ANPH108

Index
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PATH108
Index
Tutorial questions
Week 1
Week 2
Q1 Tutorial
Week 3
Week 1 - Anatomy of Cells
Cell Structures
Week 2 - Physiology of Cells
Week 3 - Human Tissues Q1
Week 4 - Organization of the Body
Week 5 - Respiratory Anatomy Q2
Q2 Notes
Week 6 - Respiratory Physiology
Week 7 - Muscular System Anatomy & Physiology Q3
Q3 Notes
Week 8 - Midterm (Weeks 1-7)
Midterm Notes
Week 9 - Heart Anatomy & Physiology
Week 10 - Skeletal Systems & Tissues Q4
Q4 Notes
Week 11 - Skin - Integument
Week 12 - Nervous System & Autonomic Q5
Q5 Notes
Week 13 - Central and Peripheral Nervous System
Week 14 - Sense Organs Q6
Q6 Notes
Week 15 - Final Exam
Final Exam Notes
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Tutorial questions

Week 1
1. What is between the nucleolus and the inner aspect of the nuclear wall?
a. Nucleoplasm
2. What happens when chromatin coils within itself?
a. Chromosomes
3. What is inside nucleoplasm?
a. Chromatin
4. What is observable (notorious) at the outer layer of the nuclear envelope?
a. Nuclear pores
5. What is inside every nuclear pore?
a. Aquaporin
6. What is the role of centrosomes?
a. It is the organizing center of the cytoskeleton (microtubules)
7. What does the golgi apparatus do?
a. Processes and packages the proteins from the ER, pinches off into vesicles that
will be exported.
8. What organelle creates the proteins for internal consumption of the cell?
a. Free ribosomes
9. Where can you find ribosomes?
a. attached to the wall of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
10. What makes the mitochondria special?
a. prokaryotes, don't have nucleus, DNA comes from mother
11. When the cell membrane pinches inwards to consume xyz, what is this called?
a. Endocytosis
12. Once a cell has been incorporated into something, what is the name of the
vesicle?
a. Phagosome
13. That vesicle will be transported where?
a. Lysosome
14. When a phagosome meets lysosome what is it called?
a. Phagolysosome
15. What is the name of the most common nanorobot?
a. Actin, Myosin, Troponin, Tropomiosin
16. What is a proteasome?
a. Organelle in charge of recycling misfolded/abnormal/abandoned proteins
17. What is the use for Ubiquitin?
a. tags the defective proteins for proteasomes to break down.
18. How do cells identify themselves in your body to stop them from being
destroyed?
a. Glycoproteins
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19. What component is the most abundant in the phospholipid bilayer?

a. Lipids
20. What is the structure of the cell membrane?
a. Phospholipid bi-layer
21. What is the backbone of a triglyceride?
a. Glycerol
22. Every one of those tails is a?
a. Fatty acid
23. What is the difference between a triglyceride and a phospholipid?
a. Triglyceride is composed of 3 fatty acids, and a phospholipid has 2 fatty acids
and the third one is a phosphate.
24. Give me an example of a membranous organelles
a. ER, Lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, Nucleus (has 2 membranes), Mitochondria
(has 2 membranes)
25. What is the correct matching of DNA base pairs?
a. Adenine-Thymine, Guanine-Cytosine
26. How would you define one gene?
a. Segment of DNA with meaning
27. What are the names of DNA base pairs?
a. Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine
28. What is the name of the material that exits the nucleus and passes through the
ribosomes?
a. mRNA
29. What kind of material makes the substance of ribosomes?
a. rRNA
30. What is tRNA?
a. Transfer RNA
31. Where does it work?
a. Inside the ribosome
32. Mention some of the integral membrane proteins
a. : pores, pumps, gates, CIMs
33. What is the role of cholesterol embedded into the cell membrane?
a. Regulates temperature and gives resiliency to the cell membrane
34. If cells lose membranes how do they recover?
a. Exocytosis
35. In relation with water, what are the tails of phospholipids?
a. Hydrophobic
36. If the cell membrane is impermeable to water, how does water exit or enter?
a. Aquaporins
37. Cell Identification Markers (CIM) are part of the?
a. Intra Membrane Proteins
38. Some very important receptors are specific to certain chemical substances, the
fact that they can identify therefore link to those substances is called what?
a. Signal transductions (Ligands)
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39. What are proteasomes?

