XII Chemistry Final

For The Examination
Preparation of BIEK
By
THE CONCEPT COLLEGIATE

PREPARED BY: SIR MUDASSAR
XII-CHEMISTRY
XII-CHEMISTRY Page 1
INTRODUCTION
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PREFACE
We are highly grateful to ALMIGHTY ALLAH who has made us able
to bring this work in your hands.
This book is written to prepare the students for their board

examination. Students are asked to read this book with their text book on
which their final exam is going to base upon. We have tried our best to
include most of the important topics briefly to make an easy approach towards
board exam preparation.
We shall be thankful for the notification of the any mistake in this

book. Your suggestions are also welcomed in ‘THE CONCEPT
COLLEGIATE’ for any improvement in future.
Regards,
Directors
The Concept Collegiate
S.NO TOPIC NAME PAGE NO
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Periodic Classification of Elements 01 – 18
2. Hydrogen 19 – 34
3. s-Block Elements 35 – 60
4. p-Block Elements 61 – 94
5. p-Block Elements 95 – 118
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
6. Introduction to Organic Chemistry 119 – 138
7. Chemistry of Hydrocarbons 139 – 174
8. Alkyl Halides 175 – 192
Carbon Compounds with Oxygen 193 – 212

9.
Containing Functional Groups
10. Chemistry of Life 213 – 230
11. Chemical Industries in Pakistan 231 – 240
12. Past Papers 241 – 220
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
1 OF ELEMENTS
When sufficient number of elements and their compounds became known, the
chemists strongly felt the need to classify them in order to understand and interpret their
properties with the atomic weight. The result of this determination lead to a number of
periodic tables.
DOBEREINER’S LAW OF TRIAD

Johann Wolfgang Doberiener was a German chemist. He attempted to classify the
then known elements into several groups, each consists of three elements names as triad. The
construction of each triad was based on similarities in the chemical properties and increasing
atomic weight.
Doberiener “Law of Triad” states as.
“The atomic weight of middle element in each
triad is approximately equal to the average atomic
weight of the other two elements”.
Examples of Doberiener Triad
Triad Atomic weight Means of 1st and 3rd
Li 7
Na 23 7+39
= 23
2
K 39
Ca 40
Sr 88 40+137
= 88.5
2
Ba 137
Cl 35.5
Br 80 35.5+127
= 81
2
I 127
Defects in the Law

Doberiener attempt for classification of elements was ruled out because.
(i) A large number of elements could not be grouped into triad because the atomic weight
of middle elements was not always the arithmetic mean of other two elements.
(ii) For the elements which had very low and very high atomic weight, this law could not
hold good.
Advantage of the law
Doberiener research turned the mind of chemist towards the classification of elements
on the basis of atomic weight and their properties.
Newland Law of Octave

John Alexander Newland (1864) arranged the then known elements into horizontal
rows according to their increasing atomic weight and noticed that every 8 th element was
similar in chemical properties.
Newland thought this was rather like music where one note resemble the note on eight
place or an octave away. He then proposed “law of octave”.
Newland law of octave states as:
“When elements are arranged in the increasing order of their
atomic weight, the properties of every eight element is repeated”.
The Newland classification of first sixteen elements is shown below.
Li, Na and K have similar chemical properties but each is octave away. The same
trend is observed in the other elements.
Merit of Newland law

(i) Periodicity of properties (the repetition of properties after a certain interval) was
recognized for the first time.
(ii) Atomic weights was made the basis of classification for the first time.
Demerits of Newland law

(i) This law was applicable to only first sixteen elements and later on it shows
irregularities.
(ii) After the discovery of noble gases, it was found that instead of 8 th element, every
ninth element repeat the properties.
Lothar Meyer Periodic Classification
Lothar Meyer introduce his periodic table in 1869 based on increasing order to atomic
weights.
It states as:
Properties of elements are repeated after a specific interval
when they arrange in the ascending order of atomic weights.
Meyer’s suggestion for periodic classification of elements was quite similar to

Newland of Mendeleev. However, his main contribution was to show the repeating pattern of
properties on a graph. He selected atomic volume as a property of element and plotted the
graph of atomic volume against atomic weight of elements and found different curves.
He noted that.
(i) Elements with similar properties occupied similar position on the curve.
(ii) Different peaks showed that, there is a repetition in properties of element after each
period.
(iii) The length of each peak increases regularly showed that physical properties increases
down word in a group in regular pattern this give the idea of periodicity.
(iv) Curve showed that “Li” through “F” is a group, while Na through “Cl” is another
group and “K” through “Br” is another group so on.
(v) Curve also showed that small periods in the beginning having less number of
elements and them large period after words that is the size of all periods are not same.
Demerits of the law

(i) Meyer’s, classification as incomplete compared with Mendeleev’s periodic table
because undiscovered elements were not discussed.
(ii) Meyer’s classification was not on empirical or logical basis as we found in
Mendeleev’s periodic table, it only focused on relation of atomic weight with physical
properties.
MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
Mendeleev, a Russian chemist (1869) studied the properties of elements known at that
time (63 elements). On arranging the element in increasing order of their atomic weights he
observed that the properties of elements were repeated after completion of period. He then
proposed a periodic law.
Mendeleev’s periodic law is stated as.
“The physical and chemical properties of elements
are the periodic function of their atomic weight”.
(Periodic functions means one which repeat itself after a certain interval)
Main feature of Mendeleev’s periodic table

(i) The vertical column were named groups. These were numbered I to VIII.
(ii) The horizontal rows were named period.
(iii) Element present in a particular group were chemically similar in nature.
(iv) Blank space were left for unknown elements.
Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table

(i) Prediction of undiscovered elements:-
Mendeleev left certain gaps in periodic table for the elements to be discovered. He
predicted their atomic weights and properties. These elements were discovered later
and found to possess the properties according to his predictions.
For example: Mendeleev left empty space below “silicon” in group IV as a “missing
element”. He named this element as “Eka Silicon” (eka first) and predicted it to be a
grayish white unreactive metal with atomic mass of about “73”. Fifteen years later,
Winkler discovered a grayish white metal “Germanium” having atomic mass “72.6”,
actually it was missing eka silicon.
Missing Element Mendeleev’s Information Winkler Information

Name Eka Silicon Germanium
Prediction / Discovery 1869 1886
Atomic Weight 73 72.6
M.P High 1231
Physical state Grayish white metal Grayish white metal
Similarly Mendeleev left empty space below Aluminum for another undiscovered
element and named as Eka Aluminum. He predicted its atomic mass as “68” which were later
discovered and named Gallium with atomic mass “69.9”.
Another missing element predicted by Mendeleev was Eka Boron for which he made
a gap below Boron and predicted its atomic mass as “44”. This element later discovered in
the name of Scandium with atomic mass 43.8.
(ii) Rectification of atomic weights
Mendeleev used his periodic classification to rectify the atomic weight of certain
elements which were assigned wrongly at that time.
For example he changed the atomic weight of aluminum from 40 to 27 and Boron
from 16 to 11 on the basis of their position in his periodic table.
(iii) Concept of Periodicity
Except ignoring certain anomalies, Mendeleev’s periodic table, covers all 63 elements
to rationalize their atomic weight with properties.
For example:
(i) With increased atomic weights in a period, the physical properties of elements
are found to be changed gradually.
(ii) Elements of the same group show the similarities in the chemical properties.
(iv) Valency Number
Mendeleev classification described that the valency of each elements is given by the
group number. For example all the elements in group I have valency 1.
Demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic table:

Mendeleev’s periodic table suffers from the following defects.
(i) Position of Isotopes
No position was assigned to isotopes in different groups although this periodic table
was based on atomic weights.
For example two isotopes of carbon 126𝐶 and 136𝐶 were placed at the same position.
(ii) Position of Alkali and Coinage Metals
Alkali metals (Li, Na, K) and coinage metals (Cu, Ag, Au) are chemically dissimilar
but he grouped them to gather in the same group.
(iii) Position of transition element
Transition element (Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt) are chemically similar but placed on different
positions.
(iv) Position of Hydrogen
Hydrogen does not completely resemble with the properties of any group in the
periodic table but placed hydrogen in group I.
(v) Anomalous Pairs of elements
Certain elements of higher atomic weight had been placed before an elements with
lower atomic weight.
For example
• Te (127.6) was placed before I (127).
• Ar (39.9) was placed before K (39).
• Co (59) was placed before Ni (58.6).
Why were Mendeleev’s Periodic law modified?
Mendeleev’s periodic low was modified into modern periodic law by replacing
atomic weight into atomic number for the classification of elements.
This modification rectified the following defects in the Mendeleev’s.
(i) Position of Isotopes
Isotopes of an element have different atomic weights but same atomic number
therefore all the isotopes of an element should be allocated only one place which
rectified the defect I the Mendeleev system of classification.
(ii) Position of Anomalous pairs of elements
Three pairs of elements which were wrongly placed in the Mendeleev periodic table
were corrected when they arranged in increasing order of atomic number instead of
atomic weight.
Why Mendeleev’s left empty spaces?
Mendeleev arranged the elements in his periodic table in increasing order of atomic
weights but whenever he could not find an element with expected properties he left a blank
space for an element yet to be discovered. Later on these element were discovered and placed
in the space left by Mendeleev.
Three elements which predicted by Mendeleev’s were eka Boron, eka Aluminum and
eka Silicon. These elements were later discovered and were named scandium Gallium and
Germinum.
MODERN PERIODIC LAW
(Modified form of Mendeleev’s Periodic Law)
In 1913, British physicist “MOSELEY” succeeded to show a relationship between
properties and atomic number of elements and introduced modern periodic law.
It states as,
are the periodic function of their atomic numbers”.
It means, when the elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic
numbers, the elements with similar properties are repeated after certain intervals.
The modern periodic law provided a logical and scientific ground for the
classification of elements. It also provided justification for correcting the position of
some element wrongly placed in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
After the development in atomic structure, it was realized that chemical
properties of elements were based on number of electrons present in the orbitals of
outermost shell, hence periodic law may be restarted as:

are the function of electronic configuration of their atoms”.
LONG FORM OF PERIODIC LAW
The periodic table based on modern periodic law is known as modern periodic
table or long form of periodic table. It is constructed on the basis of periodicity in
electronic configuration of elements.
The main feature of long form of periodic table are groups period and blocks.
PERIODS IN THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

The horizontal rows in the long form of periodic table are called periods. There
are seven periods in all which are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7
A period consist of a series of elements having the same valence shell.
First Period
It corresponds to the first shell (K-shell) and known as Shortest period. It
consists of two elements i.e. H and He with electronic configuration 1s1 and 1s2.
Second Period
It corresponds to second shell (L-shell) and known as First Short period. It
consists of eight elements. It starts from Li (2s1) and at Ne (2p6).
Third Period
It corresponds to 3rd shell (M-shell) and known as Second Short period. It
consists of eight elements. It starts from Na and end at Ar.
Fourth Period
It corresponds to 4th shell (N-shell) and known as First Long period. It consists
of eighteen elements. It starts from K and end at Kr. It consists of eight typical
elements and ten transition elements.
Fifth Period
It corresponds to 5th shell (O-shell) and known as Second Long period. It
consists of eighteen elements. It starts form Rb and end at Xe. This period consist of
eight typical elements and ten transition elements.
Sixth Period
It corresponds to 6th shell (P-shell) and known as Longest period. It consists of
32 elements. This period include eight typical elements, ten transition elements and
fourteen inner transition elements (lanthanide).
Seventh Period
It corresponds to 7th shell (Q-shell) and known as Incomplete period. It
includes 8 typical elements, 10 transition element and 14 inner transition element
(actinides).
Period No. Designation Total No. of Block involved
Elements
1st Shortest Period 2 s
2nd 1st Short Period 8 s and p
3rd 2nd Short Period 8 s and p
4th 1st Long Period 18 s p and d
5th 2nd Long Period 18 s p and d
th
6 Longest Period 32 s p d and f
7th Incomplete - s p d and f
Significance of Period
Since each period correspond to a fixed quantum number (n) in which electrons are
filled with the increase order of n + l rule, “each period start from ns 1-orbital & end at np6 -
orbital”.
Period No. Orbitals Being Start End Total Number
filled of Element
1 1s ns np 2
2 2s, 2p ns np 8
3 3s, 3p ns np 8
4 4s, 3d, 4p ns np 18
5 5s, 4d, 5p ns np 18
6 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p ns np 32
GROUPS IN THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

“The vertical columns of elements in the
modern periodic table are called groups”.
There are various way to classify elements into groups which is shown below.
IURAC name CAS name Name by first element Trivial name
Group 1 IA Lithium family Alkali metals
Group 2 IIA Beryllium family Alkaline earth metals
Group 3 IIIB Scandium family
Group 4 IVB Titanium family
Group 5 VB Vanadium family
Group 6 VIB Chromium family
Group 7 VIIB Manganese family
Group 8 VIIIB Iron family
Group 9 VIIIB Cobalt family
Group 10 VIIIB Nickel family
Group 11 IB Copper family Coinage metals
Group 12 IIB Zinc family
Group 13 IIIA Boron family
Group 14 IVA Carbon family
Group 15 VA Nitrogen family
Group 16 VIA Oxygen family Chalcogens
Group 17 VIIA Fluorine family Halogens
Group 18 VIIIA Helium family Noble gas
According to CAS (Chemical Abstracts Service) classification, groups are sub divide
into A and B.
Sub group A are called representative elements (IA – VIIIA) while sub group B are
called transition elements (IB – VIIIB).
Group I – A (Lithium family)

It includes Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs),
Francium (Fr). They are soft and highly reactive metals with low melting points. They often
called as Alkali metals.
Group II – A (Beryllium family)
It includes Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) &
Radium (Ra). These elements are a bit harder highly reactive metals having higher melting
and boiling points than the alkali metals.
Group III – A (Boron family)
It includes Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (In) & Thallium (TI). Of these
elements Boron is Metalloid while rest of the element are metal.
Group IV – A (Carbon family)
It includes Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn) & Lead (Pb). Of these
elements, C is non-metal, Si & Ge are metalloids Sn & Pb are metals.
Group V – A (Nitrogen family)
It includes Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) & Bismuth (Bi). Of
these elements, N & P are non-metals As & Sb are metalloids and Bi is a metal.
Group VI – A (Oxygen family)
It includes Oxygen (O), Sulphur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te) & Polonium (Po). Of
these oxygen & sulphur are non-metals, selenium, tellurium are metalloids and polonium is
metal.
Group VII – A (The Halogens family)
It includes Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I) & Astatine (At). Of these,
astatine is metalloid while all other are non-metals and exist as diatomic molecules.
Group VIII – A (Carbon family)
It includes Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) & Radon (Rn),
with the exception of krypton and xenon (bigger atomic volume) the rest of these elements
are totally inert chemically. The reason is that these have completely filled outer shells.
Sub Group A Valence Configuration

