UNIT 4 INDIAN

Structure
4.1 Introduction

4.2 Classical Architecture

4.3 Architecture
4.4 Colonial and Modem Architecture
4.5 Summary
4.6 Answers to

INTRODUCTION
You have probably visited or seen photographs of or Ajanta-Ellora caves or
some of the great temples of South. Have you ever wondered when and how they were
From the time of early Indus valley civilisations to modem times we have not only
traversed in history by way of changing people, changing rulers, various battles, treaties
and trade. we have also built buildings in various materials and various 'styles'. At
different times, in different regions and under different influences, different building
'styles' or designs evolved. In no other country will you find such a large variety in the
architecture of the past. This is part of our heritage we enjoy seeing not only
because they are wonderful but also admire how ingeniously they were constructed.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
relate the broad distinguishing periods of development in Indian Architecture,
historic context under which various 'styles' of buildings developed,
describe the characteristic features of various styles and be able to identify
them broadly, and
discuss about the and construction methods of various buildings.

4.2 INDIAN CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE

(2500 BC - 1700 AD)
The Ancient India encompassed a large area which incorporated present Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Burma and Indo-China. It was flanked by the Himalayas on the North-East,
the Hindukush on the North-West and the Arabian sea, Indian ocean and the of
around the peninsula. Indian generally is dominated by a tropical climate although
.there is a great variation North to South and East to West. Stone was the major
building material in Indian Architecture. There is a variety of stone available, marble
in Rajasthan, granite in the South, sandstone in Rajasthan and northern India. Bricks were
frequently made with alluvial soil along the Gangetic plain which have survived through
the vagaries of time. The rock along the western Ghats enabled artists and
craftsmen to beautiful rock cut temples during the Buddhist period.
Indian Architecture can be distinguished by following three distinct periods :
The architecture of the Indus valley from 2500 BC to
invasion 1500 BC.
Architecture from invasion to gradual conquest of India by the
1200 AD.
(3) Islamic Architecture from AD to 1800 AD when the Muslim were
by the British.
The history of Indian the middle of the 3rd BC with one of the
seminal of the world. centres were several cities on the d
and cities civic
Architecture : based on a rectangular grid oriented to the cardinal points and standardized brick was the
Scope
main building material, A high proportion of the population lived in well drained
houses. Most of these cities were walled and dominated by citadels containing
public buildings including granaries. In the 2nd BC, a pastoral
people from central Asia called Aryans invaded the Indus plain destroying one after the
other.

4.1 : House Plan of

After the indigenous Dravidian population of the Indian plain has been subjugated by the
Aryans the indus valley civilisation was wiped out.
Buddhist religion dominated India almost 6th century. revival of Hinduism is
attributed to (686 AD - 718 AD) and the architecture acquired
prominence once again and culminated during - centuries.
Another important religious movement in India at this time was founded by
(599 BC - 527 BC). The religion was dedicated to asceticism and scardnes of
all life, its chief concept was or non-violence. One of the finest building of
Architecture is the temple of Vimalasha at Mount Abu.
System o f
Indian scriptures,
about structural systems and material to be employed. It is stated in these
scriptures that stone or wood is worthy of Gods. During the Vedic period bricks
was used as a building material but only after baking it. Fire being venerated,
was believed that anything purified over fire qualified as a building material.
During the Buddhist period, 3rd century BC to 6th AD, several
buildings, Chaityas and were built by carving rocky mountains. But no
written materials is how these structures were carved and by what
method. It is believed that first of all the rock face was polished and the facade
sketched in and incised. These chambers were excavated solely by human labour
which carved the cliff's face away foot by After the master had
out the dimensions and design of the space on the rock wall, the sculptors
first carved into the upper facade by cutting a rough opening which eventually
would become the finished ceiling. This permitted them to work back and down
through hundreds of square yards of solid stone, ultimately to the Chamber's
Heavy first removed the unwanted rock and shaped the rough forms of
the architectural details and then the workmen executed the finishing with
chisels, some of them as as of an inch wide.
Often a second was also employed where the stone dug trenches
some 1.0 m wide into the on the levels they were working leaving
ribs of rock standing between the trenches. It was then relatively an easy matter to
through these ribs of rocks from both sides simultaneously using several
chisels as wedges.
 Indian A