a. Non membranous organelles
40. What are ribosomes?
a. Non membranous organelles
41. What is the name of the ER or muscle cells?
a. Cytoplasmic reticulum
42. What is the role of the Smooth ER?
a. Stores CA++, synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates to tweak proteins
43. What are the components of the ribosomes?
a. Small subunit and large subunit
44. What comes out at the south pole of one ribosome?
a. Proteins (Polypeptides)
45. What comes out at the south pole of a proteasome?
a. Amino acids (monopeptide)
46. What do lysosomes contain inside?
a. Digestive enzymes (proteolytic enzymes [protease]). Lysosomes are sacs w/
digestive enzymes inside
47. What makes the lysosomes?
a. Pinched off from Golgi
48. What is the name of the poop of one cell?
a. Residual body (result of lysosomal digestion, later secreted via exocytosis).
49. What does one proteasome have inside?
a. 2 antechambers and 1 central chamber
50. The chambers contain what? What is the name of that enzyme?
a. Protease
51. What makes peroxisome special amongst lysosomes?
a. Besides from enzymes they have h2o2 (hydrogen peroxide)
52. What are the most abundant enzymes in the mitochondria?
a. Oxidation reduction enzymes
53. Where do fresh mitochondria come from?
a. By self replication through mitosis
54. What are the main components of the cytoskeleton?
a. Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
55. What is the name of the mucous producing cells that accompany ciliated tissues?
a. Goblet cells; they are containers of mucous.
56. Is the transport of vesicles active or passive?
a. Active
57. What is the location of the microvilli?
a. On top of villi
58. What cells have flagella?
a. Sperm cells
59. Where do you find tight junctions?
a. Intestines, you don’t want bacteria to move through cell walls
60. Gap junctions in heart
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a. , because it allows for communication

61. What is the name of the electro conductive unit?
a. Electrical Syncytium (synchronized place). Gaps that are at the center of the
connectors, they're like hollow screws,
62. (Cell connections) Four styles of cells getting together:
a. spot desmosomes, belt desmosomes, gap junction, tight junction

Week 2
1. What structure is required for osmosis to occur?
a. Semi permeable membrane
2. Basic rule for both processes to occur, water will move from where to where?
a. Down concentration gradient (High to low)
3. What Structure is required for water to pass through the cell membrane?
a. Aquaporins
4. If I dissolve a solute on one side of a membrane, what does that create?
a. Osmotic pressure
5. What kind of pressure is developed when proteins are in solution?
a. Oncotic Pressure
6. What is the difference between Oncotic vs Osmotic?
a. Solute is proteins in oncotic
7. If you need to move inside or outside sodium potassium, what do you use?
a. A pump
8. What is a pump?
a. Form of active transport, IMP (Integral Membrane Protein, belongs to the ______
family)
9. What factor is integral to the cell membrane but is not a protein?
a. Cholesterol
10. Oncotic pressure
a. dissolving of proteins
11. What happens when all molecules diffuse?
a. Equilibrium
12. How do you measure the potential osmotic pressure?
a. Pure water
13. What evidently changes when osmotic balance is achieved?
a. Water volume
14. What happens to cells when they are submerged in a hypotonic solution?
a. It swells
15. What is it called when a cell is swollen?
a. Pigmotic?
16. When cells are shrinking, what is the name of that process?
a. creation?
17. What happens in cells that are submerged in isotonic solutions?
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a. They stay the same

