Transportation Engineering II Ls1

INTRODUCTION
Transport engineering is the study of transportation systems. A lot of emphasis is

given to the road and its accessories. This module unit is intended to equip the
trainee with skills and attitudes necessary for the design and construction of
transportation systems.
General Objectives
By the end of this unit the trainee should be able to:
a) Understand principles of construction of transport systems
b) Acquire knowledge of material selection and stabilization
c) Understand principles of railway work
d) Understand the process of dredging
e) Appreciate the need for maintenance of transportation system elements
f) Apply labour based methods for construction of rural access roads
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Road/ Runway Construction
• Setting out a construction site
• Procedure of executing earthwork operations
• Construction process of various pavements
• Installation of road/ runway furniture
• Construction Methods
2. Materials for Construction
• Selection of materials
• Stabilization
• Bituminous binders
• Laboratory tests
3. Railway Track Work
• Types of Rails
• Components
• Laying railway lines
4. Dredging
• Terms used in dredging
• Reasons for dredging
• Factors affecting dredging works
• Procedure of dredging
• Plant for dredging
5. Maintenance of Roads
• Classes of maintenance
• Purpose of maintenance
• Types of failure
• Remedies of failure
• Costing maintenance work
6. Labour based Construction
• Evolution of construction methods
• Merits and demerits
• Sourcing of funds
ROAD/ RUNWAY CONSTRUCTION
Setting out a construction site
Module learning objectives and content
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have learned this module you should:
- know how to determine the most suitable alignment of a. road;
- describe why setting out the construction works well in advance is important;
- be able to describe how a road is set out in different types of terrain;
- know how to set out horizontal and vertical alignment, camber, cuts and fills and
hairpin bends;
- know how "tasks" are set;
- be able to describe the instruments and aids used for the setting out of rural roads
and know how to use them.
CED-1.1. Survey of proposed alignments
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVE
After you have learned this element you should:
- know how to determine the most suitable alignment of a road
SURVEY
If a road has to be constructed from point A to point B, several alignments are

possible. Although the shortest connection between two points is a straight line, the
road leading from point A to point B will very seldom be entirely straight. This is so
for various reasons:
(a.) a straight, short alignment may lead through villages, farms or public property. In
many cases this is not acceptable as it would be necessary to destroy high value
crops, buildings or public facilities to let the road through;
(b) especially in rolling/hilly/mountainous terrain the gradients of a straight
alignment would often be too steep or the earthworks required would be excessive;
(c) the straight alignment may pass through extremely difficult terrain (rocks,
swamps) which, if at all possible, should be avoided to minimise construction costs;
(d) if a river or other obstacle has to be crossed another alignment may be necessary
to cross at the most suitable place;
(e) it may be that, by choosing a slightly longer alignment, the road can be
constructed on a soil type more suitable for road construction.
In addition, the choice of alignment may be influenced by the location of suitable

sources of water, for the camp and construction, and the location of gravel deposits.
The final alignment will be chosen after all these points have been taken into
account.
Naturally, when short rural roads are built to provide access to a certain area, it
often happens that existing tracks can be followed and only minor realignments may
be required.
When, with the construction of a. new road, several alignments are possible, the
engineer will take his decision based on an estimate of:
1. Construction costs - e.g. an alignment of a. certain length with steep gradients up

to 10 per cent (alignment 1) will be cheaper to construct than an alignment of the
same length with gradients up to 5 per cent (alignment 2). For the latter, the
necessary earthworks will be far more extensive.
2. Costs to future traffic - these costs will be greater for alignment 1 than for
alignment 2. More energy is used to climb steep gradients and more wear to brakes,
etc. will occur when descending. Stronger means of transport will be required for
alignment 1.
Note: for short rural roads when future traffic volumes are expected to be low,
usually the higher construction costs cannot be justified on the grounds of a
decrease in cost to the future traffic.
3. Maintenance costs - the costs to maintain steep gradients are higher than the
costs to maintain gentle gradients (erosion, see module M-10 DRAINAGE).
4. Social costs and benefits - in many cases the higher construction costs of a longer
alignment may be justified if the road would serve a public facility (e.g. school, health
centre).
Also, the designer should consider (i) how the land over which the road alignment
passes is used; (ii) to whom the land belongs (LE-1/1, point (a)).
Although compensation arrangements can normally be made, a careful

consideration of all possible alternatives at the design stage may avoid many
problems;
It is extremely important to set out the centre-line of a. new road well in advance of
the start of the construction works. This will allow the local people to sort out right
of way problems and will also ensure that no new crops are planted in the road area.
CED-1.2. Instruments and aids for setting out
LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES
- be able to describe the instruments and aids used for the setting out of rural roads;
- know how these instruments and aids are used and apply them in the correct way
on site.
DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION
The elementary aids and instruments used for setting out are the following:
1. pegs (reference, survey, and multi-purpose);

2. tape measure/measuring wire;
3. ranging rods;
4. boning rods;
5. triangle sets;
6. cross staff;
7. optical square;
8. gradient template;
9. straight-edge in combination with spirit level;
10. abney level;
11. dumpy level;
12. water manometer;
13. tube water level;
14. camberboard.
1. Reference pegs are used to mark the alignment and/or the levels of the road.
Usually, they are made of wood. These pegs should have a length of approximately
40 cm and a cross-section 5 cm round or 5 × 5 square. It is advisable to paint at least
the top half of the peg yellow or white so that it stays well visible even after a period
of several months. The chainage of the road will be marked on the reference peg
(chainage shows the distance from the beginning of the road). Figure 1 shows a
round peg which is placed 1,600 metres from the beginning of the road. The
chainage is written in km with 4 digits (1+600). Use wax crayon or pens with indelible
waterproof ink when writing on the reference pegs. Reference pegs have to be
placed outside the formation of the road in order not to be demolished during
construction.
Ensure that these pegs are hammered deep into the ground so that it will be
impossible for children to remove them. This should be done even if it means a lot of
work, as reference pegs are vital during construction and very useful as references
for maintenance afterwards.
Fig. 1.
Survey pegs show the centre-line of the road in flat terrain, when no fill or cut is
required.
In hilly or mountainous terrain where side-long cuts have to be made the survey pegs
show the future level of the road.
When a cut has to be made the survey peg shows the limit and depth of the cut.
Survey pegs are discussed in more detail in LE-4 and LE-5.
Multi-purpose pegs are used to stake out cross-sections, points of the centre-line
between the survey pegs, "tasks", levels, etc. They are usually sharpened wooden
sticks of approximately 30 cm long.
A string line can be used to make the straight line between the pegs visible, which is
especially useful with the setting out of tasks. Workers can then clearly see what
they are expected to do,
2. Tape measure - A great variety of tape measures exist. The most common length
of tape measure used for setting out is 30 metres. The tapes are made of steel or
linen. Although the former is stronger, the numbers become illegible after a period
of use.
Note that the zero point is not always located at the same place with different types
of tape measure. A common type is shown in figure 2.
Fig. 2.
Obviously, the tape measure is most commonly used to measure lengths and widths.
However, the tape measure can be used for various other purposes, e.g. to set out a.
right angle (LE-2/7).
Measuring wires, which are thin steel wires marked at certain distances, can be very
useful in road construction because they are far stronger and therefore more
durable than the usual type of tape measure.
Fig. 3.
3. Ranging rods are sticks usually 2.5-3.0 metres long with a diameter of
approximately 2.5 cm. They are made of various materials (metal, hard plastic or
wood) and are usually provided with a pointed metal end. Painted alternatively red
and white they are clearly visible. The length of the red/white sections varies: 25 cm,
30 cm or 50 cm as shown in figure 4.
Fig. 4.
4. Boning rods - These are T-shaped and of a uniform height. They can be easily
manufactured by nailing a wooden lath of approximately 80 cm long and 10 cm wide
on another lath of approximately 150 cm long and 10 cm wide so that the end result
looks like a "T" (figure 5). A simple stand can be manufactured so that the setting out
can be done by two instead of three persons if necessary.
Fig. 5.
Paint the upper lath in a clearly visible colour. Different colours should be used for
different boning rods.
When "level pegs" show two levels of the road "boning rods" can be used to
establish a "line of sight", which enables you to find additional levels in between or
beyond the level pegs. This "line of sight" is established by putting boning rods on
top of the level pegs and looking over the top of the boning rods. Figure 6 shows
how the new level is found:
Fig. 6.
This man can see that boning rod 3 is too low. When the man in the middle moves
uphill his boning rod will come into the line of sight. He then moves his boning rod
up (or down) until the top is at the correct height. The bottom of the boning rod is
then at the required new level.
Note that this method should not be used to set out new alignments in hilly terrain,
but only to find additional points between level pegs! Setting out in hilly terrain by
an inexperienced person can cause excessive and unnecessary earthworks.
5. Triangle sets - These can be manufactured from three wooden laths to show
different angles.
They can be used for various purposes:
- to set out a right angle to a centre-line (which has to be done when cross-sections
are set out);
- to control or estimate the steepness of gradients (in this case a spirit level or
plumbing line is also required).
The steepness of gradients is described as a ratio: for example a gradient of 1:2

means that for this gradient 2 metres in the horizontal direction have to be covered
for every metre of vertical rise (figure 7).
Fig. 7.
How to make triangle sets