IA ns1
IIA ns2
IIIA ns2 np1
IVA ns2 np2
VA ns2 np3
VIA ns2 np4
VIIA ns2 np5
VIIIA ns2 np6
Significance of groups
(i) Elements of each group have specific valence configuration.
(ii) Physical properties of elements change regularly down the groups.
PERIODICITY
“The periodic repetition of properties with increasing
atomic number is known as periodicity”.
Cause of Periodicity
Modern periodic table is based on electronic configuration of elements hence when
elements are placed with their increasing atomic number the elements having the same
number of valence electrons fall into the same groups. Since the chemical properties depend
upon number of valence electrons all the element of a group have similar chemical properties.
TYPES OF ELEMENTS ON THE BASIS OF

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Elements in the long form of periodic table are classified into following four types depending
on their valence electronic configuration.
(i) s-Block elements
• In these elements, the last electron enters the s-orbital of outer most shell.
• The valence shell configuration of these elements varies from ns 1 to ns2.
• This block consists of 12 elements in group IA and IIA and lie on the extreme left of
the periodic table.
Group Family Name Valence Elements
Configuration
IA Alkali metals ns1 Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
IIA Alkaline earth metals ns2 Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
(ii) p-Block elements

• In these elements, the last electrons enter the p-orbital of outer most shell.
• The valence shell configuration varies from ns2, np1 to ns2, np6
• Element of group IIIA to VIIIA of periodic table are called p-block elements.
• This block consists of 30 elements, most of them are non-metals some are metals and
a few are metalloids.
• This block includes 9 gases, 1 liquid and 20 solids.
Group Family Name Valence Configuration Elements

IIIA Boron Family ns2 np1 B, Al….
IVA Carbon Family ns2 np1 C, Si….
VA Nitrogen Family ns2 np3 N, P….
VIA Oxygen Family ns2 np4 O, S….
VIIA Halogens ns2 np5 F, Cl….
VIIIA Inert Gases ns2 np6 Ne, Ar….
(iii) d-Block elements: (transition elements)

• In these elements the last electrons enter the d-orbital of (n-1) shell.
• The valence configuration of these elements varies from ns2 (n-1) d1 to ns2 (n-1) d10.
• This block consists of four horizontal series in the period 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th.
• Elements of this block are hard metals and show coloured ions.
• The reason they are called transition element is that they possess intermediate
character between and p block elements.
Series of d-block Periods Valence Elements

element Configuration
1st series 4th 4s2 3d Sc (21) to Zn (30)
2nd series 5th 5s2 4d y (39) to Cd (48)
3rd series 6th 6s2 5d La (57) to Hg (80)
4th series 7th 7s2 6d Ac (89) to on ward
(iv) f-block elements: (Inner transition elements)

• In these elements, the last electron enters the f-orbital of (n-2) shell.
• The valence configuration of these elements varies from ns 2, (n-2) f1 to ns2 (n-2) f14.
• These elements found in two additional rows below the main body of periodic table
known as Lanthanides and Actinides.
• These are also called are earth metals because they rarely found in the earth crust.
Lanthanides
Lanthanides is a 14-elements (4f) series of inner transition elements found in the sixth
period including the elements Ce (58) to Lu (71). These are called lanthanide because of their
chemically resemblances with lanthanum (La).
Actinides
Actinides is a 14-elements (5f) series of inner transition elements found in the seventh
period including the elements Th (90) to Lr (103). These are called actinides because of their
chemically resemblance with Actinium (Ac).
Noble Gases
• These are zero group elements and found at the end of each period.
• The valence configuration of these element is ns2, np6 (except He; ns2).
• These are colourless, mono atomic and chemically inert gases.
Representative Elements
• These are elements of sub group – A of periodic table.
• These elements have incomplete outermost shell in which electrons varies from 1 to 7
and shows the group to which they belong.
• These are active elements and found in nature in abundance that is why these are
called representative or typical elements.
Merits of Modern Periodic Table

(How modern periodic table removes the defects of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table)
The following points overcome the defects in Mendeleev’s periodic table.
(i) Anomalous Pairs

The anomalies of placing certain pairs of elements disappears when atomic weight is
rejected, and atomic number is taken as basis for classification.
(ii) Position of Isotopes
All isotopes of an elements have the same atomic number therefore occupy the same
position in the modern periodic table.
(iii) Position of chemically dissimilar elements
Chemically dissimilar elements (like alkali and coinage metals) which grouped
together in Mendeleev’s periodic table are separated into sub group-A and sub-group-
B because classification in modern periodic table is based on electronic configuration.
Demerits of Modern Periodic Table

Although the long form of periodic table gives almost perfect arrangement of the
elements, but it still suffers from the following draw backs.
1. Hydrogen has not been allocated an exclusive location of its own.
2. The location of Helium amongst the p-block elements is not fully justified as its
electronic configuration justifies to be included in s-block.
3. Anomalies in the thermodynamic values of certain elements within a period are
observed.
M.C.Q’s
1. The grouping of similar elements and the separation of dissimilar ones is called:
(A) Classification of elements (B) An arrangement of elements
(C) Periodic functioning of elements (D) A homologous series
2. The first attempt to classify elements was made
(A) Dobereiner (B) Newland
(C) Mendeleef (D) Lother Meyer
3. Dobereiner in 1829, classified many chemically similar elements in three groups
known as:
(A) Tetrads (B) Triads (C) Biads (D) Tris
4. Newland in 1864 arranged the elements in the order of:
(A) Increasing atomic weight (B) Decreasing atomic weight
(C) Increasing atomic number (D) Decreasing atomic number
5. “Atomic volumes of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weight”. The
above statement was proposed
(A) Dobereiner (B) Newland (C) Mendeleef (D) Lother Meyer
6. “The properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights”.
(A) Law of octaves (B) Mendeleef’s periodic law
(C) Modern periodic law (D) Newland’s law
7. “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers”. This is known as:
(A) Mendeleef’s periodic law (B) Modern periodic law
(C) Newland’s law (D) None of the above
8. The attempts to classify elements by plotting the atomic weight of elements against
their volume was made
(A) Newland (B) Determiner (C) Bohr (D) Luther Meyer
9. Number of groups in modern periodic table is:
(A) 2 (B) 7 (C) 8 (D) 9
10. The number of elements in fourth long period of Modern Periodic table is:
(A) 8 (B) 18 (C) 32 (D) 10
11. The basis of Modern Periodic table is:
(A) Atomic weight (B) Atomic number
(C) Density (D) Ionization potential
12. The vertical columns in the periodic table are called:
(A) Groups (B) Periods
(C) Short period (D) Long period
13. The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called:
(A) Groups (B) Periods
(C) Short period (D) Long period
14. The second and third periods of periodic table are called:
(A) Normal period (B) Long period
(C) Short period (D) Largest period
15. Fourth, fifth and sixth periods of periodic table are called:
(A) Long period (B) Short period
(C) Incomplete period (D) None of the above
16. The number of periods in a periodic table are:
(A) Seven (B) Eight (C) Six (D) None of the above
17. The first seven groups of the periodic table are divided into sub-group A consisting
of:
(A) Transition elements (B) Normal elements
(C) Metallic elements (D) Non-metallic elements
18. Subgroups B in the periodic table IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB and VIIB consist of:
(A) Normal elements (B) Transition elements
(C) Transuranium elements (D) None of the above
19. Group VIII of the periodic table is called:
(A) Normal group (B) Abnormal group
(C) Zero group (D) None of the above
20. The elements He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are called:
(A) Noble gases (B) Ideal gases
(C) Active gases (D) None of the above
21. Group IA and Group IIA of the periodic table are called:
(A) s-block elements B) p-block elements
(C) d-block elements (D) f-block elements
22. s-block elements consist of:
(A) Alkali metals (B) Alkaline earth metals
(C) Both alkali and alkaline earth metals (D) None of the above
23. The elements of group IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA and VIIA groups are zero groups
(except He) are called:
(A) p-block elements (B) d-block elements
(C) Transition elements (D) None of the above
24. The electronic configuration of p-block elements vary from:
(A) ns1, ns2 (B) ns2, np1-6
1, 2 1-10
(C) ns , nd (D) None of the above
25. Elements with partially filled d orbitals are called:
(A) Transuranium elements (B) Transition elements
(C) Noble elements (D) Inner Transition elements
26. Most of the transition elements form coloured compounds because:
(A) The possess coloured ions (B) They are diamagnetic
(C) They are paramagnetic (D) They emit energy when dissolved in water
27. The members of group VIIA are called:
(A) Noble elements (B) Halogens
(C) Normal elements (D) None of the above
28. The elements of third period Na, Mg, Al, Si, P and C1 are called:
(A) Normal elements (B) Typical elements
(C) Bridge elements (D) None of the above
29. The elements in which all except the outermost shell is complete are called:
(A) Typical elements (B) p-block elements
(C) Normal elements (D) None of the above
30. The elements in which p-orbitals are progressively filled are called:
(A) s-and p block elements (B) f-block elements
(C) p-block elements (D) Normal elements
31. The elements of the same vertical group of the periodic table have:
(A) Same atomic size
(B) Same electronic configuration
(C) Same number of atoms
(D) Same number of electrons in outermost shell of their atoms
32. In the periodic table all the non-metal are placed under:
(A) s-block (B) p-block (C) d-block (D) f-block
33. Transition metals are often paramagnetic due to:
(A) Their high M.P. and B.P. (B) The presence of vacant orbital
(C) The presence of one or more unpaired electrons
(D) The presence of one or more paired electrons
34. In the periodic table all the transition metals are placed under:
35. Elements of group IB are called:
(A) Coinage metals (B) Rare earths
(C) Normal elements (D) Transition elements
36. The most active part in the development of the periodic table was taken
(A) Newland (B) Dalton (C) Dobereiner (D) Mendeleef
37. The elements of group IA are generally termed as:
(C) Active metals (D) Be-family
38. The element Radon belongs to the family:
(A) Lanthanide series (B) Actinide series
(C) Alkali metals (D) Noble gases
39. In the periodic table, the element Beryllium is present in group:
(A) IA (B) IIA (C) IIIA (D) IVA
40. The elements of group IA are:
(A) Strongly electropositive (B) Weakly electropositive
(C) Strongly electronegative (D) Weakly electronegative
41. Elements of group IB and IIB are:
(A) Normal elements (B) Transition elements
(C) Alkali metals (D) Alkaline metals
42. Ionization energy is lowest for:
(A) Inert gases (B) Alkali metals
(C) Halogens (D) Alkaline earth metals
43. The longest period of the periodic table (VI period) contains:
(A) 18 elements (B) 30 elements
(C) 32 elements (D) 34 elements
44. Elements after Uranium (atomic number greater than 92) are called:
(A) Post Uranium elements (B) Pre-Uranium elements
(C) Transuranium elements (D) Meta-Uranium elements
45. The tendency to lose electrons readily and form an electropositive ion is called:
(A) Electronegativity (B) Electropositivity
(C) Electron affinity (D) None of the above
46. The ease with which an atom forms an electrovalent negative ion is called:
(A) Electronegativity (B) Electropositivity
(C) Electron affinity (D) None of the above
47. The electronic configurations of noble gases are:
(A) ns2, np5 (B) ns2, np6 (C) ns2, np6, nd8 (D) None of the
above
48. Inner transition elements belong to the:
49. An element of atomic number 24 belongs to:
ANSWER KEYS
01. A 11. B 21. A 31. D 41. B
02. A 12. A 22. C 32. B 42. B
03. B 13. B 23. A 33. C 43. C
04. A 14. C 24. B 34. C 44. C
05. D 15. A 25. B 35. A 45. B
06. B 16. A 26. C 36. D 46. A
07. B 17. B 27. B 37. A 47. B
08. D 18. B 28. B 38. D 48. D
09. C 19. C 29. C 39. B 49. C
10. B 20. A 30. C 40. A
2 HYDROGEN
POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE

PERIODIC TABLE
The placement of elements in the periodic table is mainly based on valence electronic
configuration and mildly based on similarities in the properties.
The electronic configuration as well as properties of hydrogen are partially resemble
with group IA, IVA and VIIA but do not completely with any one of these groups, hence its
position in a particular groups is still undecided.
Following is a discussion of position of hydrogen in the modern periodic table.
HYDROGEN AND GROUP IA

Similarities with Alkali metals Dissimilarities with Alkali metals
• Valence shell configuration of Hydrogen • Hydrogen is gas but alkali metals are
is 1s1 similar to alkali metals, ns1. solids.
• Both hydrogen and alkali metal are • Hydrogen is non-metal but elements of
reducing agent. group I-A are metals.
• Both Hydrogen and alkali metal have • Hydrogen is diatomic whereas alkali
tendency to react with halogens. metals are mono atomic.
• Both can be hydrated in aqueous solution. • Hydrogen forms covalent halides and
• Halide of hydrogen (HCl, HBr) and alkali alkali metal forms ionic halides.
metals (NaCl, NaBr) have tendency to • Oxide of hydrogen is neutral here as
conduct electricity in aqueous solution. oxide of alkali metals are alkaline.
HYDROGEN AND GROUP VII-A

Similarities with Halogens Dissimilarities with Halogens
• Both hydrogen and Halogen atoms • Hydrogen contains just one valence
require one electron to reach the nearest electron (1s1) whereas halogens contain 7
noble gas configuration. electrons in the valence shell (ns2, np5)
• Hydrogen exist in diatomic form similar • Hydrogen is a reducing agent whereas
to Halogen. halogens are oxidizing agent.
• Both Hydrogen and halogens are non- • H- ion reacts with water giving H2 gas
metals. whereas X- does not react with water.
• Both hydrogen and halogens have ability • Oxide of hydrogen is neutral whereas
to react with alkali metals. oxides of Halogen are acidic.
HYDROGEN AND GROUP IV-A
Similarities with Carbon family Dissimilarities with Carbon family
• Both hydrogen and IVA elements have • Hydrogen contains just one valence
half-filled valence shell configurations. electron (1s1) where as members of
carbon family contain four valence
• Both are non-metals and form covalent electrons (ns2, np2).
compounds. • Hydrogen is a gas whereas elements of
IVA are solids.
• IP, EA and EN values of hydrogen are • Hydrogen is diatomic but elements of
similar to carbon family. group IVA are monoatomic.
• Hydrogen does not show allotropy
whereas element of IVA show allotropy.
• Hydrogen and Carbon both are found in • Hydrogen forms neutral oxide whereas
close association in organic compounds. carbon family forms acidic oxide.
Conclusion
From the above discussion it is clear that hydrogen resemble as well as differs from
elements of sub groups IA, IVA and VIIA. Therefore its position in snot justified in any of
the group discussed above.
The different behavior of hydrogen is because of its simplest atomic structure which
possess a single positive charge nucleus and one electron moving around the nucleus.
ATOMIC HYDROGEN
“The product obtained as a result of dissociation of
molecular hydrogen is known as atomic hydrogen”.
104 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝐻2 → 𝐻+𝐻
Methods of Preparation
(i) Thermal decomposition of ordinary hydrogen.
When ordinary hydrogen is heated at 50000C in the absence of air, it decomposes into
atomic form.
5000𝑜 𝐶
𝐻2 → 𝐻+𝐻
(ii) Electrical dissociation under reduced pressure.