18. When do you say a liquid is isotonic?
a. Same concentration as the cytoplasm
b. 0.9 normal concentration
19. Mediative-passive transport?
a. Means facilitated diffusion
20. For diffusion to happen? Source of energy?
a. Collision energy of the atoms to dissolve.
21. Why do cell membranes have channels?
a. Being selectively permeable
22. What is the word to describe the Internal diameter of a hollow cavity?
a. Lumen
23. How do channels open or close?
a. With stimuli
b. Receptors determine when something will be accepted or not
c. Nothing can bind without a specific receptor without a specific key (hormone)
24. How do you define a pump?
a. Transporters that can be even against the concentration gradient
25. So far, what pumps do we know?
a. Sodium-potassium, calcium
26. Does endocytosis spend energy?
a. Yes, because cell spends energy to invaginate the particle
27. Why can’t particles touch the cytoplasm?
a. (ask Allie for answer)
28. Different kinds of endocytosis?
a. Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis (eating)
29. From the POV of the channels what would osmosis be?
a. Channel mediated passive transport of water
30. What are the different kinds of endocytosis?
a. Pinocytosis, Phagocytosis
31. What are the 2 words to say drinking?
a. Pinos, dipsos
32. What is Dipsomania?
a. Continuous drinking (Alcoholics Dipsomaniacs).
33. What are the steps after phagocytosis?
a. Vesicle (Phagosomes) Fuses with Lysosomes (Phagolysosomes), transported to
the rough ER
34. What is phagocytosis?
a. Ingesting larger materials into the cell (0.5microm+)
35. What happens when cargo is unloaded in the rough ER?
a. Synthesizes in the smooth ER
36. What process is used to create sugar?
a. Neoglucogenesis (new sugar genesis)
37. What membrane makes the vesicles?
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a. Cell membrane
38. What do we use as raw matter to create new sugars?
a. Proteins
b. Cannibalizing self to produce sustaining sugars for body
39. For endocytosis to occur, what is necessary?
a. Receptors (Receptor-mediated process)
40. Receptors may not imply good? Why?
a. Angiotensin 1
41. Angiotensin 1?
a. (Angiotensin Converting receptors)
42. Angiotensin 2?
a. Covid matches the AC receptors
43. How do we solve the problem of exporting large protein molecules from the cell?
a. Exocytosis
44. Is the cytoskeleton sensitive?
a. Yes, it behaves as the peripheral system of the cell (nervous system)
45. Is the cytoskeleton mobile/motor?
a. Yes
46. Is the Cytoskeleton a way of communicating/transportation?
a. Yes
47. What is the definition of metabolism?
a. The sum of all chemical reactions in a cell/body
48. The division of metabolism: catabolism and anabolism
a. Cata = destroy (OBTAIN energy to break down large molecules)
b. Ana = build (REQUIRES energy to build large molecules)
49. Define enzymes?
a. Catalysts
50. Define catalysts?
a. Reduces activation energy, therefore accelerates the chemical reaction
51. What is the real reason for regulation of cellular metabolism?
a. Enzymes? Cofactors
b. He worded this question weird)
52. Cofactors?
a. Vitamins that are required for proper functioning of a protein.
53. Why do animals eat anothers animal's liver?
a. For VItamin A (VItamin A is liposoluble, liposoluble enzymes are stored in the
liver)
54. What are enzymes? From a chemical POV?
a. Proteins
55. Active site of an enzyme?
a. Where the substrate fits
56. Are enzymes applicable to any kind of use?
a. No, single use only (specific)
57. Can enzymes work on any substrates?
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a. No, theyre substrate specific

58. Give me the most frequent kind of enzymes?
a. Hydrolases enzymes
59. What is characteristic of the Hydrolase enzymes?
a. They add water to molecules
60. Hydrogenases? (Wedge)
61. What is an example of an acidic environment working enzyme?
a. Pepsin, tripsin
62. Pepsin is an enzyme found in the stomach acid?
a. yep
63. What kind of enzyme is Pepsin?
a. protease (breaks down proteins)
64. Amylases are different, amylose =
a. starches. Amylase hydrolyse starches to break them down into glucose.
65. What is the most frequent type of digestive enzyme?
a. Hydrolases
66. If you need to add hydrogen to one molecule what do you use?
a. Hydrogenases
b. Dehydrogenase for removing
c. Adding Phosphate: phosphorylase, remove = phosphorylase
d. CO2: add = Carboxylase, removing = decarboxylase
67. If you want to completely alter the structure of a molecule, what enzymes do you
use?
a. Mutase/isomerase
68. If I mention optimal conditions for enzymes to work, what is this called?
a. Allosteric effectors (pH, temp, cofactor, Ionizing radiation, end products of certain
metabolic processes)
69. Are enzymes unidirectional or bidirectional?
a. Bidirectional
70. Most enzymes that are synthesized are what?
a. Inactive proenzymes
71. Who can describe the catabolism of glucose?
a. Glycolysis -> krebs cycle
72. What happens to the energy obtained by the proton pumps?
a. Transferred into ADP and ATP
73. What are the byproducts of the krebs cycle?
a. CO2 and H2O