Figure 8 shows a triangle set made from three wooden laths of 200, 200 and 283 cm
lengths respectively.
This set shows a gradient of 1:1.
Fig. 8.
The lengths required for sets which show gradients of 1:2 and 1:1.5 are:
SET VERTICAL LATH HORIZONTAL LATH DIAGONAL LATH

1:2 1.00 m 2.00 m 2.24 m
1:1.5 1.33 m 2.00 m 2.40 m
1:1 2.00 m 2.00 m 2.83 m
How to measure a gradient with a triangle set
Gradients can be measured with a triangle set if the top lath is horizontal. This can be
achieved either by placing a spirit level on the top lath or with a piece of string with
an attached weight (plumb line), fixed on the vertical lath. Figure 9 shows the
measurement of a 1:1 slope (45°) with a triangle set, controlled by the string
method.
Fig. 9.
How to set out a right angle with a triangle set
When you wish to set out a cross-section at a right angle to a centre-line of a road
you can use any of the three types of triangle sets shown in figure 8, provided that
you lay one of the two short sides of the set exactly along the centre-line as shown in
figure 10.
Fig. 10.
How to set out a right angle with a tape measure
Naturally, the longer the sides of your triangle set, the smaller is the chance to make
mistakes.
A very good method is therefore to use a tape measure and pegs, measuring out a
triangle with legs of 3, 4 and 5 metres (figure 11).
Lengths of 6, 8 and 10 or 9, 12 and 15 metres can also be used (in fact any three
lengths of which the sum of the squares of the shorter two is equal to the square of
the longer: a2 + b2 = c2 with c naturally as the longest side).
Fig. 11.
The right angle is found as follows:
1. measure length A-B of 4 metres along the centre-line of the road (drive in pegs
exactly on point A and B);
2. circle a length of 5 metres around from point B;
3. circle a length of 5 metres around from point A;
4. point C is the point of intersection of both circles;
5. drive in a peg on point C;
B-C is now at a right angle to A-B.
A method to set out a right angle with only a piece of string is the following:
1. take a piece of string of a reasonable length (say 5 metres);
2. mark the exact middle with a ribbon or knot;
3. put the piece of string along the centre-line with the knot or ribbon on point B
(figure 12);
4. drive in pegs on points A and D;
5. circle the full length of the string around from point A;
6. circle the full length of the string around from point D;
7. point C is the point of intersection of both circles;
8. B-C is now at a right angle to A-D.
Fig. 12.
6. Cross-staff
How to set out a right angle with a "cross-staff"
The "cross-staff" (figure 13) consists of two pieces of timber about 30 cm long, set at
right angles on top of a pole.
Fig. 13.
As shown, each piece of timber is fitted with a sight made up of two pieces of thin
metal, one fitted at each end. One piece is cat to a point, the other to a V-slot. When
manufacturing this instrument its accuracy should be checked by comparing a right
angle set up with the staff in one orientation with that in the complementary
orientation.
The pole is placed in the ground so that the sights are level. One sight is set along the
surveying line. The line of the other sight is at a right angle to the surveying line.
7. Optical square
How to set out a right angle with an optical square
The optical square is more accurate than the cross-staff.
It allows the user to see an object at a right angle to the line of survey by the use of
either a mirror or prism system. The rays of light are reflected as shown in figure 14.
Fig. 14.
The observer can see point B through a narrow opening left in the optical square and
at the same time point C in the mirror or prism.
When two ranging rods are placed in point B and C the observer will see ranging rod
B direct and ranging rod C reflected (figure 15A).
When points A and B on the survey line are known and point C has to be found
(angle CAB being a right angle) (figure 14), the person holding ranging rod C should
move forwards or backwards until the observer sees the reflection of rod C in one
line with his direct view of rod B (figure 15B).
Fig. 15A.
Fig. 15B.
8. Gradient template is a device which can be easily manufactured on site. With a

gradient template a line of sight can be established at a particular angle.
To use the gradient template for finding a new level you need to:
(i) know the required gradient;

(ii) have one level point.
The gradient template can also be used to determine what the gradient is
when two level points are known.
To manufacture the gradient template you need:
(i) four pieces of wooden lath (length approx. 60 cm);

(ii) a plumb line (a piece of strong thin wire with a suitable weight);
(iii) a stand (figures 16 and 17) approximately 1.5 metres high.
The engineer or surveyor will mark the gradients on the bottom edge of the triangle.
Fig. 16.
Two nails fixed on the middle lath, as shown in figure 16, establish the line of sight.
When you look along this line of sight to the top of a pole held by an assistant, you
can see whether the point where he has placed this pole is at the right level. If this is
not so, you tell him to move the pole upwards or downwards until the right level has
been found.
Fig. 17.
Note: 11 = 12
The stand is not a tripod but should have two legs to make it easier for the operator
to hold the template stable while looking along the line of sight.
9. An easy way to measure a gradient (short distanced) is to use a straight-edge in

combination with a spirit level and a tape measure.
Figure 18 shows how a gradient of 1:15 is measured. The straight-edge is usually

about 5 metres in length and is set horizontally with a spirit level. This method
should be used for the measurement of gradients which continue only for short
distances, e.g. culvert beds.
Fig. 18.
10. Abney level - This instrument can be used for the measurement of vertical angles
as well as for setting out levels.
Vertical angles are measured as follows: the sight is taken on to a point which should
be at the same height above the ground as the eye of the observer. The line of sight
will then be parallel to the ground surface between A and B (figure 19).
Fig. 19.
Holding the abney level in this position (the cross hair intersects the target), the air-
bubble in the tube of the abney level should be positioned in the middle against the
cross hair by turning the milled head. The angle of the line of sight with the
horizontal can then be read on the are (figure 20).
The abney level can also be used to set out certain gradients, The arc should be set at
the required angle or gradient (e.g. 5°40' or 1:10) and a line of sight established.
This is done as follows: the person using the abney level tells the assistant holding
the boning rod in which direction and how much to move up or down. The operator
can do this by looking through the instrument while keeping the bubble in the
middle of the mirror. He directs his assistant until the top of this person's boning rod
is at the right height.
Finally, the abney level can be used to measure distances and to transfer heights.
The degree of accuracy that can be achieved, however, is not very high so that it is
recommended to use tape measures for the former and levelling instruments for the
latter.
11. The dumpy level - This instrument is used to measure the difference in level
between two or more points. It is used in combination with levelling staffs. The
instrument is set roughly mid-way between these staffs of which one is placed on a
bench-mark. Since the dumpy level is equipped with a telescope, levels can be
transferred or new levels can be established very accurately over distances up to 100
metres. It is very important that the instrument is positioned horizontally by turning
the adjustment screws. There are several types on the market with different
methods of use which should be practised thoroughly before the instrument is used.
Fig. 20.
It is possible to manufacture a simple dumpy level on site from suitable timber and a
standard wooden-cased spirit level. The spirit level is clamped on to a pole or tripod
by drilling a hole through the spirit level and attaching it to a support with a bolt and
wing nut (figure 21). If a pole is used the lower end should be sharpened so that it
can be driven into the ground.
Fig. 21.
Sighting can be done along the line of the level, or through a pair of simple sights
formed from sheet metal. An angled mirror can be set above the glass tube of the
level to check the position of the bubble while viewing through the sights.
The level should be placed in the ground so that the pole is approximately vertical.
The level is adjusted until the bubble is exactly between the centre marks. The
sighting is done along the line of the level to the levelling staff held by an assistant.
Since the operator will have to take readings without optical aids the range of this
instrument is normally limited to about 10 metres.
Taking readings is easier if the operator can sight on a moveable horizontal target on
the levelling staff (figure 22).
Fig. 22.
12. Water manometer - An even simpler method of manufacturing a crude levelling

instrument is to replace the spirit level with a length of rubber tube with two lengths
of glass tube at each end (figure 23).
Fig. 23.
This instrument is called a water manometer.
The rubber tube should be approximately 40 cm long and the glass tubes 10 cm
each. The two glass tubes are clamped to a piece of wood about 50 cm long.
The clamps can be made from strips of inner tube nailed to the wood through
hardboard pads. Simple sights cut from sheet metal are attached to the ends of the
length of wood. The length of wood is attached to a mounting block on top of a pole
or tripod by means of a. bolt and wing nut. If a pole is used, its lower end should be
sharpened so that it can be driven into the ground. The U-tube is filled with water to
within about 30 mm from the top. The ends may be fitted with stoppers to prevent
loss of water. The instrument is placed in the ground so that the pole is
approximately vertical. It is levelled by adjusting the angle until the line of the two
water levels is parallel to the top surface of the length of wood. Sighting is along the
line of the instrument to the levelling staff held by a second operator.
13. Tube water level - A very accurate and simple instrument for measuring the level
differences of two points is the "tube water level".
This level, illustrated in figure 24, consists of a length of clear plastic pipe clipped at
each end to a wooden levelling staff. The two levelling staffs should be of the same
length., about 1.5 ID long. A graduated tape is attached to each stave, with the zero
level with the top end of the stave. The tube is filled with water until the level is
about 1 m high from the ground. The ends of the tube are fitted with rubber
stoppers to prevent loss of water. The total length of tube, which defines the range
of the instrument, is variable, but is usually limited to about 15 m by the difficulty of
moving the level around.
Fig. 24.
The two standpipes are brought together at the starting point, the stoppers removed
and the readings taken level with the bottom of each meniscus. The readings should
be the same (e.g. reading A -= 50 cm, reading B = 50 cm). The headman takes his
standpipe to the point being measured and takes another reading. The difference
between the two readings is the difference in level (e.g. now reading A = 30 cm and
reading B = 70 cm, the difference in level is now 70 - 30 = 40 cm,
Range is limited only by the convenience of being able to carry the tube. The two
points whose difference in level is being measured do not need to be in sight of one
another. The level gives accurate results and with care can be used for setting level
lines or slopes not less than 1 in 1,000.
14. A camberboard is used to control the camber of the road. Its length is usually the
distance centre-line shoulder. In cases where the shoulder has the same gradient as
the running surface the length of the camber board can also include the shoulder.
Figure 25 shows a 2.50 metre long camberboard showing a gradient of 5 per cent
(1:20).
Fig. 25.
The camberboard is used in combination with a spirit level. If the spirit level is placed
on top and is level, the under side of the camberboard shows a gradient of 5 per
cent.
Fig. 26.
CED-1.3. Setting out of horizontal alignments