When high voltage electricity is passed through molecular hydrogen in a discharge
tube at low pressure, it produces atomic hydrogen.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐻2 → 2𝐻
Properties of Atomic Hydrogen
(i) High Unstability
Atomic hydrogen is very unstable and quickly recombines together to form molecular
hydrogen.
During the recombination, it releases a very high amount of energy (-104 k. cal/mole)
which can be used in atomic hydrogen welding torch.
𝐻 + 𝐻 → 𝐻2 (104 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒)
(ii) High Reactivity
Atomic hydrogen is highly reactive, it combines at room temperature with metals, non
metals and other compounds to give the corresponding products.
𝑃 + 3𝐻 → 𝑃𝐻3
𝑂2 + 2𝐻 → 𝐻2 𝑂2
𝑆 + 2𝐻 → 𝐻2 𝑆
𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐻 → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝑢𝑂 + 2𝐻 → 𝐶𝑢 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻 → 𝐴𝑔 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
Uses of Atomic Hydrogen

Atomic hydrogen torch is a system used to obtained a
flame of 50000C which is employed in welding heavy
machineries, car chases, crane and suspension bridges
etc.
Atomic hydrogen torch is based on the fact that when

hydrogen gas is passed through an electric arc in the
presence of tungsten, atomic hydrogen is produced
which at once combines to give a flame having a
temperature of 50000C.
NASCENT HYDROGEN
“The atomic form of hydrogen which produce at the time of its
During a chemical reaction is known as nascent hydrogen”.
For example when dilute mineral acid like HCL is treated with zinc, it gives nascent
hydrogen.
𝑑𝑖𝑙
𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 2 [𝐻]
Reason of High Reactivity of Nascent Hydrogen
Ordinary molecular exists in diatomic form (H2) in which the two hydrogen atoms
join through strong covalent bond (H - H) and it requires 104 Kcal/mole energy to split into
single atoms before it can react that is why molecular hydrogen is quite stable and does not
react at ordinary condition.
Nascent hydrogen on the other hand is a single hydrogen atom produce at the time of
its birth, therefore it readily reacts in the chemical reaction.
Basic different between Nascent hydrogen and atomic hydrogen

Atomic Hydrogen Nascent Hydrogen
(i) It produces as a result of dissociation It produces at the time of birth in a chemical
of molecular hydrogen. reaction.
(ii) It can be prepared by thermal or It can be prepared by displacement reaction
electrical dissociation of molecular of mineral acid with high electropositive
hydrogen. metal (Zn).
5000𝑜𝐶 𝑑𝑖𝑙
𝐻2 → 𝐻+𝐻 𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 2 [𝐻]
(iii) It generally produces at high It generally produces at room temperature.
temperature.
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
“Atoms of the same elements having same atomic number
But different mass number are called isotopes”
OR
“Atoms that have same number of protons and electrons
But different number of neutrons are called Isotopes”
The existence of Isotopes of elements was first discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1913
while working on the properties of Neon. The Isotopes of hydrogen, however was reported by
Menzel in 1931.
There are three isotopes of hydrogen namely Protium, Deuterium and Tritium.
PROTIUM
(i) It is the most abundant natural and stable isotope of hydrogen.
(ii) It is called ordinary hydrogen and denoted by 11𝐻.
(iii) It contains one proton, and one electron only.
(iv) It’s atomic number is 1 and mass number is also 1.
(v) It exist in nature in free state or in combine state to the extent of 99.98%.
DEUTERIUM
(i) It is a stable and naturally existing isotope of hydrogen.
(ii) It is called “Heavy Hydrogen” denoted by 21𝐻 or D.
(iii) This isotope of Hydrogen was discovered by Menzel and Brige in 1931, which
was later spectroscopically recognized by Urey.
(iv) It contains one proton, one neutron and one electron.
(v) Its atomic number is 1 but mass number is 2.
(vi) It exist in nature in Free State or in combine state to the extent of 0.0156% i.e. in
the ration of 1:15000.
TRITIUM
(i) It is the heaviest and unstable isotope of Hydrogen denoted by 31𝐻 or T.
(ii) It is a radio isotope of Hydrogen and discovered by Rutherford. Its half-life is 12.5
years.
(iii) It contains one proton and two neutron.
(iv) Its atomic number is 1 but mass number is 3.
(v) It occur in nature to the extent of 4 x 10-15%.
(vi) It can be prepared by the bombardment of deuterium on “Be”.
BINARY COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN

“Compounds which contain hydrogen and one another
element are called binary compounds of hydrogen”.
The binary compounds in which hydrogen acts as H- (i.e. behave as high electro
negative) are called hydrides, however there are various binary compounds in which
hydrogen does not act as H- but considered as Hydrides.
On the basis of nature of bond hydrides are classified into following six groups.
(i) Ionic hydrides (ii) Covalent hydrides (iii) Metallic Hydrides
(iv) Polymeric Hydrides (v) Border Line Hydrides (vi) Complex Hydrides
IONIC HYDRIDES
“These are binary compounds of hydrogen with the elements
of IA and II-A of the periodic table (except Be and Mg)”.
Preparations
Alkali and Alkaline earth metals when heated in a current of hydrogen, gives ionic
hydrides. Ionic nature increases as we go down in group IA.
600𝑜 𝐶
2𝐿𝑖 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐿𝑖𝐻
200𝑜𝐶
2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐻
200𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝑎 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐻2
Properties of Ionic Hydrides
(i) They are colourless, non-volatile crystalline solids with high melting point.
(ii) The bond between metal and hydrogen is ionic in which hydrogen acts as H-
having a formula MH for group IA and MH2 for group IIA.
(iii) They are stable towards heat and their stability increases with atomic mass.
(iv) They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.
(v) They reacts with water acid and alcohol to liberate hydrogen gas.
𝑁𝑎𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
𝐶𝑎𝐻2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝐻2
𝑁𝑎𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2
𝑁𝑎𝐻 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2
USES
(i) They are used as reducing agent.
(ii) These are used as a source of storage hydrogen.
Why Ionic hydrides are called true hydrides?
By the definition of hydrides.
“All those binary compounds in which hydrogen acts as H- are called hydrides”
But many binary compounds are considered as hydrides although hydrogen does not acts as H -.
Among all types of hydrides, it is only ionic hydride which truly fulfil the definition
of hydrides i.e. in ionic hydrides, hydrogen acts as H-, hence these are called true hydrides.
Why Ionic hydrides are called salt like hydrides?
Ionic hydrides exist in typical lattice structure of H - ion with cat ion of IA, IIA and
forms alt of the type MH and MH2 that is why these are called as salt like or saline hydrides.
Why Be & Mg are not included in ionic hydride?
Electronegativity of Be (1.5) and Mg (1.2) is much higher among s-block elements
therefore these elements are not highly electropositive and unable to transfer their electron to
hydrogen atom hence instead of ionic bond, they form a covalent bond
.
COVALENT HYDRIDES
“The binary compounds of hydrogen with P-block elements
(Group III-A to VII-A) are called covalent hydrides”.
Preparations
These may be prepared directly be reacting hydrogen with an element or indirectly by
a compound.
(i) Direct Method
450𝑜 𝐶,200𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑁2 + 3𝐻2 → 2𝑁𝐻3
𝐼𝑛𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂
𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙
450𝑜 𝐶
𝑆 + 𝐻2 → 𝐻2 𝑆
(ii) Direct Method
𝐴𝑙4 𝐶3 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 3𝐶𝐻4
𝐶𝑎𝐶2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐶2 𝐻2
𝑀𝑔3 𝑁2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑁𝐻3
𝐶𝑎3 𝑃2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑃𝐻3
𝑃𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3 + 3𝐻𝐶𝑙
Properties of Covalent Hydrides

(i) They exist mostly in gases, some in liquids and very few in long melting solids.
(ii) These hydrides possess covalent bond and exist in discrete molecules.
(iii) They have low melting and boiling point.
However the high B.P of water is due to the presence of inter molecular hydrogen
bond.
List of Covalent Hydrides

Group III A Group IV A Group V A Group VI A Group VII A
B2H6 CH4 NH3 H 2O HF
(AlH3)n SiH4 PH3 H 2S HCI
AsH3 HBr
SbH3
Use of Covalent Hydrides

Covalent hydrides is a very important class of compounds because they have wide
range of uses. For example.
(i) CH4 is used as domestic fuel.
(ii) SiH4 is used for the preparation of high purity silicon for making transistor.
(iii) NH3 is used in refrigeration, also in making urea and nitric acid.
(iv) H2O is a universal solvent, its use are unlimited.
(v) H2S is used in salt analysis, as a reducing agent and in the preparation of antidote.
(vi) HCL, and HBr are use as mineral acids.
(vii) HF is used specially in glass designing (etching).
Types of Covalent Hydrides

Neutral Hydrides These are hydrides of Sub group IIIA and IVA
Basic Hydrides These are hydrides of group VA
Acidic Hydrides These are hydrides of group VIA and VIIA
COMPLEX HYDRIDES
“Salts of M+ ion and AH-4 ion are known as complex hydrides”.
where
M+ = cation of group IA for e.g. Li+, Na+, K+
𝐴𝐻4− = complex ion of group IIIA for e.g 𝐴𝑙𝐻4− , 𝐵𝐻4−
Structure and bonding Complex Hydride

Complex hydride consists of a complex an ion (𝐴𝑙𝐻4− , 𝐵𝐻4− etc) and a mono valent
cat ion (Na+, K+ etc) which are arranged in a three-dimensional lattice and consist of all three
types of chemical bonds.
𝐿𝑖 + + 𝐴𝑙𝐻4− → 𝐿𝑖𝐴𝑙𝐻4
Physical Properties
These are water soluble white solids having thermal stability up to 3000C.
Chemical Reaction
When heated with water they decompose and liberate hydrogen gas.
𝐿𝑖𝐴𝑙𝐻4 + 4𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐿𝑖𝑂𝐻 + 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 4𝐻2
𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝐻4 + 4𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 4𝐻2
𝐾𝐵𝐻4 + 4𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 𝐵(𝑂𝐻)3 + 4𝐻2
Uses:
(i) They are used as reducing agent in organic inorganic reaction.
(ii) They can be used for the preparation of hydrogen gas.
METALLIC HYDRIDES
“These are binary compounds of hydrogen with
transition elements (sub group IIIB to VIII)”.
These hydrides are prepared when hydrogen gas is absorbed in to the colloidal
powder of transition metals.
Why are these called interstitial hydrides?
In the crystal lattice of transition metals, may holes are present called as interstitial
spaces. In these spaces hydrogen atoms occupy non stoichiometrically like an alloy that is
why these are often called interstitial hydrides or alloy like hydrides.
Interstitial Maximum
Hydrides of Hydrogen
Content
Vanadium VH 1.6
Palladium PdH 0.6
Titanium TiH 0.6
Lanthanum LaH 2.7
Why these hydrides are not true chemical compounds?
In these hydrides, the presence of hydrogen neither change the properties of metal nor
its stoichiometry, hence these are not assigned by a chemical formula and not considered as a
chemical compound or stoichiometrical compound. The best to say “alloy of hydrogen with
transition metal”.
POLYMERIC HYDRIDES
“The binary compounds of hydrogen with “Be” and “Mg”
having a formula (BeH2)n and (MgH2)n are called as polymeric hydrides”.
In these hydrides, hydrogen bonded to “Be” and “Mg” through polar covalent bond
hence they have intermediate character between ionic and covalent hydrides.
The hydrogen atoms in BeH2 and MgH2 serves as bridge in the formation of long
chain polymer that is why they are called polymer hydride.
BORDERLINE HYDRIDES
“These are the hydrides of group I-B and II-B of periodic table”.
These are stoichiometrical metallic hydrides for example CuH 2 ZnH2 etc.
These have intermediate characters between metallic hydrides and covalent hydrides.
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN GAS

Hydrogen gas may be obtained in a large scale in different ways.
(i) Steam Coal Process
When steam is passed over red hot coal at about 10000C, a mixture of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide is formed which is called as water gas.
1000𝑜 𝐶
𝐶 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂
Carbon monoxide gas produced here can be removal by liquefaction or by adding
caustic soda.
(ii) Steam Methane Process
A mixture of steam and natural as when passed over Nickel catalyst at 900 0C, H2 gas is
obtained along with carbon monoxide.
𝑁𝑖 ,900𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂
(iii) Steam Methanol Process
When steam and methanol vapours are heated at 2500C, a mixture of Co2 and H2 gas
is obtained.
250𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂2
CO2 is separated at high pressure being absorbed into water.
(iv) Electrolysis of Water
Water containing small quantity of acid or alkali when electrolyzed by passing
electricity, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is collected at cathode
and oxygen is collected at anode as a bi product.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻2 + 𝑂2
This process is used only, where electricity is available at cheaper rate.
(v) Thermal Decomposition of Hydrocarbon
Methane when heated in the absence of oxygen, it decomposes into element.
750𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻4 → 𝐶 + 2𝐻2
This is most commercial method for the preparation of hydrogen gas because. Carbon
obtained in this method is known as “Carbon Black” which is used in the preparation
of rubber ink, plastic, pain etc.
(vi) Thermal Decomposition of Ammonia
The vapours of ammonia when heated at 10000C and passed over active catalyst give
hydrogen gas
1000𝑜 𝐶
2𝑁𝐻3 → 𝑁2 + 3𝐻2
When the mixture of gases is cooled to – 1960C, N2 gas becomes liquefied and free
hydrogen gas is obtained.
Laboratory preparation of Hydrogen gas
From Dilute Mineral Acid
(𝑑𝑖𝑙)
𝑍𝑛 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2
(𝑑𝑖𝑙)
𝑍𝑛 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2
From Strong Alkali
𝑍𝑛 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑍𝑛𝑂2 + 𝐻2
2𝐴𝑙 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 𝐻2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
(i) Reaction with metals and non-metals
Hydrogen reacts with metals and non-metals to give corresponding compound.
200𝑜𝐶
200𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝑎 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐻2
𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙
450𝑜 𝐶
𝑆 + 𝐻2 → 𝐻2 𝑆
2𝑃 + 3𝐻2 → 2𝑃𝐻3
200𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑁2 + 3𝐻2 → 2𝑁𝐻3
(ii) Reaction with metals oxides
When hydrogen gas reacts with metal oxides, reduces metal in Free State hence act as
reducing agent.
𝑊𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 → 𝑊 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
𝐴𝑔2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐴𝑔 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝑢𝑂 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝑢 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(iii) Catalytic reaction
Water gas when heated under high temperature and pressure in the presence of
catalyst, it gives methanol.
Methanol is widely used organic solvent and commercially prepared from water gas.
WATER GAS
“A mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is called water gas”.
METHOD OF PREPARATION:
(i) Steam Coal Process
Steam when passed through a red-hot coal at 10000C, a mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen is formed known as water gas.
1000𝑜 𝐶
𝐶 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂
(ii) Steam Methane Process
Steam water when heated with methane at 9000C in the presence of Nickel, it gives
water gas.
𝑁𝑖 ,900𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂
SEPARATION OF HYDROGEN IN FREE STATE FROM WATER GAS