Figure 4.2 : Side Elevation and Plan of Temple, Ellora

In the cities of the Indus Valley civilization it was a common practice to span a
wide aperture in a wall by a corbelled arch. The Indians kept to this mode of
construction until the invasion. Indian Architecture since the Hindus
revival in the 7th Century onwards followed the trabeate system of construction.
Small spans were covered with a single lintel. In large medieval temples there are
also many long lintel which however are relieved by a corbelled placed above
them so that in fact, they only support stone filling in the triangular
between the lintel and corbelled arch. This post and lintel system was an assembly
of stone where in the language of architecture represents attitude of putting pieces
to create space as a whole whereas in the Buddhist Architecture space carved
out of a solid mass.
Building Types
The earliest buildings of Indian Architecture known are those associated with the
rise of Buddhism. The major building types in Buddhist architecture are Chityas,
and The Chaitya is a prayer hall or Buddhist temple with
or Stupa in a large vaulted hall with an end and divided by
two colonnade into a broad nave and two aisles. The Vihara was basically a
monastery, an arrangement of for the accommodation of the monks. A
typical consisted of a square central hall entered by a doorway in front of
which was vestibule or portico. The Stupa is the simplest form of Buddhist
monument which housed the relics of Buddha. In origin, the Stupa was a hollowed
mound. Later the Stupa took the form of a hemisphere reinforced by
gateways at the four directions.
45
 :
Scope

Figure 4.3 : Rock Cut -

These buildings are largely hollowed out of rocky mountain sides with elaborate
facade and halls lined with massive pillars as the chaitya hall at Karli (80 BC) and
at Ajanta (4th to 5th Century AD).
Today, Ajanta enjoys world-wide fame chiefly on account of its wall paintings
dating from the 5th century AD. The subject matter of these paintings covering the
whole surface of the wall is the various lives and incarnation of Buddha in a
continuous narration as told in the tales. The light coming from the Chaitya
window has been carefully orchestrated to focus softly on climax of the
chamber, the stupa.

were about 84000 built in India during the period by the

great Stupa at near Bhopal, an ancient monastery constructed
by is of most well
 Indian Architecture

Figure 4 5 : Stupa -

The design of temples were always based on 'Vastu Shastra'. The science of
Architecture, a branch of occult knowledge during Vedic period. It was handed
down orally from father to son. The manuscript relating to Vastu Shastra, in most
cases, incised on palm leaves which were then dried are till today venerated in
Hindu temples, During the ages, this knowledge was put down in writing.
texts primarily focus on selection of building sites, orientation of buildings
scale and proportion, construction methods and laying the plan based on square
called "Mandalat .

4.6 : Typical Temple - Plan and Side

The sanctuary as a whole is called the of which the upper and

tapering portion is called or Inside the
is arid generally dark of for reception of the divine
called and was entered by a door facing East. In
front of doorway was a pillared hall or 'Sabha Mandapa', actually a pavilion
l'or assembly of devotees. had an additional pillared hall called
Mandapa' for religious dances, and a walled enclosure pierced by elaborate
gates.
In Architecture, style according to region than period. The
styles being Northern (Visara), and Dravidian.
47
 : Nagara or Northern Indian Architecture
and
The Nagara or Northern Indian Architecture was practised in one form or another
at least three quarters of the Northern portion of the Indian
temples of provide the most logical beginning of the style. The
main group is concentrated in the town of where there are over 30
temples. Some of famous temples are Mukteshwar,
Rameshwar, Siddheswar and temple.
The temple structure consists mainly of three parts : the Pithica or plinth,
Mandovara or wall and Shikhara. The plinth comprises various layers refers to as
Ashva thara, Gaja thara, thara etc.

