CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The planet is progressively marching towards a serious electric energy crisis,

due to an increasing need of electric energy becoming greater than its supply. We
have always accepted that the energy we make use of each day is not unlimited, still
we take it for granted. Coal, petroleum, electrical power, even water has inadequate
availability. But, we have not taken sufficient precautions to handle a possible energy
crisis. Oil and gas have already become too pricey, and with each passing day, they
are becoming being extinct. Prices have been rapidly increasing for the past five
years, due to the rising desire and the escalating shortage of energy resources. The
solar energy considered as the one source of renewable energy, alternatives to the
energy sources (Aurora, Domkundwar, 2007).

Solar energy is utilized in various ways, such as industrial & domestic water
heating, drying of products, space heating, cooling & refrigeration, power production
etc. These are all solar thermal application. Solar energy can be directly converted to
electrical energy by using photovoltaic energy, but with a price tag. Using thermal
part of radiation is comparatively cheap and provides good source for low grade
thermal energy usage (NSPI, 1998).

Solar energy can be classified into two systems; thermal energy system which
converts solar energy into thermal energy and photovoltaic energy system which
converts solar energy into electrical energy. The vital component in solar energy
system is the solar collector. In the thermal system, the collector is heated by the sun
and the heat is then transferred to a working fluid (NSPI, 1998). In the photovoltaic
system, the collector is comprised of photovoltaic cells which convert the solar
radiation into electrical energy. The term Photo means light and Voltaic means
electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) cell, is known as Solar Cell, which is made up of a
semiconductor device that generates electricity when light falls on it. When sunlight
strikes a PV cell, the photons of the absorbed sunlight dislodge the electrons from the
atoms of the cell. The free electrons then move through the cell, creating and filling

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the holes in the cell. It is this movement of electrons and holes that generates electric
current. The Physical process in which a PV cell or Solar cell converts sunlight into
electricity is known as the Photovoltaic Effect (James & James, 2010).

Photovoltaic solar energy is a renewable source that is generated from the

sunlight. Various studies have indicated different advantages solar energy has over
other sources. Photovoltaic solar energy is provided as free, needs no fuel and
produces no waste or pollution Virendra et al (2013). Photovoltaic solar electricity
seems and has proved to be the alternative way of electrification to the off-grid rural
areas where there is a limited supply of modern energy (electricity) hence hinder
development efforts in such communities.

Photovoltaic Solar energy distinguishes itself from other sources of energy in

that it is abundant and cheap while the others are limited. Mahmood et al (2012) sees
solar energy as cheap, eternal and achievable in many parts of the world. Renewable
energy, in this case Photovoltaic solar energy system, is important for rural livelihood
transformation due to its reliability, cost effectiveness, and achievability. Photovoltaic
solar system gives an alternative way in which people can enjoy electricity they
cannot get from the national grid due to the distance available and prices involved in
it. According to the (GNSD, 2007) without supply of affordable energy, it is
impossible to improve health, education, and poverty reduction. This is also stressed
by Mkunda (2008) who argues that Photovoltaic solar energy (solar electricity) is an
efficient and cost effective energy as it has transformed socio-economic lives in
villages, cities and countries in Africa, especially Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Due to the challenges facing the power generation transmission in Nigeria,

experts have come up with the alternative sources to foster lighting and electrification.
Different studies such as Mahmood et al (2012) and Gajare et al (2013) to mention
but a few have shown the role played by photovoltaic solar energy in community
livelihood transformation by showing the advantages the rural areas have got out of it
basing on the material gain, health and social livelihood improvement. However, there
are few research works and studies in Africa, especially Nigeria that have explored
photovoltaic solar energy as vast works focus on thermal energy which is limited and

2
not readily available. It is the aim of this study to fill this gap in literature and set the
basis upon which photovoltaic solar energy can be explored and its applications
highlighted.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study include the following:

i. To present the potential possibilities of using photovoltaic solar energy in

Nigeria
ii. To examine the applications of photovoltaic solar energy in electrification
in Nigeria

1.4 Significance of the study

This study comes up with a number of significances:

First, and foremost the study shows how Photovoltaic Solar Energy Project
installation can be of significant benefit to the people and the community at large.

The findings from this study also shows the ease with Photovoltaic Solar Energy
systems can installed on a large scale, with the physical components available in
Nigeria.

The findings of the study will help the public as beneficiaries of the Photovoltaic
Solar Energy projects, as well as academicians and other energy stakeholders in the
preparations and implementations of the energy projects.

1.5 Scope of the study

The study explored the potentials and applications of Photovoltaic solar energy on the
community livelihood transformation in Nigeria.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Solar Energy

Solar energy is the sunlight energy collected and used to provide electricity,
heating, cooling homes, businesses or industry. It is a sustainable source in the sense
that it does not provide greenhouse gas emissions and proves to be environmental
friendly sources of energy. It is free and maintainable as the sun is here to stay. The
United Stated Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), see solar energy as
environmentally friendly because the sun is a natural energy source that does not
require the burning of fossil fuels and associated air emissions. In addition, it is
considered renewable since the energy produced from the sun does not deplete any
natural resources, and will never run out.

It should however be kept in mind that although solar energy as a source is

free, its conversion is not free as it requires different devices like solar panels,
batteries, inverter and different cables and switches to mention but a few which in the
end have costs. The conversion of solar energy to electricity is explained under this
study.

Makhijani and Alexander (2013) provides that there are two main categories of solar
electricity which are Photovoltaic (PV) modules and Concentrating Solar Power
systems (CSP) that focus on the sun’s heat to drive a steam turbine. For the purpose of
this study, the research focus is on the Photovoltaic solar energy.

2.1.1 Various types of Solar Thermal Collectors System

Solar thermal power currently leads the way as the most cost-effective solar
technology on a large scale. It currently beats other PV systems, and it also can beat
the cost of electricity from fossil fuels such as natural gas. Some of the solar thermal
technologies are discussed below:

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 a. Flat Plate Collector System

Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collector for solar water-
heating systems in homes and solar space heating. A typical flat-plate collector is an
insulated metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called the glazing) and a dark-
coloured absorber plate. These collectors heat liquid or air at temperatures less than
80°C. Flat-plate collectors are used for residential water heating and space-heating
installations (Sukhame et al, 2007).

b. Solar Drying Technology

Food drying is a very simple, ancient skill. It is one of the most accessible and
hence the most widespread processing technology. Sun drying of fruits and vegetables
is still practised largely unchanged from ancient times. Traditional sun drying takes
place by storing the product under direct sunlight. Solar dryers have some advantages
over sun drying when correctly designed. They give faster drying rates by heating the
air to 10-30 ̊C above ambient, which causes the air to move faster through the dryer,
reduces its humidity and deters insects (Sukhame et al, 2007). The faster drying
reduces the risk of spoilage, improves quality of the product and gives a higher
throughput, so reducing the drying area that is needed.

c. Solar Space Heating Technology

Solar space heating is used in countries of cold region. Solar space heating systems
can be either active or passive. Passive systems use building components such as
floors, walls, and sun spaces to collect and store heat (Sukhame et al, 2007). It may
use air or liquid as a working fluid. Trombe wall is an example of passive space
heating.