After you have learned this element you should be able to:
- describe what is meant by "horizontal alignment";

- set out the horizontal alignment.
NATURE AND DEFINITION
On flat and rolling terrain the horizontal alignment can be set out as a number of
straight lines. These straight lines are later on joined by curves. Figure 27 shows how
this initial stage looks as viewed from above (plan). Most public works departments
have standards for the horizontal alignment (e.g., for each type of road a certain
minimum radius has to be applied for curves). When a road becomes more
important higher standards are necessary.
Fig. 27.
In hilly and mountainous terrain the horizontal alignment is more difficult to deal
with. In this type of terrain the alignment is to a great extent determined by the
gradients of the future road. This is described in LE-4.
Setting out of straight lines
On flat ground the centre-line of the road is set out initially as a series of straight
lines. Ranging rods and pegs are used for this purpose. The distance between the
centre-line pegs should not be more than 20 metres.
Fig. 28.
Setting out of curves
There are various methods to set out curves. However, when rural roads designed
for low traffic volumes are set out it is usually sufficient to follow existing tracks and
to improve existing curves where necessary. Two simple methods to set out circular
and parabolic curves using only a tape measure, pegs and strings are described on
the following page. Figure 29 shows how a circular curve with a 30 metre radius is
set out. This method can only be applied when the area around the curve is easily
accessible.
Fig. 29.
Points B and C are called tangent points.

B-D and C-D are called tangents.
A parabolic curve can be set out as shown in figure 50. This curve should be set out
from equal tangents, so that the steeper portion is not pushed nearer to one tangent
than to the other.
Fig. 30.
The method of setting out is as follows:
(1) the point of intersection of the tangents (D) is determined. Then, the most
suitable length of the tangents is set out and measured;
(2) pegs are put to show the tangent points B and C;
(5) each tangent is divided into equal number of parts and numbered as shown
above;
(4) the points on the curve are found as the intersections of lines 1-1 with 2-2, 2-2
with 3-3 and 3-3 with 4-4.
After the centre-line of the road has been established, reference pegs are placed 1
metre outside the formation as shown in figure 31. The chainage is marked on these
pegs, which are used to plan, organise and measure the work during the construction
period.
Fig. 31.
After the road has been constructed these pegs will serve as useful references to the
maintenance supervisors.
CED-1.4. Setting out of vertical alignments
- describe what is meant by "vertical alignment";

- set out the vertical alignment.
The vertical alignment, sometimes called the longitudinal section of the road, shows
the level of the road. As with the horizontal alignment, most public works
departments have standards for the vertical alignment (e.g., for each type of road
minimum as well as maximum gradients have been established). Of course, these
rules concerning the gradients greatly influence the alignment of the road and the
amount of earthworks required.
Setting out of the vertical alignment
The setting out of the vertical alignment of a road in hilly and mountainous terrain
calls for a lot of experience. Major earthworks can be avoided if the contours of the
terrain are followed to the greatest extent possible. This can often be done in the
case of rural roads. Naturally the maximum allowable gradients should not be
exceeded.
The vertical alignment of rural roads in hilly/mountainous terrain can, in principal, be
set out with an abney level and boning rods. In this type of terrain the survey pegs
show the future level of the road.
Fig. 32.
When the survey pegs have been set out it is the task of the supervisor to place the
pegs showing where the excavation has to start. It is good practice to place such pegs
a fixed distance (say 0.5 metres) outside the area where the excavation has to take
place (figure 33). To guide the workers, multi-purpose pegs can be set at
the exact place where excavation has to start. These pegs are then connected with
strings.
The place where this upper line of pegs will have to be set depends on:
(i) the width of the future road;

(ii) the angle of the hillside slope;
(iii) the angle of the face of the cut.
"Slots" showing (i) the level of the road (ii) the area of excavation can be dug into the
hillside (see hatched areas of figure 55) to facilitate the supervision and the setting of
tasks. Slots are discussed in detail in module M-9 "Earthworks".
Fig. 33.
Where "cuts" or "fills" have to be set out the survey pegs should be marked to
indicate how much will have to he dug or filled (figure 34). When level
measurements are written on the peg always measure from the top of the peg.
Fig. 34.
The pegs are set outside the area of filling/excavation so that they will not be lost
during the work. (Multi-purpose pegs can of course be put at the exact limits of
excavation/fill.)
The width of cut or fill is determined by the formation width of the road and the
angles of the side slopes of the excavation/embankment.
Multi-purpose pegs should be set while the work goes on to show the workers where
to dump or excavate the soil.
Triangle sets can be used to check whether the slopes have the correct angle and are
handy when new pegs have to be placed.
CED-1.5. Setting out of cross-sections, including cuts and fills
- explain why cross-sections are set out;

- set out different cross-sections in the field;
- describe what a cross-section shows when drawn on a drawing board.
CROSS-SECTIONS. NATURE AND DEFINITION
A cross-section of a road shows:
- where the different parts (ditch, slope, shoulder, running surface) of the road are
located;
- how much and which type of work (cut, fill) has to be carried out to construct the
road at a particular point.
When a cross-section is set out in the field, survey pegs and multi-purpose pegs
show:
- the centre-line of the road (flat terrain, figure 35);

- the level of the road (flat/hilly/mountainous terrain, cut, fill);
- the location of the ditches (flat terrain, figure 35);
- the limit of excavation (cut, side long cut);
- the foot of the embankment (fill).
All cross-sections should be set out at right angles to the centre-line of the road.
Several methods of setting out right angles have been discussed in LE-2.
Cross-section of standard formation (flat terrain)
In this case, the survey pegs serve to mark the centre-line as well as the road level.
When it is necessary to cut or fill to reach the required level, this is shown on the peg
(figure 36)
The level is written as a three-digit number, showing the required cut or fill in metres
(e.g. +0.20 means that a fill of 20 centimetres is required). When the level is
indicated always measure from the top of the peg!
Fig. 35.
Fig. 36.
Cross-section of side cut
Here the survey peg marks the road level. After the road has been excavated to level,
the centre-line and ditch slope pegs will be placed.
Fig. 37.
Cross-section of cut to fill
Again, the survey peg marks the future level of the road. Figure 58 shows that the
volume of the excavation is approximately twice the volume of the fill and that a
bench-notch should be dug to provide a stable foundation for the fill side of the
road.
Fig. 38.
Cross-section of a fill
The survey pegs on both sides of the road show the height to be filled. The fill height
is marked on the peg and measured from the top of the peg. Note that with a slope
of 1:1 on both sides, the formation width can be calculated by adding hF1 and hF2 to
the road width.
Fig. 39.
CED-1.6. Hairpin bends
When you have learned this element, you should:
- understand what a hairpin bend is and when it has to be constructed;

- know how to set out a hairpin bend.
DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION
In mountainous terrain where very steep slopes are encountered it is sometimes

unavoidable to use hairpin bends. These are bends with a very small radius
continuing in some cases until the direction of the road has changed 180°. When a
number of hairpin bends are constructed it is possible to descend a slope where little
space for road construction is available. However, hairpin bends are not only difficult
to construct and maintain but also difficult for traffic to use. Therefore, they should
be avoided if alternative solutions exist.
Setting out of hairpin bends
Figure 40 shows a longitudinal section of a hairpin bend. As you can see, the bend
joins two sloping road sections but is nearly flat itself. This is necessary to provide a
"rest" point to climbing or descending vehicles while they are negotiating the bend.
Fig. 40.
Figure 41 shows how the hairpin bend looks as viewed from above (plan). The survey
pegs, which serve as road level pegs, are placed as shown on the plan during the
initial survey of the road. Point "X" is the intersection point of the two level lines ZX
and YX. From this point the inner curve can be set out.
In the example used (radius of inner curve 3 m and road width 6 m) a cut of 12
metres will have to be made from point X inwards. (2 × 3 m + 6 m; see cross-section
A-A.) In the example the radius of the outer curve is chosen to be 9.5 metres.
However, to provide more space to the vehicles the centre of the inner and outer
curve is not on the same spot. The plan shows that the centre of the outer curve has
been moved 2 metres inwards.
To provide good drainage and safety, the outer curve of the bend is set out to be
higher than the inner curve. This means that the road will be sloping inwards, so
that, when the surface is slippery, vehicles will never slip towards the dangerous
outer side of the curve. Also, all surface water will be collected at the inner side of
the bend, so that erosion on the outer side is minimised.
Fig. 41.
Figure 42 shows the three cross-sections A-A, B-B, C-C which are indicated on the
plan.
These cross-sections can be set out after the road levels have been determined.
Since hairpin bends normally only occur in mountainous terrain, the normal camber
is usually not applied, but the road is sloping towards the mountain to provide more
safety and better drainage.
The percentages of cross-fall are shown in the plan (figure 41).