: Sun Temple -

Chalukyan Style
The Chalukyan style of architecture was practiced in Deccan (Sauth Central part of
India) by a dynasty as who has established a capital at
by the 6th Century AD. Some of the main centres of the Chalukyan style are
Pattadakal, Aihole, Vijaynagar, and Somnathpur.
By middle of 13th Century the had been superseded by Padyas of
To the west a group of hill chieftains, the Hoysalas, formerly feudatories of the
chalukyas, rose power in the area of From the 12th Century to the early
part of the 14th Century the Hoysalas created a series of temples in the cities of
Belur and .

Dravidian Style
The Dravidian style followed a more consistent development and was confined to
the most southern portion of India between and
The early Dravidian style of temples which are wholly rock cut were executed
during the rule of King Narsimha Verman I (640 AD - 648 AD). Narsimha
Verman I selected the town of a granite cliff situated on the coast.
It was here for the time free standing temples called
popularly known as the five 'Pagodas' were carved and they exemplify entirely
novel form of expression. Each temple is a replica of ancient wooden structures. .
The Raj Rajeshwar temple at is the mammoth master piece of South Indian
Architecture and in its basic design is a inspiration. temple complex
comprising a Nandi Pavillion, a pillared porch and a large assembly hall all aligned
axially are contained within the walled The entire length of the temple
is about 55 The main of the complex is the grand tower or
. Having the flat sided pyramidal form and sculpturally articulated, it stands over
main shrine rising from the base m square to a height of $8 is crowned
with a 80 ton capstone, probably raised into the position by a made of earth.
The last manifestation of Hindu temple architecture in South is represented by the
temple city at Madurai. Built in 17th Century AD by dynasty, it is a double
temple with two shrines one dedicated to Goddess and other to Lord Shiva.
These two shrines which are really temples within a temple occupy the largest
space inside the main enclosure with large gateways known as
48
 Indian Architecture
These flattened towers with tiers of decoration appear to owe
origin to the of and Chola temples. The complex comprises the
Sudereshawara (Shiva) Shrine, Meenakshi shrine, a water tank and a thousand
hall.

of Architecture.
the citirs
(c) in six Lines regarding the birth Hinduism and of Trinity.
Describe few lines the of Buddhism.
Discuss detail the system of construction in both Buddhist and Hindu

Name major type in architecture and discuss any

detail.
of
detail the a typical
i) styles of Architecture

the
(I in short the

4.3 INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Islam is a monotheistic by Prophet Mohammed (570 AD - 632 AD) in
first half Century AD Arabia.
After succession of leaders known
In than religion spread many people of differing
cultures - Egypt. Africa, Palestine, North Africa,
i It was only towards 12th century that they established capital in Delhi.
is a combination of the styles brought in by the
Mohammedans and skill of the indigenous craftsmen.
 : The traditional trabeate construction in India was superseded by the dome and
Scope
the arch of the Mohammedans. The architectureis classified into three main
phases,
(1) Delhi or Imperial Style : It is an evolved during the period of
1200 AD to 1500 AD under the five dynasties, Slave, Khalji, Tugluv
and Lodi in Delhi is referred to as the Imperial Style of Architecture in
India.
(2) The Provincial Style : It is that which was practised in the Subedars which
declared independent of the Delhi These provincial rulers
developed in accordancewith their individual ideals and local,