Hydrogen gas can be separated from water gas by using one of the following methods.
A) By converting carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide

In this method water gas is mixed with twice its volume of steam and heated to 5000C by
using FeO catalyst.
𝐹𝑒𝑂 ,500𝑜 𝐶
𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2
In this reaction carbon monoxide change into carbon dioxide which can be separated by
dissolving into water under high pressure.
B) By Adding Caustic Soda
Water gas when passed through a solution of NaOH, carbon monoxide gas reacted with
NaOH to form sodium format and H2 gas is obtained in free state.
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 → 𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2
C) By Liquefaction
When water gas is cooled to -200oC, carbon monoxide becomes liquid and free hydrogen
gas is separated.
−200𝑜𝐶
𝐶𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐻2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐻2(𝑔)
M.C.Q’s
1. The lightest known element is:
(A) Hydrogen (B) Helium (C) Nitrogen (D) Oxygen
2. The nucleus of an atom of hydrogen contains:
(A) One proton and one neutron (B) One proton and no neutron
(C) One proton and two neutrons (D) Two protons and one neutron
3. Hydrogen is placed in group IA because:
(A) It is a light gas (B) It has ns1 configuration
(C) It forms hydrides (D) It has isotopes
4. Which of the following liberates hydrogen when reacted with HNO3:
(A) Zn (B) Cu (C) Mg (D) None of the
above
5. Hydrogen loses its electron to form H+ ion. In this respect it resembles:
(A) Halogens (B) Alkali metals
(C) Noble gases (D) Transition elements
-
6. Hydrogen gains one electron to form H ion. In this way it resembles:
(A) Alkali metals (B) Halogens
(C) Noble gases (D) Elements of group IV A
7. Hydrogen has maximum chemical reactivity for:
(A) F2 (B) Cl2 (C) Br (D) I2
8. Acidified KMnO4 is declourized
(A) Nascent hydrogen (B) Ordinary hydrogen
(C) Oxygen (D) Nitrogen
9. The ratio of electron, proton and neutron in Tritium is:
(A) 1:1:1 (B) 1:1:2 (C) 2:1:1 (D) 1:2:1
10. The ratio of electron, proton and neutron in Deuterium is:
(A) 1:1:0 (B) 1:1:1 (C) 1:1:2 (D) 1:2:1
11. Protium is represented as:
(A) 1H1 (B) 1H2 (C) 1H3 (D) P
12. Atos of the same elements with same atomic number but different mass number
are called:
(A) Allotropes (B) Isotopes
(C) Isomorphous (D) None of the above
13. Atoms of the same elements which have same number of protons but different
number of neutrons in their nucleus.
(A) Allotropes (B) Isotopes
(C) Isomorphous (D) None of the above
14. 3
The notation 1H stands for:
(A) Protium (B) Deuterium
(C) Tritium (D) Active hydrogen
15. Which of the following statements is not correct for Nascent Hydrogen:
(A) It is in the form of atomic condition
(B) It is generated in the form of small bubbles under high pressure
(C) It is associated with very high energy
(D) Its bond energy is 431 KJ/mole.
16. The existence of heavy hydrogen was suggested
(A) Guldberg and Waage (B) Birage and Menzel
(C) Rutherford and Goldstein (D) Crookes and Bohr
17. The formula of heavy water is:
(A) H2O (B) D2O (C) 1H2 (D) 1H3
18. The atomic mass of Tritium is:
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
19. Deuterium is also known as:
(A) Ordinary hydrogen (B) Heavy hydrogen
(C) Active hydrogen (D) Nascent hydrogen
20. The flame produced by atomic hydrogen torch gives a temperature between:
(A) 1000-2000ºC (B) 2000-3000ºC
(C) 3000-4000ºC (D) 4000-5000ºC
21. Steam iron method for the industrial preparation of Hydrogen is known as:
(A) Bosch process (B) Lane’s process
(C) Liljenroth process (D) Haber’s process
22. Hydrogen is industrially manufactured by passing steam over red hot coke. This
method is known as:
(A) Bosch process (B) Lane’s process
(C) Liljenroth process (D) Haber’s process
23. Commercial hydrogen can be obtained by the action of steam on:
(A) Marsh gas (B) Coal gas
(C) Producer gas (D) None of the above
24. Hydrogen at the time of its liberation is known as:
(A) Atomic hydrogen (B) Ordinary hydrogen
(C) Nascent hydrogen (D) Heavy hydrogen
25. The hydrogen obtained by the dissociation of molecular hydrogen (H2) is called:
(A) Nascent hydrogen (B) Atomic hydrogen
(C) Occlusion hydrogen (D) Heavy hydrogen
26. The catalyst used in Bosch process of manufacture of H2 is:
(A) V2O5 (B) Finely divided iron
(C) Pd (D) Fe2O3 + Cr2O3
27. The catalyst used in Liljenroth process of manufacture of hydrogen is:
(A) Pt (B) Ni (C) Pd (D) V2O5
28. Which of the following statements is not correct when sodium is placed in a beaker
of water:
(A) Hydrogen gas is produced (B) The water becomes warmer
(C) The sodium disappears after some time (D) The water becomes acidic
29. A hydride ion (H-) and helium atom have the same:
(A) Number of protons (B) Number of electrons
(C) Number of neutrons (D) Valency
30. The valence shell of hydrogen is half filled like:
(A) Members of group IA (B) Members of group VIIA
(C) Members of group IVA (D) None of the above
31. When electricity is passed through water containing a little acid, it liberates
hydrogen which is collected:
(A) At anode (B) At cathode
(C) None of the two electrodes (D) Over the surface of water
32. The ability of a substance to remove oxygen from a compound is called:
(A) Oxidation (B) Hydrogenation (C) Electrolysis (D) Reduction
33. When passed very hot copper oxide, hydrogen acts as:
(A) A catalyst (B) An oxidizing agent
(C) A reducing agent (D) A solute
34. Hydrogen can be prepared by reacting cold water with:
(A) Aluminum (B) Iron (C) Platinum (D) Sodium
35. Hydrides, which have non-stoichometric composition, are called:
(A) Complex hydrides (B) Metallic hydrides
(C) Ionic hydrides (D) Covalent hydride
36. Hydrogen is:
(A) Less dense than air and inert (B) Very soluble in water and combustible
(C) Odourless and a reducing agent (D) Denser than air and tasteless
37. Hydrogen is used:
(A) To support burning (B) As part of fuel gas
(C) As an explosive (D) As a cooling agent
38. Hydrogen may be formed when steam at high temperature reacts with:
(A) Copper (B) Iron (C) Mercury (D) Silver
39. Which of the following reactions does not produce hydrogen:
(A) The action of concentrated H2SO4 on copper
(B) The action of dilute H2SO4
(C) The action of sodium hydroxide on aluminum
(D) The action of sodium on water
40. Aluminum reacts with excess of NaOH solution to form:
(A) Aluminum oxide and water
(B) Sodium oxide and water
(C) Aluminum oxide, sodium oxide and water
(D) Sodium aluminate and hydrogen
41. There are two naturally occurring forms and one artificially produced form of
hydrogen. They are:
(A) Allotropes (B) Isotopes (C) Isomers (D) Hydrides
42. Hydrogen diffuses:
(A) Four times as fast as oxygen (B) Four times slower than oxygen
(C) Twice as fast as oxygen (D) At the same speed as oxygen
43. The absorption of hydrogen by platinum (P1) or palladium (Pd) is called:
(A) Hydrogenation (B) Reduction
(C) Dehydration (D) Occlusion
44. The number of neutrons in the nucleus of tritium (1H3) atom is:
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
45. Hydrogen loses an electron readily to form:
(A) H+ (B) H- (C) H2 (D) H2
46. In ordinary hydrogen gas, the percentage of protium is:
(A) 0.0156 (B) 18.8 (C) 20.008 (D) 99.98
47. The binary compounds of hydrogen with transition elements are called:
(A) Ionic hydrides (B) Covalent hydrides
(C) Metallic hydrides (D) Polymeric hydrides
48. Hydrides, which have salt-like character, are called:
(A) Ionic hydrides (B) Covalent hydrides
(C) Metallic hydrides (D) Complex hydrides
49. When edible oil is heated along with hydrogen gas in the presence of Ni catalyst, it
is solidified. This process is called:
(A) Dehydrogenation (B) Hydrogenation
(C) Hydration (D) Dehydration
ANSWER KEY
01. A 11. A 21. B 31. B 41. B
02. B 12. B 22. A 32. D 42. A
03. B 13. B 23. A 33. C 43. D
04. C 14. C 24. C 34. D 44. B
05. B 15. B 25. B 35. B 45. B
06. C 16. B 26. D 36. C 46. D
07. A 17. B 27. B 37. B 47. C
08. A 18. C 28. D 38. B 48. A
09. B 19. B 29. B 39. A 49. B
10. B 20. D 30. C 40. D
3 s-BLOCK ELEMENTS
Elements of group IA and IIA of periodic table are called as s-block elements. These
are identified by ns1 and ns2 valence configuration respectively.
Group Atomic Atomic Configuration Group Atomic Atomic Configuration

IA Number Weight IIA Number Weight
Li 3 7 (He) 2s1 Be 4 9 (He) 2s2
Na 11 2 (Ne) 3s1 Mg 12 24 (Ne) 3s2
K 19 39 (Ar) 4s1 Ca 20 40 (Ar) 4s2
Rb 37 85.46 (Kr) 5s1 Sr 38 87.6 (Kr) 5s2
Cs 55 132.9 (Xe) 6s1 Ba 56 137.3 (Xe) 6s2
Alkali and Alkaline earth metals

Elements of group IA are called as Alkali metals. Alkali is an Arabic word meaning
Ash. However, these are so called because they reacts with water to form Alkali’s.
Elements of group IIA are called alkaline earth metal because their hydroxide are
sparingly soluble in water and also, they exists as oxide in earth crust.
Occurrence
Alkali metals are very reactive and do not exist in Free State in nature but are found in
variety of compounds.
Sodium and potassium are most abundant, Cesium is rather rare whereas Francium
exists only in traces as it is a radioactive element.
Group IA Mostly obtained from Group IIA Mostly obtained from

Li LiCl Be BeCl2
Carnalite (MgCl2, KCl, 6H2O)
Na NaCl Mg Magnesite (MgCO3)
K KCL Dolomite (MgCO3, CaCO3)
Rb RbCl Ca CaCl2
Cs CsCl Sr SrCl2
Ba Bartyes (BaSO4)
Whiterite (BaCO3)
Nature of Bonding
All s-block elements form ionic compounds with non-metals except Beryllium which
form covalent compound because of its relatively high electronegativity (1.5) in s-block.
Abnormal behavior of Hear elements

The first element of group IA and IIA exhibit certain different behavior from other
members of their respective groups.
The marked difference in Li and Be from their heavier congeners is due to their
following unique behaviors.
(i) They have very small atomic radii as compared to other members.
(ii) They have relatively high ionization potential.
(iii) High charge density.
(iv) High heat of hydration.
(v) They do not have vacant d-orbitals.
Diagonal Relationship
“Resemblance of properties between diagonally adjacent
elements in the periodic table is called as diagonal relationship”
On moving diagonally across the periodic table, the elements shows certain
similarities which are however far less pronounced than the similarities within the group.
The diagonal relationship is particular noticeable in the elements of second and their
period of the periodic table.
The most important diagonal Paris are given below.
Causes of diagonal relationship

In moving along the period, atomic radii decreases and in moving down the group
atomic radii increases. These two effects tends to cancel each other is moving diagonally
from top left to bottom right. Therefore diagonal pairs of elements have similar properties.
Double salts of alkali and alkaline earth metals

“Minerals which contains more than one
Cation and anion are called double salts”
Alkali and alkaline earth metals found in earth crust in the form of following double
salts.
(i) Dolomite (MgCO3.CaCO3)
(ii) Carnallite (MgCl2.KCl.6H2O)
High reactivity of alkali metals

Alkali metals are very reactive. They keep in oil to minimize the reaction with oxygen
or water vapours of air.
When exposed to air or put into water, alkali metals radially tarnished to form an
outer metal oxide film with the release of high heat and hence catch fire.
Oil is water repellent and physical barrier towards air and moisture that is why it is
used to keep alkali metals.
Alkali metals are severe to skin

Alkali metals never be touched with the necked hands or fingers because sweat on our
hand will reacts with alkali metal to form hydroxide and produce high amount of heat which
causes irritation and blistering of skin.
Flame Colouration
When alkali metals or their salts are heated in flame of Bunsen burner, they impart
characteristic colour to the flame as given below.
Li Na K Rb Cs
Carmine Golden Pale Reddish Sky
Red Yellow Violet Violet Blue
When heat is supplied to these elements through Bunsen burner, the electron in their
valance shell get excited to higher energy level. When this electron jump back to its ground
state, it emit energy in the form of radiation which fall in the visible region imparting a
characteristic colour.
PERIODICITY OF S-BLOCK ELEMENT