2.1.2. Solar Thermal Power Technology

It is essential therefore to list the various factors that contribute to plant output
variation. The performance of the power plant however depends on several
parameters including the site location, solar insolation levels; climatic conditions
specially temperature, technical losses in cabling, module mismatch, soiling losses,
transformer losses and the inverter losses. Concentrated solar power (CSP) generation

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utilizes various means to convert solar radiation to heat which can generate electricity
either immediately or following storage. CSP generation therefore offers a means to
potentially supply solar electricity in line with demand. The various types of CSP
generation are described below

1. Parabolic Trough Collector System

Parabolic troughs consist of long parallel rows of identical concentrator

modules typically glass mirrors - that are curved in only one dimension, forming
troughs. Tracking the sun from east to west while rotating on a north-south axis, the
trough focuses the sun’s energy on a pipe located along its focal line. A heat transfer
fluid, typically oil at temperatures up to 400°C, is circulated through the pipes and
then pumped to a central power block area, where it passes through a heat exchanger
(Khan, 2002). The oil’s heat is then passed to a working fluid, such as water or steam,
which is used in turn to drive a conventional turbine generator.

2. Parabolic Dish Collector System

Parabolic dish systems consist of a parabolic-shaped point focus concentrator

in the form of a dish that reflects solar radiation onto a receiver mounted at the focal
point. These concentrators are mounted on a structure with a two-axis tracking system
to follow the sun. The collected heat is typically utilized directly by a heat engine
mounted on the receiver moving with the dish structure. Stirling and Brayton cycle
engines are currently flavored for power conversion. The concentrated beam radiation
is absorbed into a receiver to heat a fluid or gas to approximately 750°C. This fluid or
gas is then used to generate electricity. Dish technology produces relatively small
amount of electricity compared to other CSP technologies – typically in the range of
10 to 25 kW which results in high capital costs (Khan, 2002). Stirling dish
technologies are capable of achieving the highest efficiency of all types of CSP
systems. Stirling dishes, given their small foot print and the fact they are self-
contained, can be placed on slopes or uneven terrain, unlike PTC, LFC and solar
towers.

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 3. Linear Fresnel Reflector Technology

Use reflectors made of several slices of mirrors with small curvature

approximating a parabola. Mirrors are mounted on trackers and configured to reflect
sunlight onto elevated linear reflectors. Water flows through the receivers and is
converted into steam and the intermediate heat transfer fluid is not required. These
systems have lower investment costs and also lower optical performance as compared
to parabolic trough collectors (Sukhame et al, 2007). This technology is still in the
developmental stage. It needs less land for deployment, as mirrors are flat and can be
spaced closely. The weight is also less. The height above ground is also less, so an
added advantage is less air resistance. It can generate steam of temperature 270 C this
technology is very cost effective.

4. Compound Parabolic Concentrator

The Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) is a special type of solar

collector fabricated in the shape of two meeting parabolas. It belongs to the non-
imaging family, but is considered among the collector having the highest possible
concentrating ratio. Also because of its large aperture area, only intermittent tracking
is required. It is obtained by joining the focus to the opposite aperture edge. The
concentration ratio is given by w/b. The height and aperture area for a CPC are
calculated as per the desired operating temperature. To reduce the cost the height is
generally truncated to half as it doesn’t much affect the concentration ratio. The
acceptance angle is also generally kept large so that tracking may be required
intermittent only. For a concentrating collector the amount of diffused radiation that
can be collected is given by 1/CR. The general Concentration Ratio for a CPC is
around 3–10, while that for PTC and Parabolic Dish Collector is more than 1000
(Sukhame et al, 2007). Thus the advantage of a CPC is that it can collect diffuse
radiation too. Thus, its performance is satisfactory in cloudy atmosphere.

2.2 Photovoltaic Solar Energy

Maycock (1999) defines photovoltaic (PV) as the direct conversion of solar

radiation into electricity. This is particularly because photovoltaic energy conversion
is based on photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic solar modules converts the sun light
directly into electricity. Solar PV can be used at any scale, from small scale electronic

7
appliances to decentralized household rooftop systems and from installations that
power industrial facilities to utility scale PV farms.

Photovoltaic is regarded as a phenomenon in which solar radiation is

converted into electricity without using stimulating mechanisms; and photovoltaic
system is regarded to any system using such phenomenon. It is the most usable
system of application of modern energies. So far, various systems with different
capacities (0.5 watt up to several megawatts) have been installed and run throughout
the world; and given their reliability and performance, application for them increases
every day. Also Deb et al (2013) sees Photovoltaic as a solid state electrical device
that converts sun light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. Materials
presently used for photovoltaic solar cells include mono-crystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium
selenite/sulphide (Makhijani and Alexander, 2013).

2.2.1 Photovoltaic Effect

Photovoltaic power generation is a technology by using photovoltaic effect of

the interface of semiconductor and changing light energy directly into electrical
energy. Solar cells are the most important key element of this technology. After a
series of solar cells encapsulated protection, it could form a large area solar cell
module, coupled with the power controller and other components to form a
photovoltaic system device.

If light shines on the solar cells and is absorbed by the interface of

semiconductor, the photon which is with enough energy can stimulate electron from
the covalent between P-type and N- type silicon to produce electron–hole. Before the
complex of electron and electron-hole which is near the interface layer of
semiconductor, it will be separated from each other by the electric field of the space
charge. The electron will move into the N region which is with positive electricity,
and the electron-hole will move into the region which is with negatively electricity.
With the charge separation of the interface layer of semiconductor, it will produce a
voltage be- tween P region and N region. For crystalline silicon solar cells, a typical
value of open-circuit voltage is 0.5 ~ 0.6V. The more electron-hole produced at the
interface of semiconductor, the electric current will be larger. The more solar energy

8
Figure: 1. Solar cells absorb photons [19].

Figure: 2. PV cell.[20]

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2.2.2. Developments in CPC and Flat-Plate PVT Collector Systems Reported in
the Last Decade

The energy consumption in the world, particularly in the industrialized

countries, has been growing at an alarming rate. Moreover, the pollution hazard
arising out of fossil fuel burning has become quite significant in recent years. About
86% of the world’s energy supply comes from the fossil fuels. According to (Deffeyes
et al, 2010) oil has already started to peak. (Sadorsky, et al. 2007) highlighted that oil
prices are often indicative of inflationary pressure in the economy which in turn could
indicate the future of interest rates and investments, gas and coal reserves, in the other
hand are larger than oil, it will latter tend to be progressively replaced by the former,
which should attenuate a price explosion. Pareto mentioned that this process will push
energy prices higher, until sustainable sources replace dependency on fossil fuels as
major source of energy. (Constatntinos and Bouroussis, 2004) mentioned that the
sustainable energy such as solar prices higher, until sustainable sources replace
dependency on fossil fuels as major source of energy. He mentioned that the
sustainable energy such as solar energy in a form of solar radiation has been identified
as one of the promising source of energy.