Q1 Tutorial
1. Where do you find the high presence of gap junctions?
a. Heart
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2. Are Villi mobile? What is the purpose of the villi?

a. No, increase surface area for nutrient absorption
3. Thanks to the gap junctions, we develop one physiologically electrical what?
a. Syncytium
4. What kind of structures make the cytoskeleton of one cell?
a. Molecular motors.
5. What is the role of mitochondria
a. synthesizing ATP
6. How is the mitochondria able to release energy?
a. Oxidation reduction enzymes
7. What is the role of ribosomes?
a. Synthesize proteins
8. How does the cell deal with abnormally created proteins?
a. Proteasomes, mark misfolds with ubiquitins
9. What are the roles of peroxisomes?
a. Detoxify in the kidney, liver
10. What kind of enzymes are in lysosomes?
a. Lytic enzymes, hydrolytic enzymes specifically
11. What are ribosomes made of?
a. rRNA
12. Who makes ribosomes?
a. Nucleolus
13. What is the most abundant component of the cell membrane?
a. Fatty acids
14. What is the most abundant tendency of the cell membrane?
a. hydrophobic
15. Why do we need cholesterol in cells?
a. Gives stability to the phospholipid bilayer
16. What is the backbone for the creation of a phospholipid?
a. triglyceride
17. What is the backbone of a triglyceride?
a. Glycerol
18. What is the chemical name of glycerol?
a. Propanol triol
19. What is the biggest membranous structure in one cell?
a. Nucleus, 2 membranes
20. Are mitochondria membranous or nonmembranous?
a. Membranous, 2 membranes
21. Are proteasomes membranous or non?
a. Non-membranous
22. What is the difference between epi and peri?
a. Epi = top, peri = around
23. Meaning of the word isotonic?
a. Same concentration
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24. What is the term to say same strength?

a. isotonic
25. If two things are at the same side?
a. Ipsilateral
26. If one thing is on the opposite side?
a. contralateral
27. What is the word atmospheric pressure?
a. Barospheric (barometric)??
28. If the temperature is low?
a. hypothermia/hypothermic
29. If one cell is too little, it is what?
a. Microcyte
30. What is the place for glycolysis to occur?
a. Cytoplasm
31. Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic?
a. anaerobic
32. What is the name of the chemical process that occurs at the mitochondrial level?
a. Oxidative phosphorylation
33. What is the name of the folds inside the mitochondria?
a. Cristae
34. Do all enzymes catalyze chemical reactions?
a. yes
35. What is more expensive, catabolism or anabolism?
a. Anabolism
36. Are aquaporins gated channels?
a. yes
37. What kind of energy is spent during transport by vesicles?
a. ATP
38. Pumps going only against concentration gradients?
a. False - goes both ways
39. If you want a pump to be activated, what do you give it?
a. ATP
40. What is the cell identification marker made of?
a. Glycoproteins
41. What is the meaning of MHC?
a. Major histocompatibility complex
42. What are the MHC elements made of?
a. Glycoproteins
43. Thanks to the MHC projections, the cell does not undergo what?
a. Autoimmune attacks
44. There is one transport process for which aquaporins are fundamental, what is it?
a. osmosis
45. If one cell wants to be selectively permeable, what mechanism is used by that
cell?
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a. Gated channels
46. Are gated channels impermeable to water?
a. No
47. Can substances move even against the concentration gradient with only
facilitated diffusion?
a. No, only pumps
48. What will happen to alveolar cells of one person's lungs if that person drowns in
lake ontario?
a. Pignotic and break down
49. Where should you choose to drown, Lake Ontario or the Atlantic Ocean by Nova
scotia?
a. Definitely the Atlantic ocean, salinity is approx 0.9N so cells won't go pignotic,
and lower temp will reduce oxygen consumption leaving more time before cells
go hypoxic.
50. What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution?
a. Pignosis
51. What happens to cells in a hypertonic?
a. crenation
52. If a cell has suffered crenation, what is that cell?
a. Crenated
53. All passive processes follow the rule of?
a. Concentration gradient
54. What is the pressure generated by electrolytes?
a. Osmotic pressure
b. Pressure by proteins? oncotic
c. What is the pressure generated by carbohydrates? Osmotic
55. What is the meaning of the word profusion?
a. Irrigation (adequate flow)
56. Is diffusion a continuous process?
a. no , it goes to the point of equilibrium
57. Do you need vitamins to conduct passive transport processes?
a. no, passive is free
58. What vitamins are for metabolism?
a. Cofactors
59. Is the motion of flagella expensive?
a. Yes
b. What is the name of that “flagella gas”? ATP
60. Can the cytoskeleton move CIM?
a. No, theyre outside of the cell
61. Can the cytoskeleton move the Nucleus?
a. Yes
b. In diapedesis the cell is passing through a crevice, and the cytoskeleton moves
the cell
62. Is the cytoskeleton able to detect changes?
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a. Yes
63. Does the mitochondria of DNA change the structure of function of the cell?
a. No
b. Does the mitochondria responsible for its hereditary? Yes
64. What is the name of the ER of the mitochondria?
a. They don't have one, they are prokaryotes
65. If we talk about the DNA, could we compare the DNA as the RAM of that
computer?
a. Yes (according to nader)
66. What is inside one peroxisome?
a. Lytic enzymes + hydrogen peroxide
67. What kind of enzymes are in proteasomes?
a. Proteases (Proteolytic enzymes). Which are? Hydrolytic enzymes
68. When you break down triglycerides, what do you get?
a. Three fatty acids and a Glycerol
69. When you break down starches, what do you get?
a. Glucose
70. When you break down proteins, what do you get?
a. Amino acids
71. What is a disaccharide?
a. Union of 2 monosaccharides
72. What do the cells use to separate themselves from the environment?
a. Cell membrane
73. What is the golgis device?
a. Doesn’t exist
74. Where is the nucleoplasm of the cells?
a. Inside the nuclear membrane

