1 shows the geometric interpretation of (2.1). If
391
392 THOMAS J. R. HUGHFS and KARL S. PWER

G(x)A
the point 5. A formula for (2.7) can be obtained using the
chain rule:
G

$[G(ft~“)]~_~=[‘~(::‘“).~]

J
l =Cl

R Q(U)
aG(i)
=ax’U’ (2.8)
DG(i).u
c(p) ------ -

Comparing (2.8) with (2.5) we observe that

DG . u = $ [G(fi t ea)l.z.o. (2.9)

0 )X Thus, we can compute DG * u from the definition of the

P !i+lJ
directional derivative. Accordingly, the linear part of a
of eqn
Fig. I. Geometricinterpretation (2.1). function at a point is characterized by its value and its
directional derivative, both evaluated at the point. This
result will be used extensively in the sequel to carry out
we regard u as an independent variable with i fixed, we consistent linearization.
see that It should be noted that the directional derivative is a
linear operator, therefore, rules for differentiation of
g(u)=GtDG. u (2.3) sums, products and composite functions follow the usual
format for the ordinary derivative.
is the equation of the tatgent to the curve G(x) passing Finally, in a purely format manner, we write down
through the point (f G). This result suggests the results for the directional derivative for infinite-dimen-
definition of the Enear part, or fineurizqtion, of the sional spaces (e.g. function spaces). Consider a C’ map-
function G(x) at x = f: ping G: $+ 9, where t, u are “points” in an abstract
space g. Then, Taylor’s Formula Rives
L[Glz = g(u). (2.4)
G(itu)=GtDG.ntR (2.10)
These results are easily extended to a scalar-valued
function of points in 9?’ (i.e. “fspace”). G is a C’ where the dot signifies the appropriate inner product of
function of x, then by Taylor’s Formula the adjoined elements, the remainder R=R(u) has the
property
G(ftn)=~t~~utR. (2.5)

In (2.5) $I&+0
%
i = (a,, f*, f# is a point in 4e3
where Il& atd I& denotes the norms on $ and 9,
respectively, G = C(i),
u = (u,. UzrUX is a vector in L3 emanating from i

6 = G(g) DG..=DG(i)=$[G(ita.)]~=" (2.11)

and and

L[G&=tita.u. (2.12)

(2.6) In this context the members of $ and 9 may be scalars,

vectors or tensors. The context will make clear the
is the gradient vector at f. In (2.5) the dot now signifies interpretation of the dot in the derivative in each case.
scalar product of two vectors and R = R(u)has the An illustration of the use of these results follows.
property
3. MOTION RELATIVE TO A DEFORMED CONFWBATION-
KINEMATIC LINEARIZATION
,!$i+O, where I#= u.,,.
As noted in the. Introduction, motion and heating are
primary variables in expressing the dynamics of
We now define the directional derivative of G ot i in the deformable bodies. It is therefore instructive to examine
direction u: tirst the kinematics of motion and its linearization. We
suppose that a body whose reference configuration at
-$ t
[G(t eu)].=o
t = 0, denoted SO, is deformed by a motion relative to
(2.7) which another motion is superimposed. Using a common
frame, employing rectangular Cartesian base vectors, we
where c is a scalar parameter. Since g t EU is the equa- can express this composition of motions
tion of a straight line in R3 (2.7) measures the rate of
change of the function G in the direction of this line, at x = f(X, t) = i(X, f) + P(X, I). (3.1)
 Consistent iine~zation in mechanics of solids and structures 393

Equation (3.1) asserts that the current position vector x The linear part of the strain matrix is therefore
at time t of a particle at X at t = 0 is given by the motion
%(X,t), which in turn is composed of a reference motion
2(X, t) and a superposed motion u(X, t). Figure 2 illus-
trates the setup. Note that u is not the usual displace-
ment vector, i.e. u # x - X. We now propose to linearize or in component form
functions of the motion i about the reference motion i.
The quantities x, f and II of Section 2 are now replaced
by the motion (i.e. functions) f, ji and u, respectively. We tu3&)A5 = EA, + ; &Au 03 + u ,.Ahd. (3.9)
view $ as the space of motions f. G(S) represents a
function of % (e.g. its gradient) and 9 is the space of Other functions of the motion (or its inverse) can be
G($‘s (e.g. the space of gradients of motions). We will linearized in the same fashion. For example, the material
now obtain some needed results using (2.10) and (2.11) velocity and acceleration of the motion are both linear
together with (3.1). functions of the motion; thus, they are each equal to
their respective linearization.
Example 1, lineariration of the deformation gradient
The deformation gradient of a motion f is
Example 3, linearization at an undeformed reference
state
(3.2) When the reference motion is the identity mapping, i.e.