(Oommen et al., 2002) has designed and developed compound parabolic

concentrators to collect solar energy and to generate steam through experimentation.
A CPC reflector profile with a V groove at the bottom of the reflector to reduce the
gap losses was designed with a half acceptance angle of 23.5° for a tubular absorber
of OD 30 mm. Five troughs fabricated with fiberglass substrate pasted over with UV
stabilized self-adhesive aluminized polyester foil having high specular reflectivity
85% joined together side by side comprise the CPC module with an aperture area of
2.04 m2. Copper tubes coated with NALSUN selective coatings and enclosed by
borosilicate glass envelope act as absorbers. The reflector absorber assembly housed
in a single glass wool insulated wooden box forms the CPC collector. Using water as
the heat transfer fluid efficiency tests were carried out with different inlet
temperatures (40–70 °C). A theoretical model was developed by setting up different
heat balance equations and a reasonable agreement between theoretical computed
values and the experimental values was observed. He found out that the instantaneous

10
efficiency (59%) of the CPC module was high even at higher operating temperatures,
when compared to flat plate collectors.

(Kalogirou, 2004), carried out a survey of the various types of solar thermal
collectors including flat-plate, compound parabolic, evacuated tube, parabolic trough,
Fresnel lens, parabolic dish and heliostat field collectors and applications including
solar water heating, which comprise thermosyphon, integrated collector storage, direct
and indirect systems and air systems, space heating and cooling, which comprise,
space heating and service hot water, air and water systems and heat pumps,
refrigeration, industrial process heat, which comprise air and water systems and steam
generation systems, desalination, thermal power systems, which comprise the
parabolic trough, power tower and dish systems, solar furnaces, and chemistry
applications. The application areas described that solar energy collectors can be used
in a wide variety of systems, could provide significant environmental and financial
benefits, and should be used whenever possible.

(Bogren, 2004), performed experiments on low concentration photovoltaic and

photovoltaic thermal system with two dimensional reflectors were studied and
optimised the design. A new biaxial model for incidence angle dependence of optical
efficiency was developed. Concentration of light results in high cell temperatures, and
uneven irradiance distribution on cells with parabolic reflectors leads to high local
current and temperature, which reduce fill-factor and voltage. Cooling the cells using
water increases the voltage and makes it possible to utilize the thermal energy. The
performance of a 4X concentrating PVT was evaluated with water inlet temperature at
30 °C. If it was operated at 50 °C, this system produce 250 kWhelectrical and 800
kWhthermal per m2 cell area and year. Optical performance increased by 20% by
using better reflectors and anti- reflectance glazing. Low concentration photovoltaic
system for façade integration were studied and optimised for electricity production.
Optimisation was carried out on the basis of measured short circuit current versus
solar altitude. He was found that the use of 3X parabolic reflector increase the annual
electricity production by more than 40%.

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 Fig. 3: Schematic model and experimental setup of a double-pass photovoltaic
thermal solar collector with CPC and fins

2.2.3 Advances in PVT Systems used in Flat Plate

(H.A. Zondag et al, 2003), experimental results compared with simulated

results for one cover sheet and tube PVT collector system. The electrical and thermal
efficiency of PVT collector was (8.9% & 58%) with ambient temperature (20°C) and
solar radiation (800W/m2). Out of nine combinations the channel below transparent
PV design gives the best electrical and thermal efficiency (9% & 63%) but, one cover
sheet and tube design is alternative to the channel below transparent PV because its
efficiency is only 2% less. But, for low temperature application the uncovered PVT
collector will give better results because average water outflow temperature (28°C).
(Ali Al- Mohamad, 2004), Sun tracking design to follow solar radiation using a
programmable logic controller (PLC) unit was used for the movement of a PV
module. In case of tracking mode, for the period 6:00 to 10:00 am and 15:00 to 17:00
pm overall output power gain exceeds 40%. However, the improvement was about 2-
4% during mid-day. The overall daily output power gain was increased by more than
20% compared to fixed mounted system (Wei He et al., 2006), performed
experimentation on Hybrid PVT Collector using water as a coolant for improving the
energy performance. In this case, about 4.6% of incident solar radiation had been
converted into electrical energy. The maximum final water temperature was 61.7 °C

12
at 31.8 °C initial water temperature in storage tank. The experimental result shows
that thermal efficiency 40% which is about 80% of conventional solar thermosyphon
collector system. A. (Hunter Fanney et al, 2006), carried out computer simulation on
three different modules to measure electrical performance. They compare the
measured power output of the three different modules at standard rating conditions
including the response of each module to changes in cell temperature (0 °C and 75
°C), angle of incidence ( 0 to 80 deg.), and air mass under outdoor conditions.

2.3 PV solar system stability

This is important for the aim of safeguarding the reliability and long term
operation of the PV solar system projects. For it to happen, a well-designed
maintenance system must be in place. This may be from the quality of device used in
the project to the functioning maintenance of the running project, capacity building
and long term financing of the projects. As Olivia (2006) puts it, reliable and long-
term operation photovoltaic solar energy system requires well-designed and installed
systems, the use of sound quality equipment and uninterrupted continuing funding for
maintenance, repairs, component replacements, and spare parts. The REN21 (2010)
proves the importance of the long-term financing of the project by providing that
financing mechanisms after-sales services for operation and maintenance are key to
the successful development of a long-term project. As it was earlier pointed out, this
has been one of the main reason for the failure of different solar energy and other
renewable energy projects in a many countries.

Technical knowhow and maintenance services are other areas believed to be

important in the PV solar energy systems stability. It is well put by Kawambwa and
Kimambo (1999) who found that many solar projects which were installed in
Tanzania were not stable because of improper installation and insufficient
maintenance services. Mwihava (2002) stresses on the importance of the maintenance
and local capacity building for the project stability. Project security also is important
in the stability of the PV solar projects as most of the projects suffer from vandalism
and theft of the solar systems equipment TASEA (2005).

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2.3.1 Applicability of PV solar energy

Different literatures have studied the applicability of PV solar energy in

different areas and households in the urban and rural areas. Jacobson (2006) studied
solar energy electrification in Kenya, with the focus on the connectivity of the
technology and the social change or advantages. He found that in Kenya there were
tremendous rise of renewable energy technology due to the growing market for solar
PV system among the rural households. He shows to have been a large number of
people in rural areas who have adopted the technology and that there has been a
tremendous ascend of solar market in Kenya. Data from the year 2000 survey
conducted by Tegemeo Institute indicated that 4.2% of rural Kenyan households
owned a solar system and that solar electricity had emerged in Kenya as a key
alternative to grid base rural electrification, Jacobson (2004)

The work of Kirumbi et al (2009) in Kenya looks on the community based

electric micro grids and see if that can contribute to rural development. It clarifies the
mechanism through which the rural electrification could promote rural development.
Through this research, it was demonstrated that access to electricity enables the use of
electric equipment and tools by small and micro enterprises resulting into significant
improvement in productivity.