Atomic and Ionic Radii
Atomic radii is a measure of the size of atom. It is usually the mean distance from the
nucleus to the boundary of surrounding electrons cloud. Since the boundary is not a well-
defined physical entity, the term covalent radii is widely used instead of atomic radii.
“Covalent radii is the half of the inter nuclear separation between the
nuclei of two single bonded atoms of the same species”.
The group & period trend of covalent radii of s-block element may be summarized as:
(i) Alkali metal have largest covalent radii in the respective period because they
passes the smallest nuclear charge and weakest attraction of nucleus with the
valence electron.
(ii) Atomic radii increases regularly down the group in both alkali and alkaline earth
metals because there is a progressive addition of new energy shells.
Although the nuclear charge also increases down the group but the effect of
addition of new shells is more predominant and hence radii increases from top to
bottom.
(iii) Atomic radii of the element of group IIA is smaller than the element of group IA
because they have greater number of valence electrons as compared IA which are
strongly attracted towards nucleus.
Group IA Covalent Radii (nm) Group IIA Covalent Radii (nm)
Li 0.123 Be 0.089
Na 0.157 Mg 0.089
K 0.203 Ca 0.174
Rb 0.216 Sr 0.791
Cs 0.236 Ba 0.798
(iv) Due to bigger atomic radii, alkali and alkaline earth metals can easily lose their
valence electrons to form cat ion of the charge M + and M+2 respectively to acquire
noble gas configuration of previous period.
𝑀 → 𝑀+ + 𝑒 − (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐿𝑖, 𝑁𝑎, 𝐾, 𝑅𝑏, 𝐶𝑠)
𝑀 → 𝑀+2 + 2𝑒 − (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐵𝑒, 𝑀𝑔, 𝐶𝑎, 𝑆𝑟, 𝐵𝑎)
(v) The group trend of ionic radii of s-block element is the same due to the same
reason.
(vi) The radii of cat ion of group IA and IIA is smaller than parent atom because
number of proton in cat ion exceed their number of electrons causing increase in
nuclear charge hence pulls the valence electrons more forcely towards nucleus.
Another reason is that valence shell disappears in the formation M+ and M+2 cat ions of
group IA and IIA respectively.
Comparison of atomic and ionic radii of cat ions

Element Atomic radii (nm) Ionic radii (nm)
Lithium 0.123 0.06
Sodium 0.157 0.095
Potassium 0.203 0.133
Rubidium 0.216 0.148
Cesium 0.236 0.169
Ionization Enthalpy
The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bonded electron from an
isolated gaseous atom is known as ionization enthalpy.
The group & period trend of ionization enthalpy of s-block element may be
summarized as.
(i) Alkali and alkaline earth metals generally have low first ionization enthalpy
because of their bigger atomic size and weak holding of nucleus with the valence
electrons in the respective period.
(ii) I.P of the element of group IIA is higher than group IA because they have greater
nuclear charge and stronger nuclear attraction with valence electrons.
(iii) I.P decreases down ward in each group IA and IIA because of a progressive
increase in the number of shells and
increase shielding effect.
Group IIA 1st I.P (KJ/mol)
Group IA 1st I.P (KJ/mol) Be 906
Li 525 Mg 742
Na 500 Ca 596
K 424 Sr 554
Rb 408 Ba 508
Cs 308
Electro Negativity
The relative tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared electron pair
towards itself is known as electro negativity.
Electro negativity of elements of group IA and IIA is very low and further decreases
down the group because of increased number of shell which shields the shared electron pair
from the nucleus.
Group IA Electro negativity Group IIA Electro negativity

Li 1.2 Be 1.5
Na 0.9 Mg 1.2
K 0.8 Ca 1.0
Rb 0.8 Sr 1.0
Cs 0.9 Ba 0.9
Density
“Density of an elements is the measure of how much mass
it has for its size. It is measure in g/cm3.”

Alkali metals have low density as compared to other elements of periodic table
because they possess largest atomic size and weak metallic bonding in the crystal lattice.
However, in going down the group atomic volume as well as atomic mass increases
but the rate of increasing atomic mass is higher than rate of increasing atomic volume. Thus
the ratio of mass/volume i.e. density gradually increases.
Element At mass At volume Density

(g/mole) (cm3) (g/cm3)
Li 6.94 13.09 0.53
Na 23 34.32 0.67
K 39.1 45.34 0.86
Rb 85.47 55.86 1.53
Cs 132.91 69.95 1.90
Above table shows that the density of first three alkali metals (Li, Na, K) is less than water
hence they float on water.
Softness
All alkali metals are very soft and lighter due to their low density and weak metallic
bonding in their crystal lattice that is why they can be cut with knife.
Further as we move down the group metallic bonding weakens due to the gradual
increase trend of atomic size and less attraction of positive ions with delocalize electrons.
However, alkaline earth metals are relatively harder than alkali metals because they
form divalent cat ion (M+2) as compared to alkali metals which form mono-valent cation
(M+). The attraction of M+2 cat ions with delocalized electron (metallic bonding) is stronger
than M+ cat ion that is why alkaline earth metals are harder than alkali metals.
Melting and Boiling Point
“Melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it change state from solid to
liquid whereas boiling point of a substance is the temperature where vapours pressure
of liquid becomes equal to external pressure.”
When a metal is heated to its melting point, the metallic bond which keep the atoms in
place becomes so weaken and finally the metallic bond breaks and atoms keep around into
liquid state.
In all s-block elements positive ions of metal atoms held with delocalized electrons to
form metallic bond.
Alkali metals due to their biggest atomic size possess weak metallic bonding
(Attraction of positive ions with delocalized electrons) hence they can easily be melted and
possess low melting point.
Down ward in group IA and IIA atomic size increases and hence the strength of
metallic bonding decreases that is why m.p decreases down the group.
Boiling point also follow the same order due to the same reason.
Group IA Melting Boiling Group IIA Melting Boiling

Point (oC) Point (oC) Point (oC) Point (oC)
Li 180 1330 Be 1280 2477
Na 98 890 Mg 650 2110
K 64 774 Ca 850 1487
Rb 39 688 Sr 768 1380
Cs 29 690 Ba 714 1640
Hydration Enthalpy
The heat involved during the hydration of ions,
is known as hydration enthalpy.
Hydration enthalpy depends upon charge density of ion.
Charge enthalpy depends upon charge density of ion.
𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑖
In s-block elements, if we go down the group the ionic radii increase and hence the
charge density decreases. Since hydration enthalpy is dependent upon charge density, ions
becomes less firmly hydrated down ward in group IA and IIA. For example Li ions are most
readily hydrated than other ions in group IA and release high amount of hydration enthalpy
due to smaller ionic size and greater charge density causing strong association of ion with the
water molecule. The increase order of hydration enthalpy from lithium to cesium is given as.
Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+
Alkaline earth metals ions are more strongly hydrated than alkali metal ions because
M ions have high charge density them M+1 ion causing strong association of cation with
+2
water molecule.
Cat ions of Hydration enthalpy Cat ions of Hydration enthalpy

group IA (KJ/mol) group IIA (KJ/mol)
Li+ -499 Be+2 -2425
Na+ -390 Mg+2 -1891
K+ -206 Ca+2 -1562
Rb+ -281 Sr+2 -1414
Cs+ -248 Ba+2 -1213
Metallic Character
Alkali metals are typical metals. They have silvery shiny luster which is lost on
exposure to air.
Metallic character of an elements is the tendency to lose the valence electrons and it
depends upon.
(i) Atomic size.
(ii) Ionization potential.
(iii) Electron population of valence shell.
Down the group, atomic size increases and ionization potential decreases therefore it
becomes easier for atom to lose electron and form cat ion that is why metallic character
increases down the group.
Metallic character may also be attributed in term of electron population of valence
shell. The smaller the electron population, the higher the metallic character. Since down the
group electron population decrease hence metallic character increases.
Electro positivity
“The ability of atom to lose electron and change
into positive ion is known as Electropositivity”.
Elements of group IA and IIA possess bigger atomic size and low first I.P, hence they
can easily lose their valence electrons and charge into cat ions of +1 and +2 charge
respectively.
𝑀 → 𝑀+ + 𝑒 − (𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐼𝐴)
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
𝑀 → 𝑀+2 + 2𝑒 − (𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝐼𝐼𝐴)
(2, 8, 2) (2, 8)
Electropositivity increases down the group due to increase atomic size and lower
ionization potential therefore it becomes easier for atom to lose electron and change into
cation.
Reactivity
Alkali metals are highly reactive because of
(i) Low first I.P
(ii) Large atomic size
(iii) Low heat of atomization
Hence they can easily lose electron and involve in the reaction.
Reactivity increases from lithium to cesium as the value of I.P decreases with the increase
atomic size.
Reducing property
“Lose of electron or increases in oxidation number during a chemical
process is known as oxidation and the substance which
lose electron is called reduction agent”.
𝑀 → 𝑀+ + 𝑒 − (𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Reducing property is attributed by their low first ionization potential.
ownward in group IA and IIA, the value of I.P decreases therefore loss of electron
from atom becomes easier and hence metal becomes more stronger reducing agent.
𝐿𝑖 < 𝑁𝑎 < 𝐾 < 𝑅𝑏 < 𝐶𝑠

More stronger reducing agent
Reducing property of s-block elements may also be compared by their standard

reduction potential values.
“Elements which lie above hydrogen in ECS have – ve

Reduction potential and considered to be reducing agent”.
Thus, the higher the value of negative potential, the stronger the reducing agent.
Elements of IA and IIA have high negative reduction potential hence they can easily
be oxidized from M to M+ cat ions and referred as good reducing agent.
Group IA Electrode Potential Group IIA Electrode Potential

Li -3.05 V Be -1.85 V
Na -2.71 V Mg -2.37 V
K -2.92 V Ca -2.87 V
Rb -2.93 V Sr -2.89 V
Cs -2.93 V Ba -2.90 V
In alkali metals, if we go down the group from Na to Cs, an increase trend of negative
reduction potential is seen indicating that the removal of electron becomes easier and hence
their ability of reducing agent increases from Na to Cs.
However, Lithium which is found on the top of IA shows anomalies in this general
trend. It has unexpected high negative electrode potential and consider to be strongest
reducing agent in all alkali metals. The reason is that Li+ has the smallest ionic radii, its ions
are strongly hydrated with water molecules and releasing high hydration enthalpy which
increases the rate of oxidation from M(s) to M+(aa).
Since, alkali metals are powerful reducing agent and they readily oxidize in water
with the release of heat, they cannot be used in voltaic cell.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF S-BLOCK ELEMENTS

S-block elements are highly reactive because of bigger size, low first ionization
potential and low heat of atomization.
Some common reactions of s-block elements are given below.
Reaction with Hydrogen

Alkali and alkaline earth metals react with hydrogen at 200 0C to 7000C to form ionic
hydrides of the formula MH (for IA) and MH 2 (for IIA) but Be and Mg do not form ionic
hydrides because of their high EN values.
Group IA Group IIA

600𝑜 𝐶 200𝑜 𝐶
2𝐿𝑖 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐿𝑖𝐻 𝐶𝑎 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐻2
200𝑜𝐶 300𝑜 𝐶
2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐻 𝑆𝑟 + 𝐻2 → 𝑆𝑟𝐻2
300𝑜 𝐶 300𝑜 𝐶
2𝐾 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐾𝐻 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐻2 → 𝐵𝑎𝐻2
700𝑜𝐶
2𝑅𝑏 + 𝐻2 → 2𝑅𝑏𝐻
600𝑜𝐶
2𝐶𝑠 + 𝐻2 → 2𝐶𝑠𝐻
Reaction with Oxygen

S-block elements react with oxygen direct to form respective oxides however the
nature of oxide depends upon the nature of metals conditions required.
For example.
(i) When reacts with limited supply of oxygen, they form normal oxides.
4𝑀 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑀2 𝑂 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐿𝑖, 𝑁𝑎, 𝐾, 𝑅𝑏, 𝐶𝑠)
2𝑀 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑀𝑂 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐵𝑒, 𝑀𝑔, 𝐶𝑎, 𝑆𝑟, 𝐵𝑎)
(ii) When heated with excess of air, they form following types of oxides.
Group IA Group IIA

4𝐿𝑖 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐿𝑖2 𝑂 (normal oxide) 2𝐵𝑒 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐵𝑒𝑂 (normal oxide)
2𝑁𝑎 + 𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂2 (per oxide) 2𝑀𝑔 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂 (normal oxide)
𝐾 + 𝑂2 → 𝐾𝑂2 (super oxide) 2𝐶𝑎 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑎𝑂 (normal oxide)
𝑅𝑏 + 𝑂2 → 𝑅𝑏𝑂2 (super oxide) 𝑆𝑟 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑟𝑂2 (per oxide)
𝐶𝑠 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑠𝑂2 (super oxide) 𝐵𝑎 + 𝑂2 → 𝐵𝑎𝑂2 (per oxide)
Reaction with Water
Alkali metals have high negative electrode potential therefore readily oxidized in
water to form hydroxide and hydrogen gas with the release of heat.
2𝑀 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑀𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝐿𝑖, 𝑁𝑎, 𝐾, 𝑅𝑏, 𝐶𝑠)
On descending the group (Li to Cs) vigorous of the reaction increases and in case of
heavier alkali metals, the liberation of hydrogen catch fire when exposed to air. The basic
character of hydroxide of group IA increases from LiOH to CsOH because of decreases I.P
down the group.
The decrease in the I.P lead to the weakening of bond between alkali metal and
hydroxide ions. This results in the increase concentration of OH- ions in the solution.
Reaction with Halogens

Alkali and alkaline earth metals reacts with halogens with an explusive violence to
form halides.
2𝑀 + 𝑋2 → 2𝑀𝑋 (𝑀 = 𝐿𝑖, 𝑁𝑎, 𝐾, 𝑅𝑏, 𝐶𝑠)
𝑀 + 𝑋2 → 𝑀𝑋2 (𝑀 = 𝐵𝑒, 𝑀𝑔, 𝐶𝑎, 𝑆𝑟, 𝐵𝑎)
Reactivity of alkali metals with halogens increases down the group whereas the
reactivity halogen with particular alkali metals decreases down the group.
SODIUM METAL
Down process is most widely used method for the extraction of sodium metal from
common salt.
This method was devised by American chemist J.C Down in 1924. It is based on the
electrolysis of fused NaCl giving molten sodium at cathode.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠
2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑙) → 2𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2(𝑔)
Structure of Down Cell