Thus, in (2.10) (2.11) we have G(f) = F and !i = IX, x, = &,+X,4, (3.10)

the previous results take on familiar simpler forms. In this

&=~[~f.=,=$ (3.3)
instance.

The directional derivative of the deformation gradient

is seen to be the “material displacement gradient”. We
will adopt the notation
and from (3.5)
(3.4)
L[Fh=I+Du (3.11)
The linear part of F at Z is thus while (3.9) gives (since i? vanishes)
L[fl, = P+ Dn, i+= amx, (3.5)
t[E], = ; (DuT + DII). (3.12)
or, in component form
Note that the linear part of E is the so-called “small
(LIFM,, = &A + u a.A. (3.6)
strain” matrix when the motion is referred to an un-
deformed state.
We observe that (3.6) could have been obtained directly
from (3.1) and (3.2) since G(li) = F is, by definition, a
Example 4, lineariration of the determinant of the
linear function of the motion.
d~o~at~5n gradient
Defining
Example 2, linearization of the material strain matrix
The material strain matrix is defined as
J=detF, (3.13)

E=~(FTF-I). (3.7) we observe that G(f) = 1, a scalar; using (2.11) we find

that
From (2.11) with G(?) = E, we have L[JI, = I( I+ div u) (3.14)

where div u is the spatial divergence u,., of u.

=; (PTht DirTi+). (3.8) 4 -ATION OF CONSTITWIW EQUATIONS

Fii. 2. Composition of motions.
For elastic materials the deformation gradient of the
motion, the temperature and the temperature gradient
determine the stress state and heat flux. To incorporate
the effects of inelasticity in material behavior, internal
state variables may be introduced; equations of evolution
for such internal variables determine how inelasticity is
manifested in the material. To maintain a clear focus on the
problem of linearization, discussion here will be limited to
nonlinear elasticity; extension to inelasticity presents no
formal problemsl41. The constitutive equation for stress in
394 J. R. HUGHFSand KARLS. PETER
THOMAS

an elastic material undergoing isothermal deformation can We may also define a material tensor C through differen-
be written[2], tiation of (4.8):
.
T=f(F)=p$$ 2C&&A4
- aE aEaE (4.9)
In (4.1) T is the first (unsymmetric) Piola-Kirchhoff
stress tensor, 4 denotes mass density in the reference or
configuration, #(F, 0) is the Helmholz free energy per
a’*
unit massAand B is the (constant) temperature. The 2c ABC‘D
= POa~,,a~,D’ (4.10)
function T(F) clearly depends on 0, but remains in-
dependent of 0 under isothermal deformations. Since F
depends on the motion, we may write (4.1) Since P and E are symmetric, assyming necessary
continuity for $ leads to the usual symmetries for C:
G(f) = @i/ax]. (4.2)
C ABCD - c BACD - CABDC = CCDAB. (4.11)
We now wish to linearize (4.2) about %(see 3.1). From
(2.14) The two Piola-Kirchhoff tensors are related by

L(T]i=i;+E.u (4.3) T,, = P~cFc,c (4.12)

where and thus, it follows that

T = t(f) A~aeh = &PM f ~CABCDF~CF~D. (4.13)
and Substituting (4.13) in (4.7), yields

AT,. = (&bPAB + 2CAcBDFacFbD)Ub.B. (4.14)