2.3.2 Socio-economic impacts of solar energy on Livelihood transformation

Different studies on renewable energy, solar energy in particular, sees the

system as a channel to development and livelihood transformation in the rural areas. It
has been proved with no doubt that Photovoltaic solar energy can and has positively
impacted the rural livelihoods. There are notable transformational signs in many
spheres of human development notably in the rural areas. Education, health,
employment status, electric devises application, information and communication to
mention but a few have all proved the capacity of solar energy is the livelihood
transformation process in the rural areas. Studies show the system to have positively
impacted the socio-economic development of the people in most of the areas where
different solar projects have been implemented.

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2.3.2.1 Education improvement

There has been a notable significance of solar energy in the improvement of

education in most of households and communities at large. Buragohain (2012) in her
Impact of Solar Energy in Rural Development in India; provides that getting light for
children to study at night might results in major improvement in their education
performance. This has been argued a lot more in a number of studies. Nolens (2010)
also argues that solar electricity allows children in the rural areas to have more time to
study at night with better quality of light, hence improvement. ESMAP (2002) see
village electrification as important for lighting up schools for better education
attainment, whereas the ESMAP (2003) report shows the lack of electricity in Peru
resulted into diminished quality of life and poor education. According to the ESMAP
reports, village electrification enables the application of ICT for better education as
the examples drawn from Honduras explain, ESMAP (2002). For example children in
electrified households have higher education levels than those without electricity as
revealed in the ESMAP Philippines ESMAP (2003). Electrification is believed to
have a direct impact on education improvement in a sense that it can impact education
by improving the quality of schools, either through the provision of electricity
dependent equipment, or increasing teachers quantity and quality (teachers attraction
to the electrified villages); and study time allocation at home, with increased study
time, though the availability of TV may decrease that time (but at the same time it
may also possibly provide educational benefits) IEG – WB (2008).

2.3.2.2 Health improvement

The impact of solar energy on health improvement in the off grid areas has
been pointed out. Health improvement can remain a myth if the issue of reliable
energy is not addressed. Energy is essential in improving people health in the
peripheral and disadvantaged areas which are not connected to the main electricity
grid. Solar energy in such areas is very important and has proved to be very helpful in
most of the areas where it has been applied. Studies over the impact of solar energy in
rural development in India shows that solar lighting has helped different households
to overcome health problems which results from kerosene use and candle burning in
the closed rooms, Buragohain (2012). It is argued that solar energy has an important
health benefit as it reduces in house air pollution and the danger of fire as it substitute

15
the use of kerosene (Modi, 2004; World Bank, 2008a). Dieudonné and Evariste
(unpublished) provide that the min solar power plant that was installed in the Ngan-ha
locality in Cameroon improved the health services in that village in a span of only two
years. Solar electricity moreover contribute to the improvement of health awareness
by providing people with access to media as the source of information,
(Braden,2012). PV solar technology has proven success in high-technology
applications of communication. It is also an ideal alternative for powering vaccine
refrigeration in rural remote clinics. Vaccines can dramatically improve the health of
the rural poor and in this respect, Kerekezi et al (2005). The IEA (2008) provide that
access to better medical facilities, vaccine refrigeration, equipment sterilization,
operating theatres and lighting for local health centres are essential in the
improvement of health service in the rural areas. For instance solar PV installed at
Lugala Lutheran Hospital (3000Wp) in Ulanga, Morogoro improved health services
by powering low energy equipment and lighting for infusion unit, theatre, outpatient
department, administration block, in patients wards, medical cooling in the pharmacy
and security lights TASEA (2005). The same on health service improvement is
documented by WHO (2000)

2.3.2.3 Economic development

PV solar electricity’s contribution to economic growth is evident and has been

given in a number of studies. Modern energy has a direct relationship to economic
growth. Braden (2012) views the contribution of solar energy by looking on its
contribution to generating employments and allowing people to work for long hours at
night in Rema, Ethiopia. The World Bank (2009) reveals that Solar Home Systems
(SHS) increases economic activities inside and outside households because business
activities operate long hours in the evening. The contribution of solar energy to
economic growth is also viewed in terms of the role it plays to lower the cost of
energy to the rural dwellers, resulting to the consumer surplus and the way it helps to
spur the growth of home business hence a boost to the household’s income growth
IEG-WB (2008). The study by Braden (2012) on solar energy and rural development
which was conducted in Rema, Ethiopia, proves the creation of the growth of home
business which lead to the strengthening of the households’ income in Rema. Hussain
et al (2013) in their study on the cost analysis of concentrated solar power plant with

16
thermal energy storage system in Bangladesh, asserts that concentrating solar power
plants with thermal storage system can lead to economic benefits for the developing
countries because of its low operating cost. This sort of power plant is not adversely
affected from fuel price fluctuation.

2.3.2.4 PV solar energy and the environment

Literature available on the impact of solar energy on environment is

remarkable. A lot of scholars have written a lot concerning the contribution of PV
solar energy on environmental conservation. Hussain et al (2013) on their study of
cost analysis of concentrated solar power plant with thermal energy storage system in
Bangladesh argues that concentrated solar power plant have no hidden social cost in
the form of environmental solution. It is also argued here that solar energy have
potentials in the country particularly in various sectors it is applied by reducing
traditional fossil fuel based power consumption and ensuring a green environment for
the future generation (Deb et al, 2013; Ahmad et al, 2013)

Hasnat and Anisuzzaman (2012) in their study on the role of solar energy in
reducing GHG from the residential sector in Bangladesh, they found that in residential
sector, emissions of greenhouse gases are mainly emitted from gas oil (kerosene) and
biomass. Here they estimated the total amounts of carbon-di-oxide gas the base year
2004 and it is 3410000 metric tons and points out that within five years this will
increase up to emissions in 29% and this will be 35989682 metric tons in 2033, which
will increase up to 90% of the base year. In their study, they points out that, if there is
an increase in the share of solar energy to 12% in Bangladesh within 30 years, the
greenhouse gas will be reduced considerably. It is pointed out that by taking 10%-
12% contribution of solar energy, it is estimated that the emission of the carbon-di-
oxide gas will be 22821679 metric tons which will reduce up to 21% in the year 2033.

Eric Zencey (2013) in his topic named Energy as a master plan, sees
renewable energy notably wind energy and solar energy as the solutions to the
environmental problems. He provide that there are plenty of reasons to move to solar
and away from oil; climate change being among the reasons. Also Makhijani and
Alexander (2013) speaks of the environmental problems available in relying on fossils
fuels and provide that the reliance on unsustainable energy sources is no longer

17
necessary. They provide the solution over fossil fuels being the transition to a
sustainable energy system based on a high efficiency and renewable sources as well
as smart grid and storage solutions. They support their claim by looking at the growth
of renewable energy investment by 2011 in which renewable energy technologies
toped those of conventional in some countries, US and German investment in wind
energy and solar energy respectively being among them.