Week 3

Week 1 - Anatomy of Cells

Cell Structures
Not all cells are microscopic -> Eggs. Eggs are a single cell.
Myocyte = muscle cell.
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Membrane: Separates cell from environment

Cytoplasm: Thick gel containing “organelles” suspended in “cytosol”

- Last organelle accepted by humans was mitochondria, mitochondria is still independent.
- Organelles are bacteria merging with human

Nucleus: Large membranous structure @ center of cell.

- Like the golgi apparatus and etc organelles; the walls are made up of phospholipid
bi-layers.
- Controls production of proteins

Vesicle: “Whenever the cell needs to incorporate something into the cytoplasm. It incorporates it
by pinching inwards”. Package delivery system for cells.

Golgi apparatus: the shipping docks of the cell.

Endocytosis: particle is imported into the cell as a vesicle

Exocytosis: vesicle content is shipped out of the cell as particles

Cell membrane: it's a bi-layer phospholipid (polar head, non-polar tail).

- Arrangement: {outside cell} H -- T T --- H {Inside cell}
- Intramembrane proteins (IMPs): A part of the cell membrane that is responsible
for accepting particles into the cytoplasm.
- Some IMPs are receptors that react to specific chemicals, sometimes permitting
a process called Signal Transduction.
cytoplasm: the medium of exchange.

Endoplasmic Reticulum: membranous-walled canals and flat curving sacs arranged in parallel
rows. Goes from golgi apparatus to nucleus.
- Proteins move through the canals, extend the plasma membrane to the nucleus
- Rough and smooth
- Rough ER: Ribosomes manufacture proteins, ribosomes make rough ER Rough.
- Smooth ER: synthesizes lipids and carbs. Removes and stores Ca++ from cells interior.
- Ribosomes: Many attached to rough ER, many lie free. Each unit is composed of rRNA
and Protein.
- Vesicles from ER can be either used up domestically or sent to golgi for shipment
outside of the cell.
Golgi Apparatus:
Membranous organelle consisting of cisternae stacked on one another. LIterally a “box
warehouse”.
- Cisternae: Flattened membrane vesicle that is essential for packaging and modification
of proteins in golgi
Vesicles only reattach here if the contents are to be exported.
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Slide 18: week 1 - Ribosomes in ER make proteins for export or to be embedded in the
ER membrane; free ribosomes make proteins for cell’s domestic use.