.
= $ ]+(F t lDu)].=o = $(F, . Dll. (4.4) Note that the referetjce stress state i, the reference
deformation gradient F and the material property tensor
c all contribute to the incremental stress computation.
Let Up to this point we have employed a material descrip-
tion of motion, deformation and stress. It is sometimes
A=ata2jr advantageous to employ a spatial mode of description.
- aF - This can be carried out in a straightforward manner using
A
a?*,. =- a*$ (4.5)
relations between the Cauchy and the Piola-Kirchhoff
AnBb
- a&e aF.,aFb,' stress tensors along with the Piola transformation
connecting reference state and deformed material areas.
These relations are, respectively [2]
The tensor A is called the “elasticity tensor” of the
material[2]. Using this definition, (4.3) can be written (r = J-‘IrPP= = J-‘m (4.15)

L[T]i=T+ji.Du. and

or fidA = J-‘FT’dda. (4.16)

(UTliL, = TA,•t k4oBb~b.B (4.6)
where i = A@), etc. It is often useful to think of (4.6) in
terms o-fa reference stress, f, and an incremental stress,
AT, associated with the incremental motion u. Thus
L[T]i = T t AT
We have introduced the following notation: u is the
Cauchy stress tensor and iida is the area vector in the
current configuration resulting from the mapping of a
material area NdA in the reference configuration Bo. Using
(4.15) and (4.16), we can define a spatial elasticity tensor
and spatial incremental constitutive equation correspond-
ing to (4.13) and (4.14). Omitting details we obtain

where (4.17)
a obcd = J-‘FaA&AAbCd

AT=&*Du,
and
or A&.6 = d .bcdUd,c
AT,,. = &L,BbUb,B. (4.7) = (8bd6.x + ‘f.xbcdbd.c (4.18)

Note that AT is unsymmetric. where

In terms of the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress P, we _ _ _ -
may write inplace of (4.1) Eobrd= ~J-‘~~;.AF~BF,cF~D~ABCD. (4.19)

We note that Auab is no? symmetric in the presence of

(4.8)
stress 6 in the referential motion.
 Consistentlinearizationin mechanicsof solids and structures
Extension of the results of this section to nonisother-
mal elasticity presents no difhculties. The reader may
consult [3) for the resulting equations, obtained there in a
diierent manner.
5. LINEASUATION OF BALANCE PRINCIPLES
Physical principles governing the motion and heating
of deformable bodies include conservation of mass,
balance of linear and angular momenta, balance of
energy and the entropy production inequality. Restric-
ting our attention to elastic bodies under isotherms
deformation, the local form of the balance of linear
momentum in the material description is
DIVT+pob=poo,
or
TAu.A+ pob, = pou,. (5.1)
In (5.1) b is the body force vector per unit mass and a
the acceleration vector; all functions are assumed to
depend on X, t. We assume that the body force is
independent of the motion. To linearize (5.1) we require
the linear parts of a and DIVT, From (3.1), for a fixed
particle X,
d*$ d% d%
;iiz=d?+dfZ
or
a=P+ii. (5.2)
Thus the linear part of a is identically a. It follows from
the definition of the linearization that
L[DIV T] = DIV (L[T])
and therefore the linear part of the balance of momen-
tum can be written
DIV (T + AT) + pob = po(i t ii) (5.3)
using (4.7) and rearranging yields
[Divots-~]~DIV(~.~)-~=O (5.4)
or in component form
Note that the expression in brackets in (5.4) or (5.5) need
not he an actual dynamically equilibrated state of the
body (i.e. need not vanish) for the equation to be valid.
In fact in applications to numerical analysis the bracket
may be interpreted as the unequilibrated residual force at
some stage of iteration in solving the equations of
motion. The remaining expression in (5.4), or (5.5), is the
increments equation of motion. Using (4.13) in (S.S), the
incremental equation can be written
Note that both the initiai stress
‘ *and
_^ material
, tensor
.. c,.; as
well as the reverence-motton detormatlon gradlent F,
395
affect the incremental equation of motion. In linearizing
(5.1) it is important to bear in mind that linearization is
performed with respect to the motion of the body. Since
this requires, in the case of the stress tensor appearing in
(S.l), a constitutive equation for stress in terms of the
motion, it is clear that any attempt to linearize the
momentum balance equation without reference to a
specific material constitutive equation is at best an ad
/WCapproximation.
A spatial form of (5.6) foifows immediately using the
results given in Section 4.
6. HNITEMOTION OF TMN ELASTIC PLATES
As an application of the linearization process we will
sketch here a theory of finite motion of thin plates.
Unlike the von Karman theory, which is restricted to
moderate rotations of the plate middle surface normal
vector, our theory permits rotations of arbitrary magni-
tude. Furthermore, the resulting linearization provides a
form of incremental plate equations readily adapted to
incremental numerical analysis.
Relative to material coordinates X, the plate middle
surface coincides with the plane of the plate coordinates
X,, (I = 1,2. The plate thickness A is constant and the
top and bottom faces are denoted (+) and (-) respec-
tively. This convention is shown in Fig. 3. Our basic
kinematic assumption is this: points on a material line
normal to the plate middle surface in the reference
configuration undergo rigid translation and rotation and
the line remain inextensible. This can be expressed by a
mapping
%(X,t) = Xal", + u&L t)+ XsR(X,, t)&. (6.1)
This motion is shown in Fig. 3, where it is seen that a
particle P attached to a vector X,/S undergoes a trans-
lation II,, and a rotation R about the X, axes. It is
convenient to decompose the rotation matrix as follows:
(6.2)
whered. B are time- and space-dependent orthogonal
matrices:
(6.3)
F&j.3. Plate no~tion and motion.
 3% THOMAS
J. R. HUGHES
and KARL S.PETER