Jagoo (2013) views the importance of solar energy by looking at the risks and
the danger posed by fuel burning that increases the already greenhouse gases which
lead into global warming. He sees Photovoltaic and solar concentrator energy as a
solution and that it is predestined to a bright future because of its ability to power the
globe. However, he provide that harnessing this free energy at high efficiencies is
considered as a challenge even to the engineers. (Sen, 2008) also provide that the key
atmospheric energy sources such as solar and wind power should be harnessed more
effectively and turned directly into heat energy to meet the growing demand for
cheaper power supplies to meet the challenges posed by the unprecedented increase in
the population and industrial products and the development of technology, human
beings search for ways of using more and more energy without harming or, perhaps,
even destroying the natural environment.

2.4 Global Empirical Review

Kalogirou (2004) performed a study of the different models of solar thermal

collectors covering flat-plate, compound parabolic, evacuated tube, parabolic trough,
Fresnel lens, parabolic dish and heliostat field collectors, and the applications. Based
on the comparisons of each type with the different uses of space heating and cooling,
industrial heating process, refrigeration, steam generation and water desalination. The
study showed that the solar energy can cover the wide range of the energy producing
applications and it can occupy the wide horizon of the future world energy
production.

Mokhtari et al. (2007) attempted the research on the 250 KW solar energy
power plants in Shiraz as shown in Fig. 3. The power plant comprised of oil and
steam cycle operation. Oil cycle includes 48 parabolic trough collectors, and the study
focused on the performance of the generating hot oil by parabolic trough collector

18
system. Through doing analyzing the optical losses and optical performance of the
parabolic trough collectors (PTC) will give the results in improving the optical
efficiency and ensure the desired quality achieved in solar power plants.

Fig. 5: Solar Energy Power Plant 25kW in Shiraz

During 2008 a prototype of a 50 MW CSPP for electricity generation in

Jordan, and analysis of its economic feasibility was proposed by Mohammed et al.
(2008). After analyzing the data of the solar irradiation, whose layout is shown in Fig.
4, they found that there was positive potential of using the CSPP, especially in the
southern area of the Jordan such as Quweira.

Fig. 6: Layout plan of the proposed 50 MW CSPP for Jordan

19
 The concept of the cooling system by solar radiation through using the
concentrating solar collectors was studied by Osama Ayadi et al. (2012). The scheme
of the system shown in Fig. 7, The results defined the aspects that need for
considering the future development and an overview of solar cooling system
utilization by concentrating solar collectors in the worldwide, the reasons behind the
selection of these solar collection technologies for the solar cooling applications were
studied.

Fig. 7: General scheme of a solar cooling system

20
 CHAPTER THREE

PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR SYSTEM

3.1 Solar Photovoltaic System: Introduction And Effect

Solar photovoltaic system can use the solar cell module to produce the
electrical energy by solar power directly. Solar cell is a device which can achieve
the transform of P-V by the electronic characteristic of semiconductor materials, in
the majority of the off-grid areas, the device can be easily implemented as a user-
powered lighting of life. It can be also with the regional power grid to achieve
complementarity in some developed countries.

Photovoltaic power generation is a technology by using photovoltaic effect

of the interface of semiconductor and changing light energy directly into electrical
energy. Solar cells are the most important key element of this technology. After a
series of solar cells encapsulated protection, it could form a large area solar cell
module, coupled with the power controller and other components to form a
photovoltaic system device.

If light shines on the solar cells and is absorbed by the interface of

semiconductor, the photon which is with enough energy can stimulate electron from
the covalent between P-type and Ntype silicon to produce electron–hole. Before the
complex of electron and electron-hole which is near the interface layer of
semiconductor, it will be separated from each other by the electric field of the space
charge. The electron will move into the N region which is with positive electricity,
and the electron-hole will move into the region which is with negatively electricity.
With the charge separation of the interface layer of semiconductor, it will produce a
voltage between P region and N region. For crystalline silicon solar cells, a typical
value of open-circuit voltage is 0.5 ~ 0.6V. The more electron-hole produced at the
interface of semiconductor, the electric current will be larger. The more solar energy
absorbed by the interface of semiconductor and the bigger of the area of solar cells,
the electric current will be larger when the system work. (Ned, 2012)

21
 Fig. 8:. Solar cells absorb photons. (Ned, on 2012.)

Solar energy is a type of radiated energy. It can be changed into electrical

energy by using energy converters. The converter is a solar cell. It will produce new
electron-hole pairs when light shines on the P-N knot of the semiconductor, under
the function of electric field in the P-N knot, the electron-hole will flow to P zone
from N zone, and the electrons flow to N zone from P zone, and produce electric
current after connected to the circuit.

There are two types of solar photovoltaic, types light-heat-electricity and direct light-
electricity type. (Kineavy 2014)

Fig. 9:. PV cell. (F. Kineavy 2014)

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3.2 Photovoltaic Solar Energy Panel Physical Makeup

3.2.1. Energy Collection.

A solar panel is made up of a semiconductor material that converts the light

into energy through the use of a silicon composite pn junction. When light hits any
material, the energy is reflected, transmitted, or absorbed (Ventre, 2000). The panel
absorbs photons from the sunlight that produces excess electrons and holes in the
material generating the current through the flow of electrons (Ventre, 2000). For a
photon to be absorbed, the energy it provides must exceed the semiconductor
bandgap energy (Ventre, 2000). However, the closer the photon’s energy is to the
bandgap maximizes the cells efficiency and reduces the energy lost to heat. The
addition of heat increases the internal resistance of the semiconductor and this
increases the amount of energy needed for the electrons to escape the valence bond
and thereby decreasing output power.

3.2.2. Internal Characteristics.

The flow of electrons is equivalent to the amount of ambient light absorbed by

the panel. The flow of electrons to the load stops when the light provided does not
generate enough energy to allow the electrons to break free from their bonds.
Equation (1) shows the output current of a cell and how it is effected by temperature,
T, in Kelvin and the voltage of the cell, V. The component cell current is dependent
on the photons, I and the saturation current of the diode, Io (Ventre, 2000).

The constants are q = 1.6x10-19 coul and k = 1.38x10-23 j/K. Equation (2) represents
the voltage of the cell as a function of the current drawn from the cell, I, and the
photocurrent, IPH.

aV

KT
I =−I 1 I 0 (e −1)

V =0.0731∗¿ ( I PH −I +0.0005 ) −05∗I

0.0005

23
 Figure 10 shows the basic design of a solar panel consisting of the
semiconductor material as a fluctuating power source with a resistor that matches the
internal resistance of the panel, a diode to direct the current flow, and a resistor for
the resistance of the wires between the cells (Norum, 2002). The diode prevents a
reverse bias current from flowing into the panel from the energy storage devices
during the night. The internal resistances of the panel are represented by the shunt,
Rsh, and the series resistance of the wires (Norum, 2002). The shunt value is very
large and the series resistance is very small. These resistance values have little effect
on the overall performance of the cells. The controller can be a MPPT or a DC
converter, depending on the load. The silicon compound determines what light
wavelengths will be absorbed by the panel and at what bandgap energy level. Energy
levels below the bandgap pass through the panel as though it were transparent; those
levels well above the bandgap are reflected off the surface (Ventre, 2000).