(3) The Mughul Style : It is the style developed with the coming of the Mughuls
(1600 AD - 1707 AD). Mughul Architecture is the Zenith of Indo-Islamic
expressionin India.
System of Construction
Before the advent of Mohammedans, Indian Architecture was of the post and beam
construction. All spaces were spanned by means of beams laid horizontally. As
distinct from this trabeate order, the Mohammedan builders had adopted the arch
as a method of bridging a space bringing in the accurate style. The appearance of
the arch in the construction of Islamic buildings is often traced to the contact of
early Mohammedans with the architectural development of the post-Roman period.
The introduction of the arch led to the introduction of another materials a
cementing agent in the form of mortar. The Mohammedans also brought along the
dome, an entirely new shape that replaced the pyramidal of earlier
time thus changing the skyline of buildings. The crux of the Islamic structural
language was the method of installing a dome. This was essentially circular in plan
over a square configuration. The solution lay in increasing the four sides of the
square to eight sides of octagon and progressively to thirty two sided polygon, to
gradually form a circle. This was structurally arrived at by effectively spanning
across the right angular comers of the square by means of an arch to create an
octagon. The obtuse comers of the octagon were further spanned by arches to form
a sixteen sided polygon and repeated till the circular ring was arrived at.

A9 :

of Islamic Architecture in India is composed of formed of dressed

stone as Islamic building in other countries were largely constructed of bricks,
plaster and ruffle.
Building Types
The buildings in Islamic Architecture in India are of following two types :
(a) Religious - tombs and mosques.
Secular - these are intended for civic and public purposes, houses,
pavallions, towngates, wells, palaces, forts, gardens and cities.
 Indian

Figure 410 : Typical Mosque

Mosque or Musjid is a place of congregation for prayer, is keynote of the style and
is derived originally from the humble dwelling of the prophet. A typical mosque is
rectangular in plan with an open courtyard in the centre called surrounded
on North, South and East by cloister called 'Liwan'. The Western end has the
sanctuary. This sanctuary is approached through entrance portal having arcades and
on either side. The sanctuary housed the or alcove on its West
end wall gave the direction of prayer or 'Quibla' towards The
sanctuary is made prominent with series of domes at their roof level.
The earliest mosque on Indian soil was 'Quwawat-U1-Islam' in famous 'Qutub
complex' in the south of Delhi built by Qutb-Uddin-Aibak (1191 AD) founder
of the slave dynasty. Qutb-Ud-din did not import masons or-architects from
country but set up a joint venture of the hindu master builders and
overseers. It was a need for host which led him to dismantle hindu and jain temples
whose was roused for the construction of this mosque. The most
remarkable monument produced by Qutb-uddin-aibak was the 'Qutub Minar'
(1199 AD).
Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal is paragon of architecture in India. It harmoniously combines the
great building traditions of Central Asia, Iran and India, all of which placed great
emphasis on geometerical relationship contained within the building. The plan is
an arrangement of central chamber with four comer chambers and
concentrating their axis on a single central focal point - the cenotaph. This focus is
given a vertical expression by an dome and outer onion shaped dome, set on
a high drum behind the raised central diwan. The whole is raised on a podium and
is and balanced by four detached minarets. The arch spandrel inscriptions
and cenotaphs are all with semi-precious stones in decorative themes
superbly executed and integrated with the overall design. A 'tomb mosque' and
identical reception hall, gateways and pavillions, and walkways are all constructed
in red sand stone to provide a monumental setting of contrasting themes of the
white tomb. A long garden leading the tomb platform is subdivided by
canals reflecting pools, paths and flower beds.
Fatehpur Sikri
Fatehpur Sikri was designed and built as a new capital by Akbar. Sikri is a
complex of palaces, residential, official and religious buildings such as
Court, Mahal, gali, Jodhabai's Palace.
, Akbar's Palace, Buland Darwaja, the Masjid, Birbal's house etc. The capital
was built very quickly, in less than 10 years times because of the ability to take
decisions on the spot. Several buildings started simultaneously over the hill and it
is the proof of the efficient coordination of the Architects, Builders and Akbar
himself who personally supervised and guided the progress of construction to
avoid confusion and delay.
Architecture : Principles
and Scope