We now write (6.1) as Plate equations of motion in reference coordinates can

be obtained following the usual practice of integrating
the linear momentum equation and its hrst moment over
the plate thickness. This leads to referential equations of
motion in plate variables:

and proceed to linearize the motion at a reference motion

E(X,I) = XJ, t 3(X,, t) t x&if,. (6.5)

The incremental motion consists of terms

where

N-B = Zo(T-0 1 stress resultant tensor

For convenience in notation let
Qa = Zo(T,,) shear resultant vector
Au,,=v,AB=~,,AQi=~2. (6.6) Q3s = Z0(T3e) in-plane shear vector
A. = L3b34.) inertia force vector
Then, using (2.12) and letting G = G(u0, B,b) denote the
8, = Z&r&.) body force vector
righthand side of (6.4) viewed as a function of ~0, B and (6.15)
I$, results in
stress couple tensor
inertia couple vector
Using the definition of the directional derivative body couple vector.

The linear operators ZO,I, are

X3B(B+ eo,)A(d~+ l
1

+ ~z)Z&=,,. (6.7)
) dXs,
Denoting u= E. (v, u1, 02) and carrying out the
required differentiation we reach (6.16)
)X, dX3

corresponding to integrating the required functions and

where
their fust moments as noted.
-cos ices& sin t? sin i$
We proceed next to write local constitutive equations
for an elastic plate, and by integration to obtain ap-
$= 0 -coslj propriate plate constitutive equations. Combining (6.8)
-sinicosJ -cos JsinJ (6.9)
and (4.7) we have the local incremental equations
We can then write AT,,, = &o~rJub.B + &&,~o* + X&o~).,]. (6.17)
L[i]i=itu (6.10) Constitutive equations for incremental plate-variables
can be found by carrying out the required integrations of
where f and u are given by (6.5) and (6.8) respectively. (6.17) using definitions of plate variables (6.15). After
We will have need of the linearization of the acceleration lengthy, but straightforward details we obtain
of the motion. Using (6.10), (6.5) and (6.8) we can write
AN.+ = NMub.o+ tio8&,~ + &+&*o&
L[a],=iitii
AQ- = ti~,~,~h.~ f~o3PbSb*W* + L7b&&
where AQ3e = fl3svt~.o+ ~~~B,c,%AwA + ~s&%wd,

ii = i&t X,(ii,i, (6.11) AM,+ = K-~ba+ ff.+3&~0~ + &,3&mw~).o

(6.18)
and
.. .. -..z- along with incremental inertia terms
ll. = u, t X3(s&II* ). (6.12)
AA. = p,,hii,
Note that when the refer_ence motion is the identity
mapping, f = IX and B = 4 = 0. From (6.8) and (6.9) it poh3z-=-
follows that
AC, = 12 &AWA). (6.19)