Fig. 42.
CED-1.7. Setting out of tasks
- know how to set out tasks;

- understand the importance of clearly setting out tasks.
For the purposes of setting out, it is sufficient to know that certain quantities of work
will have to be set out before the work is started. This should be done to show the
individual worker (or groups of workers in some cases) how much work he will have
to carry out as his daily task.
Setting out of tasks

Pegs and strings are normally used to set out lines or areas, not volumes. While it is
therefore easy to stake out tasks for certain road construction activities, such as
bush clearing and grubbing, it is more difficult for other activities such as excavation
to level, ditching and sloping. In the latter cases you will have to use additional
setting out aids (triangle set, boning rods, templets, or measuring stick) to check the
work after a certain area is covered.
When, for example, you have set out a certain length and width of ditch to be
excavated, you will have to check the depth with a measuring stick of a pre-
determined length after the Job has been completed.
You should remember that clear setting-out of a task is extremely important if the
work is to be executed as planned and disputes are to be avoided.
You can accomplish this by using many multi-purpose pegs at short intervals or
connecting the pegs with strings. This will clearly define and show what the worker
has to do.
CED-1.8. Module summary and checkpoint
After you have learned this learning element you should be able to:
- explain how the most suitable alignment of the road is determined;
- describe the instruments and aids used for the setting out of rural roads and know
how to use them;
- know how the setting out of horizontal and vertical alignment, cross-sections, cuts,
fills and hairpin bends is carried out;
- explain why it is important to set out well in advance of the construction works;
- explain why setting out tasks is necessary and how this should be done.
SUMMARY
Before a road is set out in detail, a survey is made to determine which alignment is
the most suitable.
For this purpose, technical, social and economical factors will have to be taken into
account.
When this alignment has been established the detailed setting out of the road can be
carried out with various instruments and aids. The alignment of a road can be shown
on maps and drawings by a horizontal alignment or plan and a vertical
alignment or longitudinal section.
In the field the alignment is shown by survey pegs which mark the centre-line and
level of the road (flat terrain) or the level of the road (hilly/mountainous terrain,
cuts, fills).
Cross-sections show, when drawn on a drawing board, what the final shape of the
road will be and how much and which type of work has to be carried out to construct
the road.
When set out in the field, the various cross-section pegs give all the necessary
information in respect of the location and the level of the road.
Hairpin bends are very sharp bends with a small radius connecting two sloping road
sections. They should be applied only when little space for road construction is
available, i.e., on very steep hillsides.
The setting of tasks is necessary to show individuals or groups of workers how much
work they are expected to finish in one day. It is very important that this
is clearly shown before the work is started.
PROBLEMS
Try to find a solution to the following problems.
1. One survey peg showing the level of the road on a hillside has disappeared. Which
methods can we use to place a new one and how do we check that it is at the right
level?
2. We want to set out a task for sloping. Which aids can we use to check if the task is
carried out properly?
3. We want to set out an embankment (fill). The road width on top of the fill is 6
metres. The slopes of the embankment should be 1:2. The height of the fill on the
left side of the embankment is 1.80 metres, on the right side 2.25 metres. Make a
sketch of the cross-section of the embankment (with measurements) and explain
how the setting out of this cross-section is done in the field. Show clearly where the
survey pegs are placed and how they are marked.
MODULE CHECKPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (F):

4. Reference pegs mark the chainage and the level of the road ..........
5. Cross-sections are set out:
(a) with boning rods ..........
(b) at a right angle to the centre-line ..........
(c) to show the correct gradient of the road ..........
(d) to indicate the work which has to be carried out at a ..........
particular point of the road
(e) to show the location of all components (ditches, ..........
shoulders, etc.) of the road at a particular point
6. Level pegs are not needed when the road passes through flat
terrain
7. To set out the vertical alignment of a new road, the surveyor
needs:
(a) an abney level ..........
(b) 5 to 4 assistants ..........
(c) triangle sets ..........
(d) camber board ..........
(e) boning rods ..........
(f) ranging rods ..........
(g) strings ..........
8. From where do you start measuring if a survey peg shows
+1.60?
(a) from the top of the peg ..........
(b) from ground level ..........
Answer briefly:
9. When a new road is proposed and several alignments are possible, which factors
should be considered?
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10 What is the purpose of survey pegs?
.
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11 What is meant if it is stated that the average gradient of a road is 1:10?
.
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12 How do you set out a task for the digging of a ditch, when the ditch is 0.5 metres
. wide and 0.4 metres deep and the daily task for one man is 2.4 cubic metres?
..................................................................................................................................
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13 What is the chainage of a road and how is it indicated?
.
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14 Why should hairpin bends and steep slopes be avoided as much as possible?
.
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ACTION GUIDELINES FOR SURVEYING AND SETTING OUT
Always clearly explain to the headmen and workers what the pegs mean.
Remember:
(i) That survey pegs usually show the level and the centre-line of the road in flat
terrain and only the level on hillsides.
(ii) That reference pegs show the chainage of the road and are placed outside the
road formation.
(iii) That the ground height at level pegs shows the future level of the road unless cut
or fill instructions are written on the peg. When such instructions are written on the
peg, start measuring from the top of the peg. Place your pegs at regular intervals
(maximum 20 metres) and remember that more pegs will facilitate not only your
supervision work but also the work of the labourers as they can clearly see what will
have to be done.
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS
SURVEY
Remember that:
- the alignment of a road from A to B is seldom a straight line between these points.
When surveying you have to think of technical questions (gradients, rocks, swamps,
soil type, places of river crossings, availability of gravel) and social questions (villages
to be served, crops and properties to be avoided);
- when several alignments are possible a choice should be made on the basis of
construction costs, maintenance costs, costs to future traffic and social costs and
benefits.
INSTRUMENTS AND AIDS FOR SETTING OUT
- The chainage of the road is marked with indelible ink or wax on the reference pegs
(use four digits, e.g. 0+480).
- Reference pegs should be placed a fixed distance outside the formation width of
the road.
- Survey pegs show the centre-line of the road in flat terrain when no fill or cut is
required. In hilly terrain they show the future level of the road.
- Many surveying tools can be made locally from simple materials.
- Boning rods are used to find additional levels between given level points.
- Right angles can be set out with a triangle set, a tape measure, a piece of string, a
cross-staff or an optical square.
- Gradients can be measured with a triangle set, a gradient template, a straight-edge

in combination with. a spirit-level and a tape measure, an abney level and a dumpy
level.
- New levels can be set out with. an abney level, a gradient template and a dumpy
level.
- The water manometer and the tube water level are very suitable to transfer levels
at short distances.
- The tube water level is an easy and accurate aid to measure the level differences of
two points.
- A camberboard is used in combination with a spirit-level to check the camber of the
road.
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
- Existing design standards have to be applied for the horizontal and vertical
alignment of a road.
- The distance between the centre-line pegs should not be more than 20 m.
- Major earthworks can often be avoided when the contours of the terrain are
followed.
- With U-cuts and fills survey pegs should be set 0.5 m outside the area of
filling/excavation and are marked to indicate how much will have to be excavated or
filled.
- You should always measure from the top of the peg when level measurements are
written on the peg.
CROSS-SECTIONS
- The cross-section shows where the different parts of the road are located and how
much and which type of work has to be carried out to construct the road.
- Cross-sections are set out at right angles to the centre-line of the road.
- Place multi-purpose pegs showing (i) the edges of the road formation, (ii) the
location of the ditches, and (iii) the centre-line of the road. In the case of cuts and
fills you can only place the multi-purpose pegs mentioned under (i).
- Check the slopes of the embankment/cut-face regularly with triangle sets. Place
additional multi-purpose pegs while the work goes on to show the workers where to
excavate or fill.
- In the case of cut to fill, dig benches in the natural slope to support the fill area.
Road slides may occur after rains if these benches are forgotten.
SETTING OUT OF TASKS