Fig. 10: Solar Panel Equivalent Circuit

3.2.3 Photovoltaic Material Types

The different elements, primarily silicon make up of the compound determine

the efficiency of the panel; the main types are polycrystalline silicon, monocrystalline
silicon, and amorphous silicon. Creating a pn junction involves adding an impurity to
the silicon wafer to provide holes and excess electrons to determine the size of the
bandgap for that compound. Phosphorous and boron are used as impurities in most
silicon compounds. The higher the bandgap, the more readily the compound will
absorb photons. The efficiency of the panel is determined by how much of the sun’s
light energy is absorbed by the semiconductor to generate current. The increased
efficiency of the panel means more wattage can be produced from the same amount
of light (Davis et al. 2003). Monocrystalline silicon is grown from a single silicon
crystal into large crystalline blocks, which is sliced into a thin wafer that is doped to
increase the photon absorption. This compound is expensive, but provides a high
efficiency rate of 17%. Polycrystalline silicon is manufactured in the same way as the

24
monocrystalline, but uses multiple crystals to grow the blocks to be cut into wafers
(Davis et al. 2003). This process lowers the cost of production, and decreases the
efficiency of the cells to 13%. Amorphous silicon is a thin film that is produced in
long continuous strips that are many layers thick to maximize output (Davis et al.
2003). This is the cheapest and quickest process to produce solar panels, but has the
lowest efficiency of all types of silicon compounds: 5% at most. The different
chemical composition influences the way electrons flow, how much energy is needed
to break the electrons from the valence bonds, and how temperature affects the
current.

3.3 Components Of Solar Photovoltaic System

PV system is composed of square solar cells, a battery, a charge controller,

an inverter, an AC Power Distribution Cabinet, an automatic solar tracking system,
an automatic dust removal system, solar modules and other equipment.

3.3.1 Solar Cell

Solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors which are called P-type
and N-type silicon. Because of adding atoms, the P-type silicon loses one
electron. The N-type silicon is made by adding atoms so that it gets one more
electron. A solar cell is made by a P-type silicon layer and the N-type silicon
layer. There are too many electrons in N-type layer, and in P-type layer, there are
too many electron-holes. Near the junction of those two layers, the electron
moves into the electron-hole from N-type layer, this creates a depletion zone so
that the electrons fill the holes. (American Chemical Society 2015).

25
 Fig. 11: n and p type layers. (copyright © 2016 American chemical society 2015)

Solar cell is a device which can catch the sun light and transform it to
electrical energy directly. The size of a solar cell is about a size of a palm of an
adult. The shape is an octagon, and the color is blue-black. Solar cells are built with
the solar batteries together very often. The large units are solar modules. The case
of many solar cells is built together which are called a solar panel. (Chris Woodford
on 2016)

Fig. 12: Solar cells panel. (Chris Woodford on 2016)

26
3.3.2 Solar Battery

For some problems, such as unstable grid energy, over-charging or

discharging and irregular full recharging, is for the solar battery important to
meet those demands. And for nowadays, lead-acid batteries are the main batteries
which are used in solar photovoltaic system.

Lead-acid batteries: these solar batteries are mainly used in the car, but it is a
good choice for solar photovoltaic system. It is a starting battery; it can produce a
short burst of high power to start the engine of the system. There are also some
deep-cycle batteries. Lead-acid batteries are used very widely, but all of lead-acid
batteries are used for starting or providing deep cycle power. There is an obviously
difference, that is how much power it delivers and how long it needs to deliver.
(Kathie Zipp2015)

3.3.3 Battery Pack

The main function of a solar battery pack is to store solar energy by the square
under the light and be ready to supply the electricity energy to the load at anytime.
Here are the basic requirements for solar power batteries: Low self-discharge rate;
Long service life; Deep discharge capacity should be strong; High charging
efficiency; Low-maintenance rate or maintenance is free; Wild range of operating
temperature; Low price.

For currently, the most battery packs used with solar photovoltaic system
together are leadacid batteries and nickel-cadmium batteries. Generally, it is used in
stationary or industrial sealed lead-acid batteries, more than 200Ah lead-acid
batteries are used more, and the rated voltage of each battery is 2VDC. Generally, it
is used small sealed maintenance-free lead-acid battery if the need is less than
200Ah lead-acid battery, and the rated voltage is 12VDC for each battery (Zachary
Shahan 2015).

27
 Fig. 13: Battery packs (Neutron Battery 2016)

3.3.4 Charge Controller

The charge controller can prevent battery over-charge and over-discharge

automatically. Due to the cycle times of charge, discharge and the depth of
discharging is the main factor to determine the usage of battery life. Therefore, a
charge controller is essential equipment (Solar Direct 2016)

Fig. 14: Charge controller (GEESYS Technologies 2016)

The charge controller can be used to supply power for DC device which is with solar
panels.

The charge controller can supply a regulated DC output and store the excess
energy in a battery, and it can also prevent over or under charging by monitoring the
battery voltage. (© 1986-2016 Solar Direct 2016.04.07.)

28
3.3.5 Inverter

The device can transform direct current into alternating current. Since solar
cells and batteries are DC power supplier so that an inverter is necessary when it is
an AC1 load. According to operating mode, the inverter can be divided into stand-
alone inverters and grid inverters. As a stand-alone inverter, it is used in an
independently operated solar power generation system for supplying a separate
load. Grid inverters are used in network operation solar power generation systems.
The inverter can be divided into square wave inverter and sine wave inverter
according to the type of output waveform. The circuit of square wave inverter is
simple, cost of production is low, but the harmonic component is large. It is
generally used for the system which is a few hundred watts or less and low
requirements on the harmonic. However, the cost of sine wave inverter is high, but
it can be applied to a variety of loads. The inverter can be connected with a
charging output controller to drive AC loads.

Here are some protection functions of an inverter: Overload protection; Short circuit
protection; Reversal protection; Under-voltage protection; Overvoltage protection;
Overheating protection (Rudge Energy 2016)

Fig. 15: Inverter (Rudge Energy 2016).

29
3.3.6 Solar AC and DC Power Distribution Cabinet

Solar AC and DC Power Distribution Cabinet includes AC control cabinet

and photovoltaic DC control cabinet. it is mainly used in those huge photovoltaic
power plants. It can prevent lightning and over-current, and detect the PV single
array string current, voltage, lightning protection state and short circuit state. The
professionally design and the carefully choice of components can guarantee a long
and stable period of the use of solar AC and DC power distribution cabinet. AC
control cabinet is a device which can implement the inverter’s output, detect,
display and the device protection and so on. The output interface of the inverter AC
distribution cabinet can provide it, the output AC circuit breaker can be configured
with network (or for AC load use) directly, and the maintenance state of the PV
system cannot influence the security of the PV system and grid (or the load), but
also protect the maintenance workers.