u. = ua- XA*w*, (6.13) The body force and couple vectors are assumed to be
independent of the motion and thus do not appear here.
which is the usual linear kinematic assumption employed In
__(6-18)
. the following plate stiffness tensors have been
in Reissner and Mindlin type plate theories. defined:
 Consistent linearization in mechanicsof solids and structures
In-plane stretching and shear
Rexural
Stretch, shear-flexwe coupling
A - h/2
KA@Bb = I,[&sebl= ,&#bX3 dX,.
I -h/Z
Constitutive eqns (6.181, in addition to reflecting
anisotropy, reveal the existence of ~oupli~ between
shear, stretch and flexural deformation in the general
case of linearization about a finite motion.
We can now formally write down the linearization of
the plate equations of motion, understanding that the
incremental variables are determined by constitutive eqn
(6.18) and by (6.19). W~ti~ the linear part of (6.14)
which results directly from o~rati~ on (5.5) with L, It
yields
t [AT&- AA@= 0
+ AAt+ f [X~T~& - AQ,, -A& =0
The expressions {** .} represent the momentum
balance equations for the plate reference motion. In
typical applications this motion is constructed from a
sequence of inurements motions and is therefore
assumed to he in dynamic equ~i~um, thus a11{. - .) = 0.
We will concentrate on the incremental equations in the
sequel. In passing, we observe that two shear stress
resultants Q..and Qsp! appear in the present work (see
eqn 6.15). Under restrictive conditions imposed by spe
cial plate theories, this distinction disappears.
It is now possible to substitute (6.18) and (6.19) into
(6.22), assuming 6 *a)= 0, to obtain equations of motion
in terms of incremental kinematic variables ubr oA and
Efelenc_e motion expressed through-the stiffness tensors
N, I(;, D and the rotation matrix S. To complete the
formulaiion of an initial boundary-value problem we
require incremental boundary conditions as well as initial
conditions, These resuits can be obtained in a straightfor-
ward manner and will be omitted.
7. SPECIAL PLATE THEORIES
The incremental eqns (6.23) and constitutive eqn (6.18)
can be used as a starting point to obtain a number of
more restrictive theories of pfate behavior. The
397
parameters defining such specializations include choice
of reference motions, initial stress, anisotropy class of
the plate material and whether or not the stress constitu-
tive equation is tinear over the range of behavior of
interest. In the fatter case a problem of kinematic
nonlinearity of the von Karman-type plate theory emer-
ges if linear elastic behavior is assumed.
If one is interested in small motions relative to an
initially flat plate, the reference configuration B. coin-
cides with the reference motion and P = IX. In this case
from (6.9) we have
(6.22) (7.1)
and from 16.5)
ii@=& (7.2)
It then follows that
u, = u, - x30,
a3 = 03, 0.3)
recovering the kinematics of the Reissner and Mindlin
theories. The plate stifInes_s tensors (6.20-6.22) now
depend on the initjal stress P in the plate as well as its
elastic properties C, as reflected in (4.14).
If the reference configuration is both flat and stress-
free, the plate stillness tensors (6.20-6.22) depend only
on the local material tensor C and therefore reflect the
symmetries shown in (4.1lj. In this instance it follows that
(6.23)
AN?,. AM,@ are symmetric and AQ,, = AQjp.
Finally, it may be remarked that the format of the
plate theory discussed in Sections 6 and 7 allows plate
middle surface displacements and rotations of un-
restricted magnitude, i.e. it is a truly nonlinear theory.
On the other hand, kinematic~ly nonlinear plate theories
of the von Karman type are restricted to “moderately
large” rotations of the plate middle surface by the kine-
matic approximations employed. From the standpoint of
numerical analysis both formulations require use of a
linearization process, thereby making apparent the ad-
vantage of the present theory in problems of finite
motion.
REFERENCES
1. A. E. Green and W. Zerna, Theorerical Elasticity. Oxford
Press (1954).
2. C. Truesdell and W. Nell, The non-linear field theories of
mechanics. Handbuch der Physik, Vol. M/3. Springer, Berlin-
~eidel~r~-New York i 19653.
3. R. J. Knops and E. W. Wilkes, Theory of elastic stability.
Handbuch der Physik, Vol. Via/3. Springer, Berlin-Heidel-
berg-New York (1973).
4. T. I. R. Hughes and K. S. Pister, Unpublished notes,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley (1975).