- Tasks should be planned and set out either in the evening after the workers have
left or very early in the morning before the workers have arrived.
- Examine the area of next day's work thoroughly during the working day so that you
know which tasks should be carried out and which task rates should be applied.
Calculate the areas to be set out and draw them on a road plan. This will help you
when you are setting out the tasks.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader in detail on how many workers should work on a
particular activity and where they should work. The headman/gang leader should
assist in the actual setting out of the tasks.
- Use strings and many multi-purpose pegs so that the workers know well what they
are expected to do.
- Give the headmen/gang leaders the necessary templets (wooden boards showing
the size and shape of, for example, a ditch), measuring sticks, boning rods and tape
measures to check the work of the labourers and to do additional setting out if
necessary.
HAIRPIN BENDS
- Hairpin bends should only be applied if no alternative solutions can be found.
- The bend joins two sloping road sections but is nearly flat itself.
- The outer curve of the bend should be higher than the inner curve for safety
reasons. Also, the road sections leading to and from the hairpin bend should be
sloping towards the face of the cut. This will prevent vehicles from slipping towards
the dangerous side of the road.
- Drainage of hairpin bends is extremely important. Good measures have to be taken

to protect ditches and culvert outlets from scouring. Often lining the drains with
concrete or stones is necessary.
- Dig catchwater drains to intercept the rain water coming from the mountain slopes!
EARTHWORKS
LE-0. Module learning objectives and content
LE-1. Nature, definition and type of earthworks
LE-2. Measuring volumes
LE-3. Excavation
LE-4. Loading, hauling and unloading
LE-5. Fill (spreading, compaction, erosion protection)
LE-6. Module summary and checkpoint
CED-0. Module learning objectives and content
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have learned this module, you should:
- know what earthworks consist of;

- be able to describe how the various activities in earthworks are carried out.
CED-2.1. Nature, definition and type of earthworks

When you have learned this learning element, you should be able to:
- understand what earthwork is;

- recognise and describe the principal activities involved.
Earthwork involves the loosening, removal and handling of earth quantities in the
construction process. Earthworks are carried out to provide a level terrace or
"bench", with an even, longitudinal slope, on which the drainage and camber can be
built.
The earthwork is usually the most costly operation in the road construction, often
accounting for more than half of the construction costs.
The principal activities in earthworks are:
- measuring and calculation of volumes;

- excavation which includes levelling, cut to crossfill, U-cut and borrow excavation;
- loading, hauling and unloading;
- filling, including spreading and compaction.
Earthwork is very suitable for incentive schemes like task work because the volume
of work can be easily measured.
Suitable "tasks" can be determined after the basic soil properties, e.g. hardness and
cohesiveness, have been defined.
Each of the most important activities is described in a separate learning element in

this module.
CED-2.2. Measuring volumes
When you have learned this learning element you should:
- know how volumes are measured;

- understand and describe the slotting technique.
A rough assessment of the volumes of earth to be moved should be made at a very

early stage to facilitate planning ("before construction is started). However, in order
to use incentives such as task work the volumes of earth to be excavated have to be
measured and calculated accurately.
There are basically two ways of accurately determining the volumes to be excavated:
- using the traditional way of measuring the levels with a levelling instrument and
drawing the cross-section to scale. The volume can then be calculated;
- using the slotting technique which enables the measurements to be taken with a
ruler or tape on the cut itself.
The slotting technique is developed specifically for labour-based road construction

and is a method that can be used without elaborate survey equipment. The slotting
method is recommended for projects which do not have a special survey team and is
described below.
The slotting technique
The slotting technique is a practical way of measuring the volumes to be excavated.

It consists of excavating a 0.3-1.0 metre wide slot at right angle to the centre-line up
to the pre-determined road level and width. The bottom of the slot is horizontal and
at the formation level of the road to be built. The slot thus shows exactly how much
will have to be excavated at a particular point.
The exposed surface can then be easily measured with a tape or folding ruler and
provides the data necessary for the calculation of the volume of the earthworks.
The slot also serves as an indestructible bench-mark and gives valuable information
about soil type, existence of bedrock or other hidden obstacles to the excavation.
The slot should only be as wide as necessary for its excavation and measuring. A
higher slot has to be wider to enable the worker to excavate it to the required level.
The level and width of the slot should be so that the exact cross-section of the future
road is shown. Close and constant supervision is necessary and it is therefore
advisable to do the excavation of slots on a daily work basis, i.e. not as an incentive
work.
Slotting has to be done well ahead of the excavation; the less excavation there is to
be done per linear metre, the further ahead should the slotting be. It should be
allowed to be less than 100 metres ahead of the excavation only in cases when big
quantities of earth per linear metre have to be excavated. The distance between the
slots should not exceed 20 metres but depending on the volumes, shorter distances
may be necessary. THE MAXIMUM VOLUME BETWEEN TWO SLOTS SHOULD BE SUCH
THAT IT CAN BE EFFECTIVELY EXCAVATED BY A GANG OF 10 WORKERS IN A ONE-DAY
TASK. See also LE3 for large excavations, It must be remembered that over-crowding
a site means reduced productivity. Each worker must have ample room to work, a
distance of 2 metres between the workers should be allowed for.
Fig. 1.
For roads which are expected to carry low traffic volumes the straightness of the
vertical alignment may well be not very essential. For such roads it may well be
feasible to follow the existing terrain to a great extent.
In such circumstances a quick method to determine the most economic alignment

can be to dig the slots in such a way that cut and fill in the slot are balanced, so that
at all times the excavated material is just sufficient for the fill (in the lateral
direction). After a number of slots have been dug in this way, the
engineer/supervisor can check the levels of the various slots and make adjustments
where necessary.
The slotting, measuring and calculation of the volume is done as follows:

1. Set out the slot from the level peg of the road to the excavation peg which marks
the limit of excavation on the uphill side of the road. The slot is marked with pegs
and, if necessary, strings. Its minimum width should be 50 cm.
2. Excavate the slot to the level indicated by the level peg at the beginning of the
slot. Check that the bottom of the slot is level using a spirit level and a straight board.
When three slots or more have been excavated check with boning rods that their
levels follow the set out gradient of the road. If necessary the slots should be
adjusted to the correct level and depth by either excavating or filling soil.
3. Measure the area of the slot as necessary for the calculation of the area of the cut.
Write down the measurements on the slot form. If necessary make a small drawing
of the shape of the area.
4. Calculate the area of the slots on the slot form and get the "average" area by
adding the two areas of slots next to each other and dividing by two. The volume is
then calculated by multiplying this "average" area by the distance between the two
slots. This is all to be recorded on the slot form.
5. Transfer the calculated volumes to a simple "Bill of Quantities Book".
Fig. 2.
Slot form
CED-2.3. Excavation
When you have learned this learning element, you should be able to recognise and
organise the various types of excavation.
Excavation is the loosening of the soil from its natural, in situ, stage. When the soil is
moved over relative short distances the word excavation is often also used to cover
the transport or moving of the soil, especially when this is done by the same person.
The basic types of excavation are:
- levelling;
- cut to crossfill or spoil (side long cut);
- U-cut;
- borrow.
All excavation should be organised in such a way that the loading or throwing
activities can also proceed smoothly.
Levelling
This word is used to describe a situation where only a levelling of bumps and
depressions is necessary to provide a sufficient width for the road at a uniform level.
Levelling is best carried out with hoes, rakes and shovels as the soil only has to be
moved over short distances. The humps and ridges are cut and the soil is raked,
pushed or thrown into the holes and depressions with the hoe. Deep holes should be
compacted with hand-rammers after they have been filled.
Fig. 3.
Cut to crossfill (side long cut)