Down cell consists of a cylindrical steel shell lines with fire bricks. The anode is
made of graphite and located centrally in the cell and is surrounded by a cylindrical iron
cathode. Both anode and cathode are separated by an iron gauze diaphragm which screens the
graphite anode from iron cathode.
The purpose of gauze is to keep sodium separate from chlorine which would
otherwise reacts with chlorine. The anode is covered by a done shaped steel hood which
provide the outlet for escape of chlorine gas.
The electrolytic operation in down cell requires large energy input that is 6 volt and
30,000 ampere current.
Process in Down Cell
A mixture of NaCl (33%) and CaCl2 (67%) is first heated to 6000C and then fed into
the cell and allowed to conduct electricity.
600𝑜𝐶
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ⇔ 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑙 −
600𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 ⇔ 𝐶𝑎+2 + 2𝐶𝑙 −
Reaction at Anode
The Cl ions migrate to anode and oxidize to form Cl2 gas which collected as
byproduct.
2𝐶𝑙 − → 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 −
Reaction at Cathode
Na+ ions on the other hand pass through iron gauze diaphragm and reduced at cathode
to give molten sodium.
𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑎
The molten sodium liberate at cathode is the transferred into outer receiver where it is
collected out.
Difficulties in Down Process and their Solution
Although Down process is economical and widely used method, yet it has some
difficulties. For example.
(i) Melting point of sodium chloride is very high (8000C) and at this temperature
vapours of sodium obtained in the Down cell which on mixing with molten
sodium chloride gives metallic fog. Moreover material of the ell may be corroded
at this temperature.
To overcome this problem, a molten mixture of CaCl2 and NaCl is taken for the
operation. The melting temperature of this mixture is 6000C and hence process
can easily operated.
(ii) Two products of the Down cell i.e. Na metal and chlorine gas may recombine to
each other.
To avoid this problem cathode is surround by iron gauze diaphragm which allows
only Na+ ions to pass through it while sodium atom due to their bigger atomic size
remain inside the membrance and hence cannot reacts with Cl2 gas.
Advantages of the process

(i) Sodium obtained is of high purity.
(ii) Process is economical due to low cost raw material.
(iii) Chlorine is obtained as bi product.
Why molten mixture of Nacl / CaCl2 is taken in down process?
Electrolysis of NaCl is carried out in the presence of CaCl 2 which decreases the
melting temperature of mixture from 8000C to 6000C. This lowering in temperature makes
the process feasible because at this temperature.
• Formation of metallic frog is prevented.
• Collection of sodium in liquid state become easier.
• Material of the cell is not attacked by the products of electrolysis.
What is the function of Iron gauze diaphragm in Down Cell?

• It separates cathode and anode and hence prevents the mixing of sodium metal and
chlorine gas to avoid the reformation of sodium chloride.
Why sodium and water are not friend?

• Sodium metal when placed into water, it floats and readily reacts with water.
2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
This is an exothermic reaction, and the high energy release during this reaction is enough to
set fire to the H2 gas indicating by the sizzling of sodium ball across the surface of water.
Chemical Reactions
1) Action of Hydrogen
200𝑜 𝐶
2) Action of Nitrogen
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
6𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁2 → 2𝑁𝑎3 𝑁
3) Action of Water
2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
4) Action of Chlorine
2𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
Uses of Sodium
1. It is commonly used in sodium lamp for highway lighting.
2. It is used for the detection of element present in organic compounds.
3. It is used in photo electric cell.
4. Sodium amalgam is used as reducing agent.
CAUSTIC SODA
There are three methods for the commercial preparation of caustic soda named as.
* Mercury cell method * Diaphragm cell method * Membrance method
The most common industrial method for the preparation of caustic soda is mercury
cell method which is also known as Castner Kellner method.
Castner Kellner process is based on the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride in a
mercury cathode type cell.
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠
2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2
Structure of mercury cell:

It is a specially cell and consist of two portions.
The upper portion is like a rectangular tub in which vertically hang titanium block are
dipped into Brine solution. These titanium block serves as anode.
The lower portion is circular tube line in which stream of mercury flows at constant
pressure by means of a pump the whole mercury acts as cathode. Cathode tube is connected
to a graphite made cylindrical box known as denuder. The function of denuder is to
separation of sodium from amalgam.
Chemistry of mercury cell
Saturated aqueous solution of NaCl which contain Na+, Cl-, H+ and OH- is fed in to
the upper portion of cell.
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ⇌ 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑙 −
𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 2𝐻+ + 𝑂𝐻−
On passing electricity, the +ve and –ve ions of the electrolytic solutions tart migrating
towards their respective electrolytes.
Process at Anode
Chloride ion move towards titanium anode where they get oxidized and produce.
Chlorine gas which is liberated out as byproduct.
2𝐶𝑙 − → 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 −
Some OH- ions also oxidize at anode liberating oxygen gas.
2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐻2 𝑂 + [𝑂] + 2𝑒 −
Process at Cathode
Na+ ions on the other hand discharged on mercury and change into sodium which is
then dissolved in mercury to form sodium amalgam.
𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑎(𝑙)
𝑁𝑎(𝑙) + 𝐻𝑔(𝑙) → 𝑁𝑎(𝐻𝑔)
Process in Denuder
The amalgam is then pass through Denuder where it reacts with water and
decomposes into NaOH and mercury.
2𝑁𝑎(𝐻𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 + 2𝐻𝑔
Mercury is returned to the flowing pipes for recycling and hydrogen is passed out as
by product.
Caustic soda obtained in denuder is of good quality. It is solidified into small pellets
and then marketed.
Advantages of Process
(i) The possible reaction between NaOH and Cl2 is avoided in Castner Kellner cell
because both products are obtained in separate chambers.
(ii) NaOH obtained by this method is of good purity.
Disadvantages of Process
(i) Inspite strict control, some Hg vapours escape from the factory and cause
contamination of sea water resulting in pollution of food chain.
(ii) This process consumes large quantity of electricity.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Action with Cl2
Hot concentrated caustic soda reacts with Cl2 gas to form sodium chlorate.
6𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 3𝐶𝑙2 → 5𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
Action with FeCl3
Aqueous solution of caustic soda give brown ppt when reacts with FeCl3. This is a
confirmatory test for the detection of Fe+3 ions during salt analysis.
3𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3 + 3𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
Action with Aluminum
Al reacts with conc. Solution of caustic soda to liberate H2 gas.
2𝐴𝑙 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 3𝐻2
Action with Zinc
Small amount of NaOH when added to zinc, it forms white ppt of zinc hydroxide.
+
𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞)
When excess of NaOH is added to zinc hydroxide the ppt is dissolved due to the formation of
zinc complex ion.
𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → [𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)4 ]−2 +
(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞)
On the basis of above reactions, Zn +2 ion can be identified in the given salt.
Action with CO2
When CO2 gas is bubbled with aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, it gives sodium
carbonates.
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Action with CO
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎
Action with NH4Cl
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝐻3
Action with Al(OH)3
𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
USES:
1. It is extensively used in soap industry for the manufacture of glycerin and hard soap.
2. It is largely used in paper and textile industries.
3. It is used in petroleum refining and rubber industries.
4. It is used as a laboratory reagent.
5. It is used in cotton and rayon industries.
Explanation of preference of ion to discharge on their electrode
When more than type of cat ion or an ion are present in the electrolytic solution, there are
three factors that decide which ion will be preferentially discharged.
(i) Position of ion in the electrochemical series
The cat ion of less electropositive element (down word side in the electro chemical
series) is more likely to be discharged at cathode.
(ii) Concentration
Ions which are present in high concentration in the electro0lytic solution discharged
preferably.
(iii) Nature of electrode
Certain electrodes catalysis the process of oxidation/reduction of ions on their surface.
For example platinum electrode catalysis the formation of H 2 gas but mercury does
not catalyse it.
Why Na+ ion discharged preferably than H+ ion in mercury cell?
Na+ ion is situated on above of H+ ion in the electrochemical series, this means Na+ ion is
more electropositive than H+ ion and hence H+ ion should be on preference to discharge but
in mercury cell we observe a reverse phenomenon that is Na+ ion discharged in preference to
H+ ion because of the following two reasons.
(i) Concentration of Na+ is much higher than H+ ion in the electrolytic solution.
(ii) Cathode is made of mercury which does not catalyze hydrogen molecule and said
to have over potential on its surface.
Why titanium is used as anode in mercury cell?

Because chlorine gas produced at anode is highly corrosive to nearly all metals except
titanium.
Why Zinc hydroxide is soluble in excess of NaOH solution?

When excess of sodium hydroxide in added, the precipitate of zinc hydroxide will dissolve
forming a colourless solution of zinc complex ion.
𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) + 2𝑂𝐻− → [𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)4 ]−2
(𝑎𝑞)
Why sodium hydroxide is called caustic soda?

Sodium hydroxide is corrosive action on animal and vegetable tissues and cause painful burn
that is why ti is called as caustic soda.
Identification of cat ions by using NaOH

Zn+2 ion
▪ Small amount of NaOH when put in Zn+2 ions, white ppt of Zn (OH)2 is formed.
𝑍𝑛 +2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑁𝑎+
▪ When excess of NaOH is added, the white ppt of Zn(OH) 2 dissolved due to the
formation of zinc complex ion.
𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → [𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻)4 ]−2 + 2𝑁𝑎+
Al+3 ions
Similar to Zn+2 ion, Al+3 ions form white ppt of Al(OH)3 if small amount of NaOH is added
but in excess of NaOH ppt dissolves.
𝐴𝑙 +3 + 3𝑂𝐻− → 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3
𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 3𝑂𝐻 − → [𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)6 ]−3
Fe+3 ions
NaOH when put into a solution containing Fe+3 ions, it give brown precipitates of Fe(OH)3.
𝐹𝑒 +3 + 3𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻)3 + 3𝑁𝑎+
SODIUM CARBONATE
Sodium carbonate (Soda Ash) is commercially prepared by Solvay ammonia soda
process. This method was developed in 1861 by a Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay. This
method is based on the reaction of lime stone with common salt.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2
Raw Material Required
(i) Limestone: It gives CO2 on heating on line kiln.
(ii) Sodium Chloride: It is obtained from earth or sea water.
(iii) Ammonia: It is obtained by Haber’s process.
Step involved in the process

Manufacturing of soda ash by Solvay ammonia process involves the following steps.
(i) Purification of Brine:
Brine contain impurities of Mg+2 and Ca+2 ions. These impurities first remove by the
addition of Na2CO3 or NaOH.
𝑀𝑔+2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎+
𝐶𝑎+2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎+
Precipitates of MgCO3 and CaCO3 are then separated hence Brine is purified.
(ii) Absorption of ammonia into Brine:
Brine which is free from Mg+2 and Ca+2 is filled into absorption tower and ammonia
gas is pumped into Brine slowly until a saturated ammonia brine solution is formed.
The process of ammonization is exothermic hence certain “water cooled heat
exchanger” are fixed in the absorption tower to remove the heat of absorption of
ammonia.
(iii) Decomposition of Lime Stone: (process in Lime kiln)
Lime stone is heated in “Lime Kiln” at about 10000Cto give lime (CaO) and CO2.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
CO2 gas is pumped to Solvay tower whereas CaO is dissolved into water to make Ca(OH) 2.
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
(iv) Formation of NaHCO3: (process in Solvay tower)
Solvay tower is a long vertical tower made up of fire bricks in which ammonia brine
solution is fed from the top and CO2 is pumped from the lower side.
In the upper portion of tower carbon dioxide reacts with ammonia and Brine.
The solution produced in Solvay tower contains Na+, CL-, NH+4 and HCO-3 ions.
Different combination of these ions may from four substance out of which NaHCO3
is least soluble and precipitated as solid in the lower part of tower at about 00C.
The overall reaction of ammoniated brine with CO2 may be illustrated as
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙
Certain flat plates (mashroom baffles) are adjusted in the upper portion of tower
which breakup the down work flow of ammonia brine solutions o that CO2 gas is
efficiently absorbed into the solution.
Precipitates of NaHCO3 are separated from NH4Cl by using vacuum filter and
then pumped to Calciner whereas NH4Cl is forced to ammonia recovery chamber.
(v) Formation of Na2CO3: (process in calciner)
Sodium bicarbonate is heated in Calciner at 250 – 3000C, it decomposes to Na2CO3 and CO2.
300𝑜𝐶
2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Na2CO3 thus obtained is washed, dried and marketed as Soda Ash.
(vi) Ammonia Recovery: (process in recovery chamber)
It carried out in ammonia recovery hamber.
Here slaked lime Ca (OH)2 and NH4Cl are mixed under steam to give ammonia gas.
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
2𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Ammonia gas, is pumped back to absorption tower.
Advantages of Solvay process
Solvay process is widely used method due to tis economical means for example.
(i) This process give soda ash of much higher purity.
(ii) This process is less expensive because two raw materials (lime stone common
salt) are cheaper while third raw material NH3 (ammonia) is reutilized in the
process.
Disadvantages of the process
(i) One of the waste of Solvay process is CaCl2 which is produced in recovery
chamber has very small uses hence most of it is drained off into river and sea
which causes unacceptable increase Ca+2 concentration and affect the local eco
system.
(ii) Another wastes are clay and sand which are produced in lime kiln also drained off
into river. Although these are not toxic but may block the shipping channels.
Why sodium carbonate called washing soda?
Sodium carbonate can precipitate Mg+2 ions and Ca+2 ions from hard water as insoluble
carbonates and preventing the formation of scum that is why used in washing cloths and
known as washing soda.
USES:
Use in the manufacturing of water glass:
Sodium carbonate when heated in a furnance at about 14000C it gives sodium silicate also
known as water glass or liquid glass.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂2
Sodium silicate is a clear white solid and exist as chain polymeric structure. It is soluble in
water to form hydrate of the formula NaSiO3 nH2O.It is used as adhesive (cement) in paper,
textile, drilling fluid, also use in construction material water treatment and detergents.
As a Water Softener:
Hard water contains Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions which cause scum with soap. Sodium carbonate is
added to hard water, it forms insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates which can be
filtered and hence the addition of sodium carbonate resist the scum formation of soap that is
why it is called as washing soda.
𝑀𝑔+2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎+
𝐶𝑎+2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎+
Baking Soda Production:
When CO2 gas is added to soda Ash, it forms baking soda. Baking soda (NaHCO 3) is
used in food preparation and fire extinguisher.
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3
Wool Processing:
Na2CO3 removes greases from wool and neutralize acidic solution.
Power Generation:
It is used to remove SO2 from fuel gases in power station.
SODIUM BICARBONATE
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is a white crystalline solid, sparingly soluble in water at
room temperature and commonly called as “Baking Soda” or “Cooking Soda”.
Preparation
It is commercially prepared by treating saturated sodium carbonate solution with
carbon dioxide.
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3
USES:
▪ It is used as baking soda in cooking process.
▪ It is used as anti-acid in medicine.
▪ It is used to extinguished fire
SODIUM CHLORIDE
Occurrence
▪ It occurs in nature as a “Rock salt” and found at “Khewra” in Pakistan.
▪ It also occurs in sea water to the extent of about 3%.
▪ In tropical regions, it is obtained by solar evaporation of sea water. The impurities of
CaCl2 and MgCl2 are removed as a precipitate by treating with sodium carbonate or
sodium hydroxide.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 ↓ + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 ↓ + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
Biological Significance
It is an essential part of our diet and also use in food preservation.
Industrial Significance
It is used as a row material in the manufacturing of sodium metal, chlorine gas, sodium
carbonate, sodium hydroxide many other useful chemicals.
BLEACHING POWDERS
Bleaching powder is a mixed salt of CaCl2 and Ca(OCl)2.
Its approximate formula is CaCl(OCl) suggested by odling however it is generally
represented by CaOCl2. It is also called as chloride of lime or chlorinated lime. It is a white
water soluble powder having chlorine smell.
Industrial Preparation
Bleaching powder is industrially prepared by Hasenclever process.
During the process chlorine gas is passed through dry slaked lime.
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝑎𝑂𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Hasenclever plant consist of 6-8 lead pipes placed horizontally on one over the other.
Each pipe if fitted with rotating shaft.
Slaked lime is fed from the upper most pipe. It flows into lower pipes one by one
through moving shaft chlorine gas is introduced is pumped into the plant through lower most
pipe.
Reactions of Bleaching Powder