Lysosomes: made from the golgi apparatus. They are responsible for destroying defective parts
and proteins. Breaks them down into base building parts.
- Process: Envelopment -:> Seal -> Lysosome attaches to phagolysosome (introducing
the machinery to strip everything down) -> Garbage is produced?
- A lot bigger than proteasomes, are responsible for breaking down bigger (maybe
external) proteins/bodies

Proteasomes: Destroys unnecessary protein/misfolded proteins. They also tag bad proteins with
ubiquilin (kind of like a to-do list marker of what to break down)
- 15 nanometer in size
- Responsible for breaking down internal proteins

Peroxisomes: detoxify harmful substances that enter the cells. Livers and kidneys have a higher
concentration of these.

Mitochondria: ATP are batteries that facilitate oxidation-reduction reactions. They catalyze a
series of oxidation reactions that provide almost all of a cell’s energy supply.

Nucleus: Chromatins, Chromosomes, 1 gene is a beat of information.

Chromosomes: full size
Chromatins: threads or granules in nondividing cells
Genes: gene expression (a specific instruction set about protein manufacturing)

Nuclear Pore Complex:

Cytoskeleton: internal supporting framework.

“Nervous system of the cell”
Highways and sideways within the cell.

Cell fibers: - “cellular muscles” (can tighten and relax to shorten/lengthen).

Molecular motors: Smaller proteins that can pull larger bodies along the cytoskeletons
Motor proteins include: dynein, myosin, and kinesin
Cell extensions (types):
- microvilli - tiny hairs in “epithelial cells” in intestines, increase surface area of the
intestine so more of the “undigested food” is in contact with digestive enzymes on its
surface.
- Cilia - moving hairs in the respiratory tract that help move mucus out of the lungs. The
process is called Respiratory-muco-cilliary clearance.
- Flagellum - sperm propellers that move in a corkscrew motion.
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Cell Connections: Desmosome connections are fibers on the outer surface that interlock with
each other; anchored internally by intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton
● Spot Desmosomes: “Spot welds” that connect adjacent membranes at various points
● Belt Desmosomes: Encircle the entire cell
● Gap Junctions: Combines cytoplasms of adjacent cells
○ Syncytium: Electronically synchronized place. Cells in the heart use this
phenomenon to synchronize their movements.
● Tight Junctions: Occur in cells that are joined by “collars” of tightly fused material
○ Found in the lining of intestines

Passive transport processes don’t require any energy

Diffusion - a passive process
Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, down a
concentration gradient
As molecules diffuse, a state of equilibrium will occur
Oncotic pressure - same as osmotic pressure (if it is a protein??) selectively permeable
membrane
Isotonic- (of muscle action taking place with even contraction
.9 normal cytoplasm concentration

Gap - Heart, brain - (

Belt - Anywhere
Tight - intestines
Spot - urinary bladder

VIDEOS:
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TYPES OF RNA - mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA function | Types of RNA

Week 2 - Physiology of Cells

Passive transport processes- do not require any energy expenditure of the cell membrane.
(Passive transport- no energy required)
Diffusion- a passive process. (sugar to water)
Molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, down
concentration gradient.
Atoms - dynamic by nature; precise vibrations

(in lung) Alveolus is completely surrounded by capillaries. Capillaries bring in venous

(non-oxygenated blood) to the alveolus.
- Since there is no oxygen in the capillaries, the oxygen moves from the alveolus to the
blood in the capillaries via diffusion (air-blood exchange is via diffusion not osmosis).
- Heart pumps blood, new blood comes in, cycle repeats as you breathe to refill your
blood with oxygen
Osmosis = transport of water or other solvents through a semipermeable membrane via
charge differential. (only water can move through most pores as theyre not big enough to
accommodate bigger molecules)
Think of coffee (Dr. Nadar pour water in to fuck with us) it dilutes.
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Oncontic Pressure - water pressure that develops as a result of osmosis (water dissolved in
water was a protein instead of sugar)
Pure osmosis: Membrane is selectively permeable to water only.
Potential Osmotic Pressure: max pressure that develops in a solution sep. from pure water
Aquaporins: IMPS on cell membrane that selectively allow passage of water
Sugars: Need to be selectively imported in. The pore only opens via insulin. Lack of insulin
makes diabetics.
Ions need pumps to get through the lipid bilayer
Nanometric
Osmosis is always semipermeable
Xantos protea reaction? - Xantos means yellow (to find out if the solute is a protein)

Iso (Greek)- equal.