Cut to crossfill means that the soil is excavated (cut) from one side of the road and
used as fill material at the other. If the excavated soil is not used, it is going to spoil,
i.e. it is dumped outside the embankment. Cut to crossfill is an effective form of
balancing cut and fill in rolling terrain without long haulage.
In very mountainous terrain where the crossfall is usually very steep, the fill portion
is likely to be unstable. In this case it will be necessary to cut the whole road into the
hillside; the outcoming excavated material will now all be spoil!
Where such sections are encountered, the road width is usually reduced to the
minimum standard width and instead of building up a camber formation, the road
will be super elevated towards the hillside. This provides some safety to vehicles
when the road surface is slippery.
Fig. 4.
The height of the side cut can vary considerably, from a few centimetres to a number
of metres and the methods of work have to be adapted accordingly. In low cuts, up
to approximately one metre, the excavation of the whole cut area is done as one
task on the same day. The excavation should be started from the beginning of the
cut towards the hillside, throwing the soil backwards towards the fill. The final
placing of the excavated soil is then done with shovels by the shovellers of the gang.
The upper limit of the excavation is best marked with a string between the slots.
After the excavation is completed, the level of the excavated area should be checked
with boning rods placed in the slots. The third boning rod is placed in between the
slots and can be moved around to check the levels of the excavated area.
The final excavation task is the excavation of the back slope of the cut (figure 5). This
can be done as a separate task after the rest of the excavation is completed.
Fig. 5.
High cuts
In high cuts, where the volume to be excavated is very high, the excavation is more
difficult to organise. It is especially difficult to allow the workers enough space to
work. It is therefore advisable to excavate in steps. Each step is the excavation of
approximately one metre, providing a "bench" for the next days work. (figure 6). In
these cases the slotting will have to be done on a day-to-day basis. Figure 6 shows a
good approach to the excavation of a high cut. If the work is organised in this way
slots and calculations can be made without interrupting the work of the excavation
gang. The number of steps depends on the total height, the best excavation height is
around one metre and should not exceed 1.3 metres in normal cases.
Example (see figure 6a and 6b)
A 3.4 m high and 5 m (at the base level) wide cut is going to be excavated. It is
necessary to do it in steps because of the height.
The slots (A, B, C, D) have been excavated to a depth of one metre and the distance
between them is 20 m.
The volume for day 1 section A is:
We assume that the volume is 35 cubic metres (m3). The supervisor judges that
3m3 per man/day is the fair task rate and thus assigns say 12 workers to do
the excavation on day 1.
For day 2 the volume of section B down to level 1 is calculated and the excavation
done.
On day 3 when excavation is done in section C down to level 1, the slots A and B are
excavated down to level 2.
On day 4 when section A is excavated down to level 2, slots C and D are excavated
down to level 2.
The work continues in this way until the whole cut is finished.
Fig. 6a.
Fig. 6b.
U-cut
The U-cut is a cut which is roughly shaped as a U. The road is cut through e.g. a
hillcrest, in order to reduce the gradient. Haulage will be necessary if the U-cut is
deeper than one metre. For access roads carrying low traffic volumes it is good
practise to minimise excavation and hauling as much as possible by adopting a
minimum road width in U-cuts.
Figure 7 shows the stages in which a U-cut can be excavated, first a rectangular
cross-section and then the side slopes, the gradient of which should depend on the
type of soil but should not be steeper than 3:1. If U-cuts are deeper than one metre
the excavation should be organised in several steps.
Fig. 7.
Borrow
Suitable soil has to be "borrowed" from outside when the excavated soil within the
road width is not sufficient for a fill or embankment. Borrow areas parallel to the
road should be drained wherever possible to ensure that ponded water will not seep
through and weaken the embankment or fill.
The borrow area should be well planned and laid out so that haulage (with
wheelbarrows or tractors/trailers) can be organised properly and can be
implemented without people or machines waiting.
Figure 8 shows a situation where the soil along the road is suitable to be used for an
embankment. The borrow areas serve as ditches.
Fig. 8.
Soil
The characteristics of the soil have great influence on the productivity and it is
important to determine and use the correct task norms. Soil-testing instruments are
usually not available and the supervisor has to use his experience and practice skill in
determining the correct task norm; this will be practised during the field training and
apprenticeship period. The slot is also useful here since it gives a good idea of the
composition and the hardness of the soil when it is excavated. Nevertheless, there
can be unforeseen difficulties like hidden boulders or roots in the soil to be
excavated. If such difficulties occur it should not be the duty of the task-working
group to remove them, but this should be done by workers on daily paid basis.
Excavation is usually easier when the soil is fairly moist. Moist soil also compacts
easier. The excavated soil should therefore be used in the fill directly. Stockpiling will
cause the soil to dry out.
Tools
The choice of tools will greatly affect the productivity. It depends on the soil type
which tools should be used for excavation:
hoe - soft/medium soil without stones;

forked hoe - medium stony to hard soil;
pickaxe - hard stony soil;
crow bar - hard stony soil;
mattock - soil with many roots; hard soil.
Fig. 9.
Other local tools might be available, e.g. digging sticks, and can be suitable.
Ensure that all tools are ordered and procured well in advance so that they are
available in time and in sufficient number. When in use, see to it that they are
maintained and repaired. The cutting edges should be kept sharp and repaired with
whetting stones and steel files and the handles must be properly fitted, if necessary
with wedges (see M-6).
CED-2.4. Loading, hauling and unloading
When you have learned this element, you should be able to:
- describe different methods of hauling;

- organise the most frequently used haulage methods;
- describe the principles for organising wheelbarrow works.
The hauling, with the loading and unloading, is an extremely important part of the
earthworks. The haulage (transport) of the soil can be done in many ways from
carrying in a basket or a stretcher to using big dump trucks. For earth roads carrying
low traffic volumes and constructed using labour-based methods, wheelbarrows and
tractor-trailer combinations have proven to be very effective up to a hauling distance
of 8 km. For this type of road, the cut to crossfill method can be used and haulage
can be minimised. In flat areas where the road needs to be elevated the soil can
often be taken from pits alongside the road (borrowpits).
Generally, the optimal or "best" mode of haulage depends on the haulage distance
(the distance from the excavation to the dumping place). The following table gives a
general picture of the modes of haulage at different distances.
HAULING DISTANCE MODE OF HAULAGE MATERIAL TO BE MOVED

0 - 10 m Shovelling Soil
0 - 50 m Stretchers Stones, big clods of soil
10 - 150 m Wheelbarrows Soil, stone
150 - 500 m Animal carts Soil, stone, water
500 - 8 000 m Tractor-trailers Soil, stone, water
All the different modes of haulage are usually not available and then the "second-
best" solution has to be used. Tractor-trailers are for instance often used for much
shorter hauls than 500 m because no other alternative is available. On the other
hand, there exist a lot of other types of haulage which may have a tradition of use in
a specific area/region. An example is the moving of soil in donkey panniers on the
back of donkeys. These have not been listed here but the engineer/supervisor should
be open-minded and always try to find the cheapest and best way of hauling
possible.
An important thing to remember is that the loading must be matched to the haulage
so that neither loaders nor haulage equipment have to wait unnecessarily.
If machines, animal carts or great numbers of wheelbarrows are to be used, inform

the engineer in charge long in advance so that he can plan accordingly.
Tractors and trailers
Tractors and trailers can be used effectively together with manual loading at hauling
distances from 500 metres to 8 km. Each tractor should have two or three trailers
and while the tractor hauls one trailer the other(s) is(are) being loaded. The tractor
and its trailers are expensive pieces of equipment and the waiting time (idling) must
be minimised. This can only be done by proper organisation and strict supervision of
the work. The organisation and supervision of tractor-trailer haulage should be done
by a specially trained supervisor.
Gravelling with tractor-trailer haulage is described in module 14, GRAVELLING.
Wheelbarrow works
It is extremely important that wheelbarrow works are properly organised and
supervised. Before the actual hauling can start, the following preparations have to be
made:
- estimate the volume of soil to be transported;

- obtain sufficient wheelbarrows and excavation tools;
- set out the place where the soil has to be dumped (fill);
- locate the source of fill material and prepare the borrow area;
- prepare wheelbarrow runs.
The highest productivity is reached when the number of wheelbarrows is bigger than
the number of haulers. When a worker returns with an empty wheelbarrow to the
loading place there should always be a loaded one waiting. The proportion of
wheelbarrows per hauler varies with the hauling distance but 1 ½ - 2 wheelbarrows
per hauler is generally sufficient.
Each worker should work on only one activity at the time. He either excavates, loads,
hauls, spreads or compacts. Ensure however that the workers work on different
activities. For example, if 200 wheelbarrows are to be filled and hauled by two
workers, change hauling and loading after 100 wheelbarrow loads have been done,
Rotation distributes the workload within the gang and breaks the monotony of a
single activity. The wheelbarrow runs are tracks or planks over which the
wheelbarrows are pushed. They are necessary to avoid wheelbarrows getting stuck
in loose soil and help to get the site properly organised. The runs can be built either
by levelling and compacting an earth path or by placing planks as runners. There
must be different paths for going to and from the dumping site to avoid confusion
and workers waiting for each other. The paths should form a circuit.
The unloading (dumping) and spreading of the soil should always start at the point
furthest away from the loading place. Dumping and spreading should be done in two
separated halves of the road in order to minimise the interference between the
haulers and spreaders/compactors (figure 10).
Fig. 10.
Loading
When loading, the loading height should be the minimum possible. This is of course
most important when loading trailers, which often have loading heights of 1 ½ m or
more. The loading height can be reduced by making loading bays for the trailers
(figure 11) and placing the trailers in the lowest spot of the loading area.
Fig. 11. - Step 1.
Fig. 11. - Step 2.
It is better not to open the tailgate in order to simplify the loading. The capacity of
the trailer will be decreased and the soil will have to be moved again to the front of
the trailer. The trailer should be loaded up to the top of the trailer sides (struck
capacity). Ensure that enough space is available for loading; on flat ground 1 ½ -2m
between the trailer and the loader is required to load a trailer (with a loading height
of 1.3-1.5 m).
Shovels are usually the most efficient tool to use when loading soil and gravel. When
gravel or stone is loaded, a loading pan or two-man stretcher can also be effective.
The loading pan is a tray which, when on the ground, can easily be filled with a hoe.
It is then placed on the shoulder or head, carried over a short distance, and emptied.
Loading pans can be particularly effective for the loading of medium-coarse sized
material into trailers or lorries. The stretcher (a thin metal plate with four handles)
can be useful to transport rock in a quarry.
Unloading
How the material is unloaded varies with the mode of haulage. Wheelbarrow loads
are dumped closely together in rows, beginning at the far end of the fill.
When trailers or lorries are used the load can be partially spread if the vehicle moves
forward while the load is dumped (note that there are tractor-trailer combinations
which have hydraulic systems which do not permit this). Trailers with fixed bodies,
i.e. non-tipping, have to be unloaded with shovels, over the sides or at the back.
Some trailers have "drop sides", sides which can be opened for the unloading.
Fig. 12.
CED-2.5. Fill (spreading, compaction, erosion protection)
When you have learned this learning element, you should be able to:
- describe various types of fills;

- organise the labour-based filling activity.
To "fill" is to place soil/stones at specific places along the road in order to reach the
required road level.
There are several types of fills:

- crossfill where the soil needs to be excavated on the higher side of the road and
shovelled across to the lower side of the road (side sloping terrain);
- embankment fill, either in flat areas where an elevated embankment has to be built
up or in a valley to reduce the gradient of the road between two hills.
Crossfills must be secured against sliding. This protection can be in the form of
notches or benches made in the natural ground (figure 4). If the side slope exceeds
1:2 the risk for land slides is so big that the whole road needs to be cut into the
hillside (M-7, figure 37).
Embankment fills in flat terrain can sometimes be made from soil immediately next
to the fill area (figure 8), however, often the soil has to be transported with
wheelbarrows from a suitably placed borrow area.
Spreading
The dumped soil is spread with heavy rakes or hoes to an even layer which then is
compacted. This is repeated layer by layer until the final height is reached. The layers
should not be thicker than 15 cm after spreading, since otherwise compaction
becomes very difficult (unless heavy rollers are used).
The spreading should partly be done when dumping by moving the vehicle while the
soil is dumped. In order to do so effectively the fill has to be well organised and the
haulers must know where to dump their loads. The area over which the load has to
be dumped should therefore be clearly marked with pegs. For example, to reach a
thickness of 15 cm with a load of 3m3 an area of 3:0.15 = 20m2 should be set out.
Clods of soil should be broken (big sledge-type hammers of wood are easy to make
and more effective than the back of a digging hoe).
Compaction
A well compacted road can stand erosion and traffic better than a loose
embankment. Compaction decreases the volume of the soil by causing the soil
particles to come closer to each other, in other words decreasing the space between
the particles. This can be done mechanically by vibrating or non-vibrating rollers of
different weights, but other methods which are quite effective for low traffic roads
are natural consolidation, traffic compaction and hand-ramming.
NATURAL CONSOLIDATION means that the fill is left undisturbed until the soil, by its
own weight, rainfall and passing pedestrian and animal traffic, has consolidated
(become compact) enough to carry the traffic load. This method is normally used
only on very low fills (such as the crown on the road which is formed by the soil from
the ditches) and is most effective if the fill initially is very moist and allowed to dry
out. This can however take considerable time, up to six months. If vehicles are
allowed on the road during that period reshaping will be necessary before the
surfacing layer is placed.
TRAFFIC COMPACTION can be effective if the traffic can be directed to drive in

different tracks during the initial stage. This is often only possible with project
transport vehicles such as lorries, U-wheel drive jeeps or tractor-trailers.
HAND-RAMMING is a form of compaction where a weight, the rammer, is lifted by

hand and dropped repeatedly. Hand-ramming is mostly done around culverts and on
high fills. The layers should be less than 15 cm thick if the ramming should be most
effective.
The design of the rammer is very important, it must be comfortable to handle and
have the correct diameter in correspondence to the weight. With a diameter of 10
cm, the weight should be 7-8 kg (see module M-6).
Other forms of compaction which can be employed are dead weight, human or
animal drawn rollers usually made of metal (oil drums) and filled with sand or water.
For higher fills small pedestrian vibrating plate or drum rollers can be effective.
Ensure that layers of filling are not thicker than 15 cm.
For compaction the soil should be rather moist. Watering can be done by sprinklers
on water trailers, water tankers or even sprinkling by hand from water cans. The
watering can be minimised if the soil is hauled/thrown straight from the excavation
to the fill and not allowed to dry out.
Too much water should be avoided, muddy soil is very difficult to compact.
Protection against erosion
Newly formed embankment slopes can be damaged easily (by run-off surface water,
cattle, etc.). It is therefore advisable to protect the slopes as soon as they have been
formed.
The protection can be of different types, the most common being planting grass or
other types of deep rooting vegetation. A more expensive but fast and very effective
method is to use stones/logs for protection.
Grass
Grass can provide very effective protection against erosion if the right method of
planting and the right type of grass is used.
The planting can be done in three different ways:
(a) by planting grass runners;

(b) by covering the whole area with turfs;
(c) by sowing grass.
If grass seed is available the last method is the easiest, but since this is rarely the
case, only the first two methods are described here.
(a) Planting grass runners
The grass to be used should be of a strong, fast growing and spreading variety with a
deep root system. Grass which has been removed by the grubbing gang can often be
used if it is dug out properly and kept moist. It should be protected from direct sun.
The runners are cut in pieces of approximately 20 cm in length and planted in rows in
10 cm deep holes with a distance of not more than 30 cm. To get the best results,
the rows should be skewed so that a zigzag pattern is obtained. The soil should be
compacted around the runner by hand.
The newly planted grass should be protected from cattle by a layer of thorny bushes,
twigs, branches etc. and be watered if necessary until it has taken root.
It is useful to have a 30 cm long stick for measuring the distance between the plants
and to make the holes.
This method can be used for large slope surfaces but will not provide instant
protection. It can take several weeks before an effective cover is obtained. The
planting itself is fairly fast, one man can plant some 200 m2 per day (with a plant
distance of 30 cm).
(b) Turfing
Placing whole turfs gives an immediate and more effective protection to slopes than
runners but is much more time consuming to carry out. Therefore it has normally to
be limited to slopes which are very prone to erosion.
As with runners, the turfs can often be cut as part of the grubbing activity. To be easy
to handle, the turfs should be around 20 × 20 cm. Care must be taken when cutting
the turfs so that the roots are not cut off, and the turfs have to be kept damp and
protected against the sun. Before placing the turfs, the soil should be watered if it is
dry. It is important to cover the whole slope and to make sure that the newly planted
turfing is not undercut by heavy rain.
"Aprons"
Where erosion is expected to be particularly severe, e.g. at bridge abutments or on

an embankment near flooding rivers, it may be necessary to provide heavier
protection than grass coverage.
Such protection can be made of a stone "apron" or in the form of gabions (which are
big rectangular boxes made of mesh wire and filled with stones). The stones for
gabions should be as big and rough as possible to grip each other so that the gabion
is stable. When laying an apron of stones, the outer layer should be made of big and
rough stones which cannot be moved by run-off water. The smallest stones should
be used for the layer closest to the embankment. On steep slopes it can be necessary
to place mesh wire over the stone apron to hold the stones in place.
CED-2.6. Module summary and checkpoint
When you have learned this element you should:
- know what the term "earthwork" means and what it involves;

- be able to describe how earthworks are carried out.
SUMMARY
"Earthwork" comprises of excavation, hauling, loading, un-loading, spreading and

compaction and it accounts for a large proportion of the total work. Where possible
try therefore to select the alignment which requires the least excavation and filling.
Most earthwork activities are suitable for task work because the volumes can be
easily measured.
Slotting is a way of measuring the actual volumes of excavation. It is done by

excavating slots in the cuts, at a right angle to the centre-line of the road and
measuring the exposed areas and distances between the slots with a tape measure.
The volumes can the be easily calculated.
Excavation is done by:
- "levelling" where the volumes are small and only small adjustments have to be
made to provide a level base for the road;
- "cut to cross fill" where excavation takes place on the uphill side of the road and
the soil is moved downwards so that the future road is partly on a cut and partly on a
fill. This is done in sloping terrain and it is an effective method which should be used
as much as possible when labour-based methods of excavation are used. In high cuts
it is necessary to organise the excavation in such a way that the height of the cut for
each day is approximately one metre. In side-slopes steeper than 1:2 the risk for
sliding of the fill is high and the whole road base should be on the cut section;
- "U-cut" which is excavating through a ridge
- "borrow" which is taking soil from a borrow area and using it in a fill.
Hauling is the transport of soil, the modes of haulage vary with the distance. Haulage
can be done by stretchers, wheelbarrows, animal carts, tractor-trailers and trucks.
Wheelbarrows and tractor-trailers are most commonly used for labour-based road
construction. Efficient loading of trailers and trucks is very important since the
waiting time of such equipment is very costly. The loading can be simplified by the
use of loading methods which reduce the loading height.
Unloading is usually done by tipping. Tipping vehicles can also spread the soil/gravel.
The work on the fill includes spreading and compaction. The soil has to be spread in
even layers not more than 15 cm thick in order to settle and compact properly.
Compaction can be done in a number of ways. The most appropriate for low traffic
roads are natural consolidation, traffic compaction, hand-ramming and light
pedestrian rollers. Hand-ramming is mostly used on fills and around culverts and
other structures.
Discussion:
Discuss the following points:
1. Earthworks during different weather conditions. How does rain or dry weather
affect the works?
2. Excavation of high cuts;
3. Alternative haulage methods;
4. Alternative compaction methods.
MODULE CHECKPOINT
Indicate True (T) or False (F) in the blank:

5. Measuring volumes is not necessary when doing really big earthworks. ............
6. Slotting is only useful for measuring volumes. ............
7. The spacing of workers is important to the productivity. ............
8. Tractor-trailers are the best haulage method at distances less than 100 ............
metres.
9. A low fill does not have to be compacted. ............
10. A good hand-rammer is very big and light. ............
Answer briefly
11 Which are the principal activities in earthworks?