(i) When treated with excess dilute acid, it liberates chlorine gas
2𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑎𝑂𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) It dissolves in water to liberate chlorine gas.
𝐶𝑎𝑂𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐶𝑙2
(iii) It liberates HOCl on reaction with CO2 gas.
𝐶𝑎𝑂𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙
Uses of Bleaching Powder

It is used in as disinfected for water, bleaching agents for paper pulp, textile and oil
industry. It is also used in making chloroform.
EPSOM SALT
The hepta hydrated form of magnesium sulphate is
called “Epsom salt” it is denoted by MgSO4. 7H2O
Magnesium Sulphate occurs in nature in the following two forms.
(i) Epsom Salt (MgSO4. 7H2O)
(ii) Kieserite (MgSO4. H2O)
(i) Preparation
𝑀𝑔 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Uses
(i) It is used in medicines as mild purgative.
(ii) It is used in ceramics and cements
GYPSUM SALT
The di hydrated form of calcium sulphate is called
“Gypsum Salt” and is represented by the formula CaSO4 2H2O
(i) Gypsum salt is sparingly soluble solid and its presence in water makes it permanent
hardness.
(ii) Gypsum salt on heating at 1000C, loses some water of crystallization and converted
into a hemihydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4.½ H2O) known as Plaster of Paris.
100𝑜 𝐶
2𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 . 2𝐻2 𝑂 → (𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 )2 . 𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
OR
100𝑜 𝐶 1 3
𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 . 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 . 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂
2 2
(iii) Plaster of Paris when mixed with water, it evolves heat and quickly sets to a hard
porous mass within 5 to 15 minutes. During this setting, a slight expansion in volume
occurs. On the basis of this property plaster of pair is successfully used in making
plaster moulds and coats.
M.C.Q’s
1. s-block elements mean elements of:
(A) Groups IA and IIA
(B) Groups IIIA and IVA
(C) Zero group
(D) Groups IIIA to VIIA and zero group (except Helium).
2. The most abundantly occurring alkali metal in nature is:
(A) Sodium (B) Lithium (C) Potassium (D) Caesium
3. Which of the alkali metals has lowest E.N. value:
(A) Li (B) Na (C) K (D) Cs
4. Which one of the following is the weaknest base:
(A) LiOH (B) KOH (C) NaOH (D) RbOH
5. Which of the alkali metals has highest ionization energy:
(A) Li (B) Na (C) K (D) Cs
6. The elements Be, Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba constitute:
(A) Group IA (B) Group IIA (C) Group IIIA (D) Zero group
7. Those metals which occur in nature as silicate minerals and their oxides are
alkaline are called:
(C) Rare earths (D) None of the above
8. The valency of each element in group IIA is:
(A) +1 (B) -1 (C) +2 (D) -2
9. Which of the following decompose water vigorously at room temperature:
(A) Potassium (B) Magnesium (C) Barium (D) Strontium
10. I.P. value of Group II when compared with IA is:
(A) Lesser (B) Greater (C) Equal (D) None of the above
+
11. Na ion is:
(A) Smaller than Na atom (B) Bigger than Na atom
(C) Has same size as Na atom (D) None of the above
12. Metallic sodium is usually stored undr:
(A) Water (B) Acid (C) Alcohol (D) Kerosene
13. Which of the following statements regarding alkali metals is not correct:
(A) They are very reactive (B) They belong to s-bloc
(C) Their hydroxides are alkaline in nature (D) Their electronic configuration is ns2.
14. Which of the following groups of element lose electrons more easily:
(A) Li, Na, K (B) N, P, As (C) F, Cl, Br (D) O, S, Se
15. The general electronic configuration of alkaline earth metals is:
(A) ns1 (B) ns2 (C) ns2, np1 (D) ns2, np2
16. Which of the following does not impart any colour to the flame:
(A) Be and Mg (B) Na and K (C) Ca, Sr and Ba
(D) None of the above
17. Which of the following elements is lighter than water:
(A) Sodium (B) Berylliuym (C) Magnesium (D) Calcium
18. The lightest metal is:
(A) Na (B) K (C) Ca (D) Li
19. Ionic compounds are soluble in:
(A) Polar solvents (B) Non polar solvents
(C) Organic solvents (D) Non aqueous solvents
20. Elements with ns1 configuration are called:
(A) Typical elements (B) Normal elements
(C) Transition elements (D) Alkali metals
21. The only metal which is radioactive among alkali metals is:
(A) Rb (B) Cs (C) Fr (D) Li
22. Alkali metals form:
(A) Ionic hydride (B) Covalent hydride
(C) Metallic hydride (D) Complex hydride
23. Flame test is not given
(A) Ca (B) Ba (C) Sr (D) Mg
24. The ionization energy from Li to Cs:
(A) Decreases (B) Increases (C) Remains same (D) None of the above
25. Which of the following has the largest I.P. value:
(A) K (B) Na C) Rb (D) Cs
26. Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride gives:
(A) Na and H2 (B) Na and O2 (C) H2 and O2 (D) Na and Cl2
27. Which of the following can be obtained by electrolytic process:
(A) Sodium (B) Sodium Hydroxide
(C) Aluminium (D) All ofthese
+
28. Hydrogen loses its electron to form H ions. Hence it resembles:
(A) Noble gases (B) Halogens
(C) Alkali metals (D) Alkaline earth metals
29. Alkali metals do not exist in free state in nature because they are:
(A) Very reactive (B) Very inactive (C) Very volatile (D) Less volatile
30. The order of alkali metals in group IA is:
(A) Na, K, Rb, Cs, Li (B) Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs
(C) Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs. (D) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li
31. Sodium Carbonate is commonly known as:
(A) Baking Soda (B) Caustic Soda (C) Lime Soda (D) Washing Soda
32. Soda caustic is:
(A) Carbonated water (B) Melted Sodium
(C) Sodium hydroxide (D) Washing soda
33. A common ingredient of baking powder is:
(A) NaC1 (B) NaHCO3 (C) Na2CO3 (D) NaOH
34. Na2CO3-10H2O is:
(A) A hydrate (B) A mixture (C) Baking soda
(D) Baking powder
35. Hasenclever plant is used for the manufacture of:
(A) NH4Cl (B) NaCl (C) CaOCl2 (D) KClO3
36. In the industrial preparation of Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) by Solvay’s
Ammonia Soda process. The raw materials required are:
(A) Sodium Chloride, Calcium Carbonate and Ammonium Hydroxide
(B) Sodium Chloride, Calcium Chloride and Ammonium Hydroxide
(C) Sodium Hydroxide, Calcium Carbonate and Ammonium Hydroxide
37. Chemical formula of Gypsum is:by :
(A) CaSO4 (B) (CaSO4)2H2O (C) CaSO4-2H2O (D) None of the above
38. Bleaching powder is generally expressed as:
(A) CaOCl2 (B) CaCl2 (C) CaSO4 (D) CaSO4-2H2O
39. Which of the following imparts violet colour to the Bunsen burner non-luminous
flame:
(A) KC1 (B) NaC1 (C) BaC12 (D) CaC12
40. Epsum slat is a hydrate of:
(A) Calcium Sulphate (B) Magnesium Sulphate
(C) Ferrous Sulphate (D) Ferous Ammonium Sulphate
41. Plaster of Paris is:
(A) CaSO4-2H2O (B) (CaSO4)2 . H2O
(C) CaSO4-H2O (D) MgSO4-7H2O
42. Which is the correct formula of Dolomite:
(A) MgCO3 (B) CaCO3
(C) MgCO3-CaCO3 (D) MgCO3-BaCO3
43. Sodium is electrolytically manufactured
(A) Solvay’s process (B) Down’s process
(C) Nelson Cell process (D) Castner-Kellner’s process
44. The substance used for sterilization of water is:
(A) Caustic Soda (B) Baking Soda
(C) Bleaching Powder (D) Gypsum
45. Sodium amalgam is an alloy of:
(A) Sodium and Lead (B) Sodium and Iron
(C) Sodium and Mercury (D) Sodium and Silver
46. Solvay’s process is used for the manufacture of:
(A) Sodium (B) Sodium Hydroxide
(C) Sodium Chloride (D) Sodium Carbonate
47. Nelson’s cell is used for the preparation of:
(A) NaC1 (B) NaOH (C) NaHCO3 (D) Na2CO3
48. Baking Soda is also called:
(A) Caustic Soda (B) Washing Soda (C) Soda Ash (D) Sodium Bicarbonate
49. Sodium hydroxide can be prepared
(A) Down’s process (B) Castner-Kellner’s electrolytic process
(C) Solvay’s Ammonia and Soda process (D) None of the above
ANSWER KEYS
01. A 11. A 21. C 31. D 41. B
02. A 12. D 22. A 32. C 42. C
03. D 13. D 23. D 33. B 43. B
04. A 14. A 24. A 34. A 44. C
05. A 15. B 25. B 35. B 45. C
06. B 16. A 26. D 36. A 46. D
07. B 17. A 27. D 37. C 47. B
08. C 18. D 28. C 38. A 48. D
09. A 19. A 29. A 39. A 49. B
10. B 20. D 30. C 40. B
4 p-BLOCK ELEMENTS
Elements of group IIIA to VIIIA of periodic table are called P-Block elements. These
are located on extreme right region and characterized by valence configuration of ns 2 np1 to
ns2 np6.
Group No. Element of Configuration Total No. of
nd
2 period Valence electrons
2 2 1
IIIA Boron 1s 2s , 2p 3
IVA Carbon 1s2 2s2, 2p2 4
2 2 3
VA Nitrogen 1s 2s , 2p 5
VIA 2 2 4
Oxygen 1s 2s , 2p 6
VIIA Fluorine 1s2 2s2, 2p5 7
VIIIA Neon 2 2
1s 2s , 2p 6
8
There are 30 elements accommodated in six sub-groups of p-block, among these, 20
are solids, 1 liquid and 9 gases.
• Most of the elements of p-block are non-metals.
• Some p-block elements are metals for example Gallium, Aluminum, Lead etc.
• Some elements are metalloids for example Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic,
Antimony and Tellurium.
GROUP TREND OF P-BLOCK ELEMENTS

“The regular variation in the Physical properties of
Elements descending in a group is known as “Group Trend”.
The number of valence electrons of the elements in a group are same but the number
of electrons in the inner shells are different. Hence the chemical properties of the elements
present in a group are similar, but they show gradual change in the physical properties such
as atomic radii, ionization potential, electro negativity and electro positivity etc.
Atomic Radii
Atomic radii of all p-block elements increase down the group because a regular
increase in the number of orbit; hence the first elements in each group has the smallest radii
and the last elements has biggest radii.
IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

B C N O F Ne
(0.80A0) (0.77A0) (0.74A0) (0.74A0) (0.72A0) (0.60A0)
Al Si P S Cl Ar
(1.25A0) (1.17A0) (1.10A0) (1.04A0) (0.99A0) (1.91A0)
Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
(1.25A0) (1.22A0) (1.21A0) (1.17A0) (1.14A0) (2.0A0)
In Sn Sb Te I Xe
(1.50A0) (1.40A0) (1.41A0) (1.37A0) (1.33A0) (2.2A0)
Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
(1.55A0) (1.46A0) (1.52A0) (1.52A0) - -
Ionic Radii
When an atom lose or gain electron, it change into cat ion or an ion.
𝑀 → 𝑀+ + 𝑒 −
𝑋 + 𝑒 − → 𝑋−
• Ionic radii increase from top to bottom in each group of p-block similar to atomic
radii due to increases number of energy level.
• Ionic radii of cation is smaller than parent atom because the number of electrons in cat
ion are lesser than protons which increases the effective nuclear charge causing more
attraction of nucleus to the electrons.
• Ionic radii of an ion is bigger than parent atom because the number of electrons in an
ion are higher than protons, this decrease the nuclear charge and hence increase the
radii.
Electro Negativity
The relative tendency of an atom to attract the shared bar of electrons is known as
electro negativity.
It decreases down the group in p-block because
• Down the group atomic radii increase regularly.
• The nuclear attraction with the shared pair of electrons decreases.
Hence the first element in each group has the highest EN and the last element has lowest EN.
B C N O F Ne
(2.0) (2.5) (3.1) (3.5) (4.0) --
Al Si P S Cl Ar
(1.5) (1.8) (2.1) (2.5) (3.0) --
Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
(1.6) (1.7) (2.0) (2.4) (2.8) --
In Sn Sb Te I Xe
(1.7) (1.7) (1.8) (2.1) (2.5) --
T Pb Bi Po At Rn
(1.8) (1.7) (1.8) (2.0) (2.2) --
Ionization Potential
The amount of energy required to remove the outer most electron from a gaseous
atom is called ionization potential.
I.P depends upon atomic size and shielding effect of inner orbits.
Down the group in all P-Block elements, value of I.P decreases due to increased
atomic size and increase shielding effect.
Melting and Boiling Point
Melting and boiling point of P-Block elements are not found in regular trend because
these values depend upon various factors like interatomic attraction, atomic size, structure
and physical state.
The downward trend of melting point (0C) of the elements in P-Block is given below:
B C N O F Ne
(2300) -- (-210) (-219) (-223) --
Al Si P S Cl Ar
(658) (1410) (34) (119) (-102) --
Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
(297) (937) (814) (217) (-7) --
In Sn Sb Te I Xe
(155) (232) (630) (450) (114) --
Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
(303) (327) (271) -- -- --
• Melting and boiling point in group “IVA” decreases downward due to the decreases
strength of inter atomic bond.
• Melting and boiling point in group VA, VIA & VIIA increases down word because
the structure of the elements in these groups gradually change from discrete state
(gas) to aggregate state (Solid) causing increased intermolecular forces.
• In group VIIIA, the increase in M.P and B.P is due to increase in the intermolecular
force of attraction because all the elements in this group are gases.
Electropositivity (Metallic Character)