Figure 4.11 : Mahal,

is a classic example of urban design in the Mughal Era. Every

building is linked with the other through strong layout establishing visual and
spatial sequences.
Gateways
The builders had great to build gateways to the towns and
mosques'. The Buland on the south wall of Jami Masjid at was built
to victory. It is 40.8 m high with a central framed arch
12.25 wide and the platform over which Buland Darwaja rises is itself at an
elevation of 12.8 m from the ground. It is approached by a grand flight steps
that spread out as one descends.
Teen Darwaja at Ahmedabad was a connecting
palace with Masjid. It is 11.3 m high, 24.4 m wide and 13.7 m deep.
entire structure was built in sandstone. The Charminar of Hyderabad is one of the
renowned building of the Golkunda style. The Charrninar is also a ceremonial
gateways like the Teen Darwaja.
Gardens
The Muguls' love for nature was expressed in the designing and out of large
gardens around tomb buildings. These tombs were conceived as the centre of the
grand symmetrically arranged formal char-bag (four quadrangled gardens). The
concept of gardens in India before the was that of trees, free
flowing of water and clusters of flowers. (The Humayun's Tomb and the Taj Mahal
are few of the examples of the Mugui's passion for gardens and landscape.)
Gardens were also created as pleasure resorts, among which the best known are
Shalimar and Nishat Bag in Kashmir.
 Architecture

the phases of Architecture in India.

Wliat is the departure in of construction after arrival of Islamic
in India
j Write in five lines the elements of a mosque.
Wliat are the major building types of Architecture Explain with
an example of

4.4 COLONIAL AND MODERN ARCHITECTURE

I
The arrival of European colonists like the Dutch, French, Portuguese British brought
about the effect of new science and industrial revolution. Though they first came as
traders, of them, as time went, took advantage of the local feudal fights and began
to colonial empires. Starting with the East India company with many scattered
posts. the British assumed the of an empire that ruled India for over a
century. Perhaps the most important change was the establishment of Railways in the
1850s. The British brought the industrial to India along with the scientific
advances, new system of education and a new of governance. The Dutch, the
French. Portuguese and specially the British also brought the European architectural
styles to India. In many parts India you will find beautiful buildings, mostly of the past
centuriex, which look like the European buildings. These buildings were actually
designed by European architects architectural of The
architects adopted the style having features from the
Greek, Roman, Gothic and Renaissance architecture. Even though these buildings had
European appearance, they were designed to suite the Indian
conditions kind of use. Many examples of administrative, educational, residential and
other types of buildings of this type of architecture exist in many parts of India. As time
went, some of the British architects also became aware of the rich architectural heritage
of India and to integrate these Indian Architectural features into their design, in
order to give a special local flavour to the architecture. Examples : Senet house, Baroda
by Robert (1840 AD - 1915 AD), works of Lutyens and Baker in New Delhi
(early Gateway of India, Bombay - George Wittet Bhartiya Vidya
Bhavan. Bombay - Claud Batley. Many beautiful residential houses - the bungalows
were built for the British administrators and the Indian aristocrats. These bungalows
displayed a very interesting combination of the British construction methods and layouts
and sections to suite Indian climate and life style.
By the struggle Independence had begun. New ideas and values brought about
a renaissance and a reassertion of Indianness. Apart from some British architects, a
number of Indian architects set up practice in the big cities. A of architecture had
already started in to train Indians to meet thk growing demand for building
design. Some of architects began executing projects that demonstrated an
interesting the then prevent Art Deco style with more indigenous
themes. Bombay Mutual Insurance Building is good example of this category.
of the finest examples of modern functional architecture built in India in the
pre-Independence period, is 'Golconde' in Aurobindo Ashram, designed by
Raymond This is a hostel for visitors to the ashram. In this building
one can see a superb combination and understanding of light, ventilation and local living
patterns in the inventive and creative manner. It also demonstrates the design
philosophy of the architect - a design directly based on needs and requirements of the
user as well as conditions growing out of the work itself and the location. The tropical
climatic requirement of cross ventilation and sun protection has been incorporated
effectively in this building.
 : Principles
and Scope