.
..................................................................................................................................
........
..................................................................................................................................
........
12 What is the slotting technique?
.
..................................................................................................................................
........
..................................................................................................................................
........
13 Write the formula for calculating the volume between two slots.
.
..................................................................................................................................
........
..................................................................................................................................
........
14 Describe the cut to crossfill.
.
..................................................................................................................................
........
..................................................................................................................................
........
15 Which are the most common modes of haulage in labour-based road
. construction?
..................................................................................................................................
........
..................................................................................................................................
........
16 Describe different ways to compact an embankment.
.
..................................................................................................................................
........
..................................................................................................................................
........
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS
EARTHWORKS
Remember that:
- earthworks is generally the most costly operation in earth road construction. It is

essential that earthworks are carried out as efficiently as possible;
- volumes of earth to be excavated should be measured and calculated accurately so
that the work can be done by task work;
- to measure the volumes, the slotting technique can be used;
- the slotting technique has a double purpose:
(a) it exposes the real face of the cut, so that you can measure its area;
(b) it serves as an indestructible bench-mark indicating the future level of the road;
- the measuring and calculation of volumes is simplified if standardised forms (slot
forms) and notebooks are used;
- the excavation of high cuts should be done in steps where each. step should be
approximately 1 metre high; also with such. high. cuts do the slotting in steps;
- when the excavated soil has to be transported the number of excavating workers
should be determined by the planned number of trips and capacity of the hauling
equipment;
- high. embankments have to be properly compacted;
- embankment slopes must be protected against erosion;
- grass planting and turfing are effective methods of reducing erosion.
EXCAVATING SLOTS
Method
- Determine where the slot should be excavated. This would normally be at each 20
m section. Dig extra slots when there are sudden changes in the side cross-fall!
- Set out the slot with. pegs at the level of the road and at the uphill side of the road;
the width of the slot should not be more than that necessary for its excavation (50
cm is usually sufficient).
- Excavate the slot to the level indicated by the level peg.
Control
- Check that the bottom of the slot is level (horizontal).

- Check that the gradient of the alignment has been followed (this can be done with
boning rods when at least three slots have been excavated).
Tools
For excavation: mattocks, hoes, forked hoes, pickaxes and shovels,
For level control: straight-edge board, spirit-level.
For alignment gradient control: boning rods, abney level.
MEASURING SLOTS AND CALCULATING VOLUMES
Method
- Measure the base and the height or heights as necessary. Calculate the area of the
cut. Write down the measurements on the slot form.
- Calculate the area of the cut-face at each slot; determine the average area of two
slots next to each other by adding the two areas and dividing the sum by two.
- Calculate the volume of earth between these two slots by multiplying the average
area of the slots by the distance between these slots.
- Write the calculated volumes in a simple "quantities of work" book. Check that the
figures are realistic and that you have made no calculation mistakes. Forgetting a
zero or placing the decimal point wrongly can decrease/increase your volumes by a
factor of ten!
Control
- Compare the calculated volume with the volume of the adjacent sections.
- Check the measurements and calculations.
Tools
- Measuring tape, folding ruler, slot forms and "quantities of work" book.
FIELD INSTRUCTIONS*
* Project-specific, to be completed by the instructor.

Slot form
EXCAVATION IN BULK
Method
- Calculate the volume to be excavated. Use the slotting and measuring techniques.
- Determine the soil type.
- Estimate what the average throwing distance will be.
- Determine the applicable task rate for the soil type and throwing distance (use your
experience or the task rate table).
- Calculate the number of men needed by dividing the volume by the rate.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader (how many workers are required? which tools
should be used? how should he inspect the work?).
Control
Before approving the work., make sure that:
- the section between the slots is at the correct level and without bumps or
depressions;
- the soil has been placed correctly;
- the excavated width is correct.
Tools
- hoes, forked hoes, pickaxes, mattocks, forks, spades and shovels.
WHEELBARROW WORKS
Method
- Measure the hauling distance.

- Determine the maximum number of haulers who can work effectively on this
activity. This depends on the terrain, the condition of the haul routes and the size of
the loading/unloading places.
- Calculate the total volume to be moved by multiplying the rate (m3/man/day) by

the number of haulers.
- Allocate the required number of workers for the supporting tasks (loading,
spreading and compaction). When you know how much soil will be transported by
the haulers you can calculate how many loaders, spreaders and compactors will be
needed (see task table).
- If you feel that the total number of workers on the site would be too large,
decrease the number of haulers and recalculate the number of labourers working on
loading and spreading.
- Allocate workers for the excavation according to the task rates for excavation (the
quantity of earth to be excavated is the same as the quantity of earth to be moved
by the haulers).
- Set out the volume at both. the place of excavation and at the fill, together with the
headman/gang leader.
- Instruct both. the headman/gang leader and the workers on the details of the work.
Control
- Before the work is approved, check that the correct volume has been moved to the
right place and that it has been properly spread.
Tools
- As for excavation and spreading, plus wheelbarrows and possibly planks for
wheelbarrow runs.
SPREADING
Method
- Determine volume to be spread (same as the excavation and hauling tasks).

- Calculate the number of workers needed by dividing the volume by the rate for
spreading.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader on the number of men, the thickness of the
layers and which tools to use.
- Instruct both headman/gang leader and workers on the details of the work.
Control
- Ensure that the soil is evenly spread and that the thickness of the layer of loose soil
does not exceed the maximum thickness before compaction.
Tools
- Heavy rake, hoe, forked hoe or shovel.
COMPACTION BY HAND-RAMMER
Note: Compaction is best done on a daily work basis.
Method
- Estimate the number of men needed, based on your experience or the task table.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader and workers on which work method to use.
(How should the workers move over the fill? How should they use the rammers?)
- If necessary, arrange for additional workers to be available to supply and sprinkle

water just before compaction is carried out.
Tools
- Hand-rammers with a weight of approximately 8 kg and a diameter at the bottom

end of not more than 10 cm.
PLANTING OF GRASS
Grass is a very effective protection against erosion and should be planted on all
slopes where scouring might occur. The type of grass to be used should be of a fast-
growing variety preferably with long roots.
Method
- Collect "grass runners" removed and stockpiled by the grubbing gang. Store them in
the shade in a heap which is kept wet by sprinkling water on top of it.
- On the day of planting, cut the runners in pieces of approximately 20 cm length; dig
10 cm deep, 20 cm long holes in lines across the embankment. The distance between
the different lines and between the holes within these lines should not be more than
50 cm and the grass runners should be placed in a zigzag pattern.
- The plants should be watered if required.
- Instruct the headman/gang leader and workers about the details of the work; give
each worker a measuring stick to use for measuring the distance between the plants.
TURFING
Note: This activity is not suitable for task work.
Grass turfs give a faster and more effective protection to slopes than grass runners.
Turfs can be cut as part of the grubbing activity. The size of the turfs should
preferably not be smaller than 20 × 20 cm.
Method
- Estimate the area to be covered and cut the corresponding amount of turfs.
- The turfs should be cut in squares not smaller than 20 × 20 cm and thick enough to
ensure that enough roots are left in the turf.
- Store the turfs in the shade and keep them damp.
- Water the soil before the turfs are placed and make sure the soil is properly
compacted.
- Place the turfs edge to edge and water as necessary until they have taken root.
Control
- Check that the turfs are properly cut and placed.

Tools
- Hoes or spades for cutting out the turfs.
• Procedure of excecuting earthwork operations

• Construction process of various pavements
• Installation of road/ runway furniture
• Construction Methods

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INTRODUCTION

Transport engineering is the study of transportation systems. A lot of emphasis is

Module learning objectives and content

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After you have learned this module you should:

- know how to determine the most suitable alignment of a. road;

- be able to describe how a road is set out in different types of terrain;

- know how "tasks" are set;

CED-1.1. Survey of proposed alignments

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVE

After you have learned this element you should:

- know how to determine the most suitable alignment of a road

If a road has to be constructed from point A to point B, several alignments are

In addition, the choice of alignment may be influenced by the location of suitable

1. Construction costs - e.g. an alignment of a. certain length with steep gradients up

Although compensation arrangements can normally be made, a careful

CED-1.2. Instruments and aids for setting out

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

After you have learned this element you should:

DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTION

1. pegs (reference, survey, and multi-purpose);

They can be used for various purposes:

The steepness of gradients is described as a ratio: for example a gradient of 1:2

How to make triangle sets

This set shows a gradient of 1:1.

SET VERTICAL LATH HORIZONTAL LATH DIAGONAL LATH

How to measure a gradient with a triangle set

How to set out a right angle with a triangle set

The right angle is found as follows:

2. circle a length of 5 metres around from point B;

3. circle a length of 5 metres around from point A;

4. point C is the point of intersection of both circles;

5. drive in a peg on point C;

B-C is now at a right angle to A-B.

How to set out a right angle with a "cross-staff"

How to set out a right angle with an optical square

The optical square is more accurate than the cross-staff.

8. Gradient template is a device which can be easily manufactured on site. With a

(i) know the required gradient;

(i) four pieces of wooden lath (length approx. 60 cm);

9. An easy way to measure a gradient (short distanced) is to use a straight-edge in

Figure 18 shows how a gradient of 1:15 is measured. The straight-edge is usually

12. Water manometer - An even simpler method of manufacturing a crude levelling

This instrument is called a water manometer.

CED-1.3. Setting out of horizontal alignments

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- describe what is meant by "horizontal alignment";

NATURE AND DEFINITION

Setting out of straight lines

Setting out of curves

Points B and C are called tangent points.

The method of setting out is as follows:

(2) pegs are put to show the tangent points B and C;

CED-1.4. Setting out of vertical alignments

LEARNING ELEMENT OBJECTIVES

- describe what is meant by "vertical alignment";

NATURE AND DEFINITION

Setting out of the vertical alignment

(i) the width of the future road;