The main function of solar AC and DC power distribution cabinet is the

switching for the backup inverter in the power plant system, to ensure the power
supply system is normal, as well as the measurement of the energy line.
(©Guangzhou Pingou Electrical Co. Ltd. 2016.04.09.)

Fig. 16: AC Power Distribution Cabinet (Pingou Electrical Co. Ltd. 2016)

30
And here is the principle of the schematic distribution cabinet,

Fig. 17: Schematic Distribution Cabinet (Guangzhou Pingou Electrical Co. Ltd 2016)

3.3.7 The Lightning Protection System

As a new power generation system in the field of energy generation, solar

photovoltaic power generation system has been widely used. Because of the
particularity of solar photovoltaic power generation system, such as the installed
location and environment of the solar photovoltaic system, the components of the
system will be caused damage by the lightning.

Therefore, the protection for the systems according to the actual situation of the
systems can make sure the system run safer and more efficient. The solar photovoltaic
power generation equipment external lightning protection system is to prevent the
thunder cause damage to solar cells directly. External lightning protection system
consists of three parts: the air terminal, ground deflectors and ground network. Solar
power system must have a relatively external lightning protection measures to ensure
that the exposed outdoors solar panels are not directly damaged by lightning.

31
3.4 Classification of solar photovoltaic system

Solar photovoltaic power generation system can be divided into independent

photovoltaic systems, grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems and
distributed PV systems:

1. Independent photovoltaic power generation systems, are also known

as off-grid PV systems. It mainly consists of solar modules, controller, battery. If it
needs to supply an AC load, it also need to configure AC inverter. An independent
PV power plant include the power supply system of the village in remote areas,
household solar power systems, communications signal power, cathodic
protection, solar lights and other PV systems.

Fig. 18: Off-Grid PV system (Ivalls 2016)

According to the characteristics of the load, independent photovoltaic systems can

be divided into DC system, AC system and AC-DC hybrid systems and other types.
The main difference is whether the system is with an inverter. In general, the
composition consists of solar cell matrix, controller, battery, DC / AC inverter and
some other off-grid solar photovoltaic systems.

32
 2. A Grid-connected PV system is that is directly connected to the
public grid after the DC current is generated by solar modules and then through
grid an inverter transforms if into alternating current mains in line with the
electricity grid requirements. It can be divided two types of grid-connected PV
systems according to whether they have a battery. The grid-connnected PV system
with battery is schedulable so that it can be incorporated into or out of the grid as
required. It also can be as a backup power when the grid has some problems.
However, the grid-connected PV system without battery cannot be a backup power
and unschedulable. （Anil Kumar 2016.04.11.）

Fig. 19: Grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems (Anil Kumar 2016).

3. Distributed photovoltaic systems are often built near the position of

the users or near the PV plants to achieve some special needs of users. The basic
components of distributed PV systems include photovoltaic modules, photovoltaic
array bracket, DC combiner box, DC power distribution cabinet, grid-connected
inverter, AC power distribution cabinets and other equipment. There are also power
system monitoring and controlling devices and environmental monitoring devices.
When the system is under the radiation of sun light, the solar cell module array of
photovoltaic systems will transform the solar power to electrical energy, and then
send the energy into DC power distribution cabinet by DC combiner box, then
reverse into AC power by the inverter and supply the load of the system, the excess
or shortage of electricity through the grid connection to be adjusted (Anil Kumar
2016).

33
 Fig. 20: Distributed photovoltaic systems (Sol, 2013).

According to the function and the operation requirements, the

configurations of the components and the ways of the connection that are
between equipment and the other power sources and electrical loads, the solar PV
system can be divided into two main systems, grid-connected or utility-
interactive systems and stand-alone systems. The most important component in
grid-connected PV system is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU). The
DC power produced by the PV array can be transformed into AC power by the
PCU, the voltage and power quality are in the light of the requirements of the
utility grid, and can stop supplying power to the grid automatically when the grid
is not energized.

Fig. 21: Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system (University of Central

Florida 2016)

34
Grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems can be divided into two
types of centralized large-scale photovoltaic networked systems and distributed
network of small photovoltaic systems. In the large-scale photovoltaic power plant,
the power can be delivered to the electricity grid directly. The investment of this
system will be quite huge and have a long period to built it.

Fig. 22: Stand-alone PV system (University of Central Florida 2016)

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

APPLICATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Solar Photovoltaic System

With the development of society and the solar photovoltaic technology,

solar photovoltaic power generation involves many aspects. People can see the
applications everywhere in the life. Such as solar photovoltaic power plant,
household solar photovoltaic power generation system, solar lights, solar cars and
some other applications.

Photovoltaic energy comes in three forms: stand-alone, grid-connected, and

hybrid system. Stand-alone systems employ a completely independent operation that
stores energy in batteries for night time usage. The grid-connected form connects
directly to the power grid, eliminating the need for batteries. Tying into the grid
increases the number of individual users that utilize solar energy on a small scale, and
provides the dependability of continuous power no matter the cloud conditions. A
hybrid system combines the consistency of the grid with a battery backup, in case
grid power is lost.

4.1.1 Grid vs. Off-Grid Systems.

Isolated areas and mobile systems are dependent on batteries, whereas places
in town have the option of using a power grid, depending on their power consumption
and power suppliers. Connecting to a power grid allows the power generated from
the panels to be back-fed to the grid when the sun is out, and to run the structure off
the line when the sun is down. The cost of purchasing a DC to AC converter with a
grid controller, compared to using batteries, varies by the size of the system.
Reliance on a grid eliminates the need to replace faulty batteries that plague the long-
term operation of stand-alone systems. The drawback to grid connected systems is
the number of panels that are needed to provide enough power for the utility company
to consider connecting the system to the grid. A grid-connected system must meet the
following criteria to function: voltage regulation, frequency regulation, power factor
control, harmonic distortion controls, and quick response time. The amount of power

36
a system generates determines if the energy provided will decrease the amount of the
electric bill, or if the excess energy produced would be sold to the power company.
During the summer months, high temperatures place increased demand on the power
grid due to the large amount of electricity used by air conditioners. Periods of
extreme heat are the result of favorable conditions for the sun’s energy to reach the
Earth’s surface. The use of solar panels can supplement the power requirements of
the air conditioning system during the period of the day when the temperature reaches
its maximum level. Figure 23 represents the system required to connect the panel to
the power grid. A DC to DC converter is needed to hold a near constant output
voltage. To maximize the output of the panel, a maximum power point tracker
(MPPT) controller is used. A MPPT is a boost converter for a single panel or a buck
converter when multiple panels are combined in series. The converters produce a near
constant voltage value that increases the efficiency of the inverter. The capacitor
removes any small variations in the near-constant input voltage to the DC-AC
converter. The inverter monitors the power grid to match the standard voltage and
frequency. The controller continuously compares the frequency of the grid with the
inverter, and adjusts the duty ratio to counter frequency variations.