Tonic- concentration.
Isotonic- describes a fluid having the same potential osmotic pressure as cytosol.

*Cytoplasm of the cells is precise (always has the same concentration) - 0.9nm?
Cytoplasm always has the same concentration: 0.9 Normal (Same as coconut water)
- Normality is a measure of concentration in mmol/mL

Hypo- lower (expand) lower pressure

- Picnosis, the cell is Picnotic
Hyper- higher (shrink) higher pressure
- (crenation- cell shrinks)
Facilitated diffusion (mediated passive transport)
- Made more efficient by transporters embedded in cell mem.
- Transport substances down concentration gradient.
- Energy required comes from collision energy of solute

Channel-mediated passive transport

- Gated channels that allow membranes to be selectively permeable (ex: aquaporins ->
only water and molecules can pass)

Facilitated diffusion: Special kind of diffusion where its facilitated by IMPs (transporters
embedded into a cell membrane).
- Channel-mediated passive transport:
- Eg. insulin mediated glucose transport, Aquaporin
- Allow membranes to be selectively permeable
- May be closed or open
- Carrier Mediated Passive Transport
- Attract and bind to the solute, change shape and release the solute on other
side
- Usually reversible depending on direction of concentration gradient
- Eg. Potassium piggybacks glucose, Hyperkalemia
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- Hyperkalemia (burn patient),: Cells break causing a massive K spike. We treat

this by injecting glucose and dripping insulin. Insulin opens doors in cell
membranes, cells intake a lot of sugar. The K piggybacks on the back of sugar
and K spike decreases.
- Role of Passive Transport Processes
- Move substances down their concentration gradient.
- Types: Osmosis,
- Active Transport Processes: Use ATP
- Pumps, eg. Ca pumps, K-Na Pumps
- Transport by vesicles - Allows substances to enter or leave the interior of a cell
without moving through its plasma membrane (See P.24 in slides for diagram)
- Endocytosis - the plasma membrane traps some extracellular material
and brings it into the cell
- Phagocytosis: Condition of cell eating (phasome + lysosome =
phagolysosome) Inside PLS digestion -> Digested materials -> ER -> ER
will re-use these materials for protein synthesis.
- Pinocytosis: Condition of cell drinking
- Endocytosis: Receptors control what needs to be brought into the cell.
- Exocytosis: How large molecules (proteins) can leave the cell. Can't move
through IMPs (most pores too small for these).
- Exocytosis allows for a way for material to be added to the plasma
membrane.
- Proteins enclosed in membranous vesicles and pulled to the cell
membrane for export.

Active transport processes (ATP) - Require expenditure of metabolic energy by cell

- calcium pumps and sodium pumps.
- Transport by vesicle - lets substances enter/leave the interior of cell w/out moving
through plasma membrane
Endocytosis- plasma membrane “traps” some extracellular material and brings it into the cell in
a vesicle.
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis - membrane receptor molecules recognize substances
to be brought to cell

Phagocytosis = solid material (eating)

Pinocytosis= cell drinking (liquid).
Phagolysosome = eating and breaking down, brings material to ER
(Both make endocytosis)

Exocytosis: transport by vesicles.

Provides a way of new material to be added to the plasma membrane.

CELL METABOLISM
- Metabolism is the set chem reaction in a cell
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- Metabolism is divided into 2 halves (substances eaten/drank; animal/vegetable)

- Catabolism
- Breaks large molecules into smaller ones; RELEASES ENERGY
- Ex of catabolism : cellular respiration
- Has 3 pathways chemically linked:
- Glycolysis
- Citric acid cycle
- Electron transport system (ETS)
- Anabolism
- Builds large molecules from smaller; CONSUMES ENERGY
- Enzymes: chemical catalysts & regulate cell metabolism

ase= 1 enzyme
oxidation - reduction enzymes - aka oxidases, hydrogenases, dehydrogenase
- Energy release depends on enzymes
Hydrolyzing enzymes - hydrolases; digestive enzymes belong here
Phosphorylating enzymes
Enzymes that add/remove carbon dioxide: carboxylases or decarboxylases
Enzymes rearrange atoms within molecule: mutases or isomerases
Hydrases add water to molecules without splitting