Figure 4.12 : Mutual Building, Bombay

The commissioning of the Corbusier to design Chandigarh (the town and major
buildings) brought about a new era in development of contemporary in India.
Le Corbusiers powerful vision of future inspired many young Indian architects. Some of
them trained under him whereas others studied the work of the other great modem
masters of Europe and America. This gave rise to the new modem architectural style,
which was rational, functional and imaginative. With the growth of population and rapid
urbanisation the number of buildings has been growing rapidly. The number of buildings
built in last three decades is much than the total number ever built before. Housing
a growing population is a big challenge for developing country like India. India ranks
amongst the largest construction markets of the world. Building economy and proper
consideration of local climatic conditions together with the life style requirements, is
what is the need of architectural design in India. In this connection, the work of Laurie
Baker needs special mention. A better building at half the cost has been his for past
4 decades, since he came to live and work in India. His projects (mainly in Kerala in
south) of residential and institutional buildings are a11 a proof of his belief. Louis a
second generation modem master from America brought a new impetus to modern
architecture in India, as Corbusier did a decade ago. His emphasis on geometrical order
and use of traditional building method like load bearing brick wall combined with
reinforced concrete parts offered a powerful new aesthetics. Young Indian architects
to abstract geometry and spatial order developing a new vocabulary in architectural
design.
Contemporary Indian Architecture
Building industry in India is still labour-intensive. With the of
power, mechanization and prefabrication are not cost-effective, the remarkable
presence of the past in modern India is mainly the technical backwardness.
In New one can find examples of modem architecture. Many embassy
building, sports complex, exhibition of National Trade Fair Authority, 5-star
hotels and some government and corporate head offices present a good spectrum.

4.5 SUMMARY
We have seen how in different periods different types of architectural design prevailed in
different regions, what were the related social, cultural and other factors that affected the
various developments.
We have tried to give an overview of different types of architectural designs that
prevailed at different times in different regions. We have shown how
different types of architectural designs were related to the social, cultural and
other factors that affected such developments,
54
 different materials and methods of construction were used different regions Indian A
and different stakes in time,
you can reccognise the characteristicarchitectural features of each type, and
to at some of the well known examples from architectural history of India.
Architecture
Islam as a religion was in 7th century in Arabia Prophet Mohammed.
In less than a century, this new religion spread to many of the world. .
In the 12th century AD, established their position in
Thus, architecture took shape as a combination of concepts
and indigenous craftsmanship.
Islamic architecture was in three phases, namely imperial, provincial and
mugul style.
Indian architecture was traditionally by with the advent of in India.
The arch and dome were prominent features in building. The major types
were religious and secular. Some among the prominent buildings of
architecture are Sidi Sayyad, Ahmedabad; Gumbaj,
Taj Agra; Sher Shah's Tomb, Agra and
Char Minar, Hyderabad.
Architecture
The Europeans came to India as traders and over gained power and
established as rulers. in the effects of industrial revolution as well as
the European architectural styles, In the early 20th century some Indian architects
also trained and adapted the European styles. Corbusier and Louis Kahn who were
commissioned for projects in India also influenced many architects in India and
started a trend in Modem Architecture. Due to cheap labour being available,
mechanisation has not yet set into Indian You can find many good as
. well as bad examples of modem architecture in the cities of India.

ANSWERS TO
Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic listed in
the section "Further Reading" to get the answers of the
FURTHER READING
Wilson, F., Architecture - A Book of Projects for Young Adults, Book
Corporation.
V. S., Design Fundamentals in Architecture, Somaiya Publication Pvt. Ltd.
Malcolm, D. C., Design : Elements and Principles, Davis Publication Inc.
Scott, R., Design Hill Publications.
Fletcher, B., A History of World Architecture, Scribners Publications.
Curtis, W. J. R., Modern Architecture - Since 1900, Phaidon Press Ltd.
Grover, Satish, Architecture of ( 2 Volumes), Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Raehum, An Outline of World Architecture, Octopus Books Ltd.