Fig. 23: Grid Connection Equipment and Layout

4.1.2 Hybrid Systems

A system design that combines the advantages of both a stand-alone setup and
a grid-connected setup is deemed a hybrid system. This system relies on the
coordination of multiple controllers to continuously monitor the flow of power from
the solar panels, and regulate the power to fulfill the needs of the structure, replenish

37
the reserve batteries, and manage the flow of energy to and from the power grid. The
basic setup of a hybrid system is shown in Figure 24. The equipment consists of the
solar panels, a MPPT, a charge controller, batteries, and an inverter. The charge
controller monitors the batteries and determines whether or not to charge them. The
high-end inverter matches the frequency of the power grid and monitors the grid to
detect any loss in power. This system provides an uninterruptible power supply that
provides electricity even when the power grid is offline. This system has the highest
cost and requires the replacement and maintenance of batteries. The use of this type
is limited to industrial applications where backup power may be needed to prevent the
stoppage of equipment due to a trip in the power grid.

Fig. 24: Hybrid System Equipment and Layout

4.1.3 Stand-Alone Systems.

The earliest application of solar energy was on satellites orbiting the Earth.
The first satellites operated for on internal energy sources that lasted for a week to a
few months. The first application of a stand-alone system came incorporating solar
panels to the satellite to lengthen the operational lifespan to years. The lessons
learned from the space program are being incorporated in areas of the world that are
secluded from modern civilizations. These locations are removed from conventional
power supplies and rely on electricity produced by gasoline generators. The growing
expense of fuel has increased the demand from third-world countries governments to
invest in solar energy. In isolated regions that require constant electricity, the
primary source of power is solar, with gasoline generators for backup. This stand-
alone hybrid provides the reserve power during periods of poor solar insolation,
where other designs rely on large battery banks. These hybrid systems are dependent
on the cost to transport the fuel and with increasing fuel costs are promoting the
conversion to straight solar with the generators as emergency backup.

38
Stand-alone systems can be built to power small loads, like water pumps and street
lights, to the vast loads of a house. The equipment required to build a stand-alone
system includes a solar panel, a voltage controller, and batteries. For loads that
require AC power, an inverter would be added to the design. To control the output
voltage of a panel, an MPPT is employed to increase the efficiency of the power to
the batteries and load. The components of each system vary due to the size of the
load and the hours of operation during the night. For projects that operate during the
day, the battery may only need to last minutes to hours, depending on the load.
Systems that have loads that operate at night require determining the number of hours
the load operates and from this the panel and batteries are selected. Dependability of
the load must be considered to determine the amount of reserve energy the system
must have to provide continuous operation. The advantages of a stand-alone system
are independent from the power grid, replacement of petroleum-fueled generators,
and cost effective compared to running the power lines to remote areas. The
disadvantages are the availability of the grid power to most locations, the cost and
replacement of equipment, and the loss of power during periods of poor solar
insolation.

4.2 Applications

4.2.1 Industrial Solar Photovoltaic Power Plant Application

Solar photovoltaic power plants are made by the solar cells square which
can transform the solar radiation energy to electrical energy. According to the
operation mode, solar photovoltaic power plant can be divided into independent
solar power stations and grid-connected solar photovoltaic power plant.

Independent solar power station does not couple with the public grid. It
mainly uses in those places where are no electricity and some special places. Such
as remote and isolated rural and pastoral areas, islands, plateaus and desert for those
farmers and fishermen, to ensure that they can watch TV, lighting, listening to the
radio and other basic living electricity. It also can be used for communications relay
station, coastal and inland buoy, cathodic protection of pipelines, meteorological
station, road class and road border posts and other special premises. Independent

39
system consists of solar cell matrix, the system controller, battery, DC / AC inverter
and other components.

Grid-connected solar photovoltaic power plant does not connect with the
public power grid. It is very important for large-scale commercial stage and the
electric power industry components. It is the main trend of the world's solar
photovoltaic technology development. Grid system consists of solar cell matrix, the
system controller, and network inverter and other components (Zhao Yu 2012.03)

4.2.2 Household Solar Photovoltaic System Application

Household solar power system consists of solar batteries, solar controller,

battery components. It will need to configure inverter if the output power is 220V AC
or 110V. The conditions of the household solar photovoltaic power generation system
as follows:

1. Where do people want to use the household solar photovoltaic system and
what is the solar radiation situation of the place?

2. How much is the power of the load?

3. How much is the output power?

4. How long should the system work per day? How long should the system
supply power when the weather is not good? (Zhao Yu 2012.03)

40
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The reasons why countries in the world pay attention to photovoltaic power
generation are mainly the technological development of the predictability, cost-
competitive applications, and control of environmental issues. In the past 30 years
of development of solar photovoltaic, the photovoltaic industry has accumulated a
wealth of experience. It is already a mature industry .Many scientists believe
thaTerhaps one day some new energy technologies may arise, and solar power is
the most promising technology. Therefore, the development of photovoltaic
technology is not an expedient measure, not a whim, but a low-carbon
development, the inevitable choice. All the countries ‘photovoltaic industry should
work together to strengthen research and development, accelerate technological
progress, eliminate trade barriers, and expand the PV application market.

The literature highlights that solar photovoltaic energy system is

inexhaustible, solar radiation receiving by the surface of the earth is able to meet the
global energy demand as 10,000 times. As long as the installation of solar
photovoltaic systems is done in the 4% of desert in the world, the generated
electricity meets global needs. Solar energy is safe, reliable, does not suffer from the
energy crisis or the impact of the fuel market instability. Solar energy exists
everywhere. It could supply the electricity power near the place where the energy is
produced, there is no long-distance transportation, and the loss of long distance
transmission lines are avoided. Solar energy is without fuel, and has low running
costs. No moving parts, not easy to break, easy maintenance, particularly suitable for
unattended use. Solar photovoltaic system does not produce any waste, no pollution,
no noise pollution, no adverse effects on the environment. It is an ideal clean energy.
Solar photovoltaic system construction period is short, convenient and flexible, and
can be increased or decreased depending on the load, any additions or reductions of
the solar capacity of the square, avoid wastage.

41
5.2 Recommendation

Therefore, since solar photovoltaic power generation has unique advantages,

more and more people pay attention to the universal application of solar power. Light
is around the world,creating a powerful natural conditions for the use of solar energy,
and it has got rapid development in recent years.Solar photovoltaic is small proportion
of the energy,but with the development of society and technology,its share will
increase year by year.Experts predict that by mid-21st century,solar photovoltaic
power generation will become the mainstay of the world's energy supply. A brilliant
solar era is coming.

42
 REFERENCE

A. Darvill, “Hydro-electric power is generated from falling water,” Energy

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