Proteins: Functional vs Structural

- Functional: Enzymes, Hormone,
- Structural - Muscles, Tendons, Ligaments

Enzymes: Protein based catalyst that regulates cell metabolism. Without enzymes nothing
happens.
- Role: Proteins of a complex shape, Each enzyme only fits a specific molecule. Active
site is where they bind to molecules. Conceptualized by the “lock and key model”
- Classification and naming: Suffix “-ase”
- “-lase” is used for enzymes that remove, “tase” is used for enzymes that add
- Oxidation-reduction enzymes
- Hydrolysing enzymes
- Phosphorylating enzymes
- Phosphorylase - removes phosphates
- Phosphatases - adds phosphates
- CO2 enzymes:
- Carboxylases -
- Decarboxylases -
- Enzymes that Rearrange Atoms
- Mutases -
- Isomerases -
- Hydrases add water to a molecule without splitting it
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- Allosteric Effectors: for enzymes to work, they need to be in the right

environment.
- Temp
- Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration (pH): Enzymes used in the stomach are
are triggered at a lower pH than enzymes used in our limbs
- Cofactors: Vitamins and minerals
- End products of certain metabolic pathways (Concentration)
- Ionizing Radiation
- Most enzymes work in both directions
-

Catabolism: cellular respiration (pathway by which glucose is broken down). Has 3 major parts:
1. Glycolysis: immediate acquisition of energy (glucose), deconstructing glucose without
oxygen (Anaerobic), into the cell's cytoplasm.
a. Advantages: it happens immediately
b. Disadvantage: Produces very little energy (only 2 ATPs / glucose molecule)
2. Citric acid cycle: aka Krebs cycle
a. Happens inside inner chamber of mitochondria
b. Pyruvic acid from glycolysis are converted to 36 molecules of ATP
c. CoA is broken down to yield waste -> CO2 and energy is stored in ATP

3. Electron transport system:

a. Protons flow back into inner chamber via pump molecules in cristae
i. Energy of movement is transferred to ATP
b. Low-energy electrons coming off the ETS binds to O2 and rejoin protons to form
H2O
Anabolism: Protein synthesis

Glycolysis is broken apart two 2 pyruvic acid molecules to yield a small amount of NRG
Allosteric effectors ex:

- Temperature
- Hydrogen ion (H+) concentration (pH)
- Ionizing radiation
- Cofactors
- End products of certain metabolic pathways

GLYCOLYSIS IS THE IMMEDIATE OBTENSION OF ENERGY DECONSTRUCTING

GLUCOSE WITHOUT OXYGEN INTO THE CELLS CYTOPLASM
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Something something something to do the oxidative phosphorylation

Phospilation? Phosphorylation?

Extra Things to Note:

-20, -70 = membrane potential??
Cells never allow the entry or the exit of proteins
Electricity does not affect molecules?
There are functional proteins (ex: carbon) and structural proteins (ex: ligaments, muscles)
Every enzyme has a specific target
Enzymes cannot work without the proper: temp, pH, concentration
Allosteric = facilitator
Pepsin is peak functional at a level of 3 pH of reaction
Trypsin is peak functional at a neutral level of pH (between 7-8)
ADP + P = ATP (ATP = battery)
Anaerobic = no oxygen; happens in cytoplasm
Energy comes from the sun
Humans fabricate water by burning sugar to create water
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Week 3 - Human Tissues Q1

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Week 4 - Organization of the Body

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Week 5 - Respiratory Anatomy Q2

Q2 Notes
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Week 6 - Respiratory Physiology

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Week 7 - Muscular System Anatomy & Physiology

Q3

Q3 Notes
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Week 8 - Midterm (Weeks 1-7)

Midterm Notes
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Week 9 - Heart Anatomy & Physiology

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Week 10 - Skeletal Systems & Tissues Q4

Q4 Notes
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Week 11 - Skin - Integument

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Week 12 - Nervous System & Autonomic Q5

Q5 Notes
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Week 13 - Central and Peripheral Nervous System

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Week 14 - Sense Organs Q6

Q6 Notes
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Week 15 - Final Exam

Final Exam Notes