The tendency of atom to lose electron and change into cat ion is known as Electro
positivity.
The metallic character of an element is dependent upon its Electropositivity.
Downward in p-block elements Electropositivity and metallic character increases
regularly due to decrease trend of ionization potential as well as electron population of
valence shell.
Metallic character of Boron and aluminum can be compared as follow.
B (Z = 5) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
Al (Z = 13) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p1
Boron can accommodate eight electrons in the valence shell but it has three valence
electrons (3:8). On the other hand Aluminum can accommodate 18 electrons but it contain
three valence electrons (3:18).
Hence aluminum has less electron population of valence shell than Boron and it is
more metallic as compared to Boron.
Element Outer most Maximum Valence Valence Electron
shell Electron accommodate Electron Present Population Ratio
Boron L 8 3 3:8
Aluminum M 18 3 3:18
Difference between mineral and ore
Mineral Ore
Naturally occurring substances of metal or All those minerals which can be used to
non-metals present in the earth crust are obtained a metals profitably are called ore.
called minerals
All minerals are not ore. All ores are essentially minerals.
For example clay is the minerals of For example Bauxite is the ore of aluminum.
aluminum.
ALUMINUM
Aluminum is very useful metal. It comes third in abundance (7.3%) after oxygen and
silicon. Aluminum is a bluish white metal with brilliant silvery nature. It does not occur free
in nature but found in oxides, fluoride and various silicate ores.
Important ores of aluminum

Oxide ores Fluoride ores Silicate ores
Bauxite (Al2O3.nH2O) Cryolite (Na3AlF6) Mica (K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O)
Corundum (Al2O3) Kaolin (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)
Diaspora (Al2O3.H2O)
Gibbsite (Al2O3.3H2O)
Occurrence of Bauxite in Pakistan

Bauxite ore found in Pakistan at Muzaffarabad, Tehsil, Kotli, Margalla hills of
Rawalpindi, Attock District, Tharparker & Dadu District.
Occurrence of Corundum in Pakistan

Following kinds of Corundum are found in Pakistan.
(i) Emerald (Green = Panna). It occur in Swat state and Dir state.
(ii) Ruby (Red =Chuni). It occurs in Hunza, Gilgit and Azad Kashmir.
(iii) Neelum (Blue). It occur in Kashmir.
(iv) Topas (Yellow = Pukhrai). It occur in Chitral.
Extraction of Aluminum
Aluminum is mostly extracted from its bauxite ore. The process consists of the
following steps.
(i) Purification of ore (ii) Electrolysis of Alumina (iii) Refining of Aluminum
(1) Purification of Bauxite ore:
Bauxite contains Fe2O3 and SiO2 as impurities. These must be removed before
electrolysis in order to get aluminum of good quality because these impurities make the
brittle and corroded.
The Bauxite ore may be purified by any one of the following methods depending
upon the nature of impurities present in it.
i) Hall’s Process
This method is used for the purification of Bauxite in which impurities of both Fe2O3
and SiO2 are present in high percentage.
In this method powdered Bauxite is fused with Na2CO3 to produce soluble sodium
aluminate while the impurities left as insoluble residue.
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂
Impurities are removed by filtration and the clear solution is hydrolyse at 50 at 60 0C
until precipitate of Al(OH)3 are formed. These precipitate then ignited at 15000C to produce
pure Alumina.
50𝑜 𝐶−60𝑜 𝐶
2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
1500𝑜 𝐶
2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
ii) Baeyer’s Process
This method is used for the purification of Bauxite which contain impurity of Fe2O3 in
high percentage.
In these method powdered Bauxite is digested at 1500C with caustic soda to given
soluble sodium aluminate while Fe2O3 remain undissolved.
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 2(𝑛)𝐻2 𝑂
The impurity is then removed by filtration and the clear solution is hydrolysed at 50 –
60 C until precipitate of Al (OH)3 is formed. This precipitate is then ignited at 15000C to
0
produce pure Alumina.

50𝑜 𝐶−60𝑜 𝐶
2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
1500𝑜 𝐶
2𝐴𝑙 (𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
iii) Serpek’s Process
This method is used for the purification of Bauxite which contain impurity of siO 2 in
high percentage.
In this method powdered Bauxite is mixed with carbon and heated upto 1800 0C in a
current of nitrogen gas. Al2O3 of the ore change into AIN whereas impurity of SiO2 get
reduced to silicon which is being volatile at 18000C escape as vapours.
1800𝑜 𝐶
𝐴𝐿2 𝑂3 . 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝐶 + 𝑁2 → 2𝐴𝑙𝑁 + 3𝐶𝑂 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂
𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 2𝐶 → 𝑆𝑖 + 2𝐶𝑂 ↑
Aluminum nitride thus obtained is hydrolyzed by water to produce precipitate of Al
(OH)3 which then ignited to give pure alumina.
𝐴𝑙𝑁 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝑁𝐻3
1500𝑜 𝐶
2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
(2) Electrolysis of fused Alumina:
The electrolysis of Alumina is carried out in large electrolytic cell made of iron lined
with carbon. The carbon lining inside the tank acts as cathode and the carbon blocks hang
vertically down ward act as anode.
Molten mixture of Alumina (Al2O3), cryolyte (Na3AlF6) and fluoraspar (CaF2) is put
down in the tank at 900 to 9500C.
On passing electricity, fused alumina decomposes into aluminum.
2𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 → 4𝐴𝑙 + 3𝑂2
Oxygen is then reacts with carbon of electrodes and to produce CO 2 and CO gases.
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
2𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂
Molten aluminum obtained at the bottom of tank is taken out. This is about 99% pure. There
are two difficulties in the electrolysis of alumina.
• Alumina is poor conductor of electricity.
• Melting point of alumina is very high (20500C).
To overcome these difficulties, a mixture of cryolyte (Na3AlF6) and Fluoraspar (CaF2)
is added. In the presence of these two chemicals, alumina becomes a good conductor and
fused at about 9000C.
(3) Electrolytic Refining:
Refining of Aluminum is carried out in a “Hoope’s electrolytic cell”, which consists
of following three liquid layers of different specific gravity.
(i) Top layer consist of pure molten Aluminum and acts as cathode.
(ii) Bottom layer consist of molten impure Aluminum and acts as anode.
(iii) Middle layers consist of fused mixture of cryolite and fluorspar, it acts as
electrolyte.
When electric current is passed, the Al+3 ions from middle layer go to the top layer and
reduces into Aluminum.
𝑁𝑎3 𝐴𝑙𝐹6 → 3𝑁𝑎𝐹 + 𝐴𝑙𝐹3
𝐴𝑙𝐹3 → 𝐴𝑙 +3 + 3𝐹 −
𝐴𝑙 +3 + 3𝑒 − → 𝐴𝑙
At the same time, an equivalent amount of Al+3 ion which are produced in the lower
layer go into the middle layer.
𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙 +3 + 3𝑒 −
Aluminum obtained in this way is 99.99% pure.
General Physical Properties
(i) It is a bluish white metal with brilliant silvery luster.
(ii) Its density as 2.7gm/ml.
(iii) It melts at 6580C and boil at 18000C.
(iv) It is malleable and ductile.
(v) It is good conductor of heat electricity.
Alloy of Aluminum
Alloy Composition Properties Users
Duralumin Al = 95% Its strength is as good as Use in making aeroplane,
Cu = 4% steel but it is very light and trains sea ships, car bodies.
Mg = 0.5% highly ductile.
Ni = 0.5%
Aluminum Bronze Al = 10% It is taught and high Use in making imitation
Cu = 90% resistance to corrosion Jewellery, coins, utensils
Aluminum as a Self-Protective Metal

Aluminum oxidizes in air to form a thin, tough and transparent oxide layer.
4𝐴𝑙 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
This oxide film is rapidly self-repairing due to high heat of formation. If we scratch a
piece of aluminum it form a new layer of oxide that covers the damage area. Because this
film protects the metal from further oxidation therefore. Aluminum is considered to be a
“self-protected metal”.
Aluminum as a Reducing Agent
Aluminum is a powerful reducing agent. It readily reduces the oxides of most of the
other metals and get them Free State.
𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 2𝐹𝑒 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 2𝐶𝑟 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
Reaction of Aluminum with Alkalis
Aluminum dissolves in caustic alkalis like NaOH and KOH to form aluminate with
the liberation of hydrogen gas.
2𝐴𝑙 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 3𝐻2
2𝐴𝑙 + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐾𝐴𝑙𝑂2 + 3𝐻2
Reaction of Aluminum with Acids
Aluminum dissolves in HCl and H2SO4 to give aluminum chloride and sulphate.
2𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 + 3𝐻2
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝑆𝑂2
2𝐴𝑙 + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 2𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐻2
Reaction of Aluminum with non-metals
Aluminum reacts with non-metals like carbon and nitrogen to give corresponding
compounds.
2000𝑜 𝐶
4𝐴𝑙 + 3𝐶 → 2𝐴𝑙4 𝐶3
700𝑜𝐶
2𝐴𝑙 + 𝑁2 → 2𝐴𝑙𝑁
Reaction of Aluminum with HNO3
Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent, it rapidly oxidizes aluminum on its surface
to form an Al2O3 layer. This layer protect the remaining metal for further attack of nitric acid.
Due to this reason nitric acid is often hipped in aluminum container.
Use of Aluminum in Explosives
The mixture aluminum powder and aluminum nitrate is known as “Ammonal” which
is used in explosive bombs.
Use of Aluminum in Commercial Items
Aluminum is used in wrapping chocolates, medicines, cigarettes, photographic plate,
food etc. it is also used in the manufacturing of electrical transmission wires.
THERMITE PROCESS
“The reduction of metal oxides involving Aluminum is
known as alumina thermite process”.
Explanation
Aluminum is a strong reducing agent, it readily reacts with other metal oxides and
reduce them into free element.
𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 2𝐹𝑒 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (Δ𝐻 = −𝑣𝑒)
𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 2𝐶𝑟 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (Δ𝐻 = −𝑣𝑒)
3𝐶𝑢𝑂 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 3𝐶𝑢 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (Δ𝐻 = −𝑣𝑒)
During this reduction process, a very high amount of heat is liberated having a
temperature of about 35000C which is used for welding broken metal parts.
Thermite reaction was first discovered by German Chemist Goldschmidt in 1893 and
since then this reaction is successfully used to weld heavy machineries.
Application of Thermite Process

(i) Iron thermite is used to weld Rail track, suspension bridges, Automobile chases,
Cranes and other Heavy duties.
(ii) Copper thermite is used for welding together thick copper wires for the purpose of
electric connection and also telecommunication
(iii) Thermite process is often use to extract metals from their oxides ores.
ALUM
“Double sulphates of monovalent and trivalent cations with
24 molecules of water of crystallization is called Alum”.
The general formula of Alum is given as:
M2SO4.T2 (SO4)3 .24H2O
Here
M = Monovalent cation (e.g. Na, K, NH+4)
T = Trivalent cation (e.g. Al+3, Cr+3, Fe+3)
Alum are of various type depending upon nature of monovalent and trivalent element.
Some example are given below:
(i) K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O (Potash Alum)
(ii) Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O (Soda Alum)
(iii) (NH4)2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O (Potash Alum)
(iv) K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O (Chrome Alum)
(v) K2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O (Ferric Alum)
Among above, Potash Alum is the most useful and known as “Phitkari”
Preparation of Potash Alum (Phitkari)

Equimolar quantities of aqueous solution, of K2SO4 and Al2 (SO4)3 are mixed together
and heated slowly then it is suddenly poured into cold water to give white crystals of Phitkari.
Properties
It is white crystallize solid. It melts at 920C. On further heating to 2000C, it loses the
whole of its water of crystallization and swell up, this is called as “Burnt Alum” or “Phul
Phitkar”
Uses
* Tanning of leather * Sizing Paper
* In Fire extinguisher * Purification of water
BORIC ACID
It is soft, silky greasy and white solid sparingly soluble in cold water but highly
soluble in boiling water.
Kinds of Boric Acid
Baric Acid are of following three kinds.
(i) Ortho Boric acid (H3BO3)
(ii) Meta Boric acid (HBO2)
(iii) Tetra or Pyro Boric acid (H2B4O7)
Among above, ortho boric acid is most common baric acid.
Preparation of Boric acid
(i) From Borax
When sulphuric acid is added to a hot solution of borax, it gives white crystals of
Boric acid on cooling.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑁𝑎2 𝐵4𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 5𝐻2 𝑂 → 4𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4
(ii) From Boron nitride
Boron nitride when heated with steam under high temperature, it gives white crystals
of Boric acid.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐵𝑁 + 3𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 + 𝑁𝐻3
Acid Character of Boric acid
It is a very weak mono basic acid. It behave as a Lewis acid i.e. it can accept a lone
pair of electron from OH- ion of water and leaving the H+ behind.
𝐵(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐵(𝑂𝐻)−
4 +𝐻
+
Structure of Boric acid

Boric acid consists of white needle like crystals in which B(OH) 3 units are linked
together by hydrogen bonding to form trigonal planer layers. These layers lie 3.18A 0 apart
from each other and are held together by weak Vander wall forces of attraction. These layers
glide over one another easily and hence boric acid is soft.
Effect of heat on Boric acid
Ortho boric if heated at about 1000C it dehydrate to give Meta boric acid.
100𝑜 𝐶
𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 → 𝐻𝐵𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
0
Meta boric acid if heated further to 140 C it again dehydrates to give tetra boric acid.
140𝑜 𝐶
4𝐻𝐵𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝐵4 𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Further heating teed to boron oxide.
𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 240𝑜 𝐶
𝐻2 𝐵4 𝑂7 → 2𝐵2 𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Use of Boric acid as Eye lotion
Aqueous solution of Boric acid is mild antiseptic and commonly use in eye lotion.
BORAX
It is a white crystalline solid soluble in water and chemical known as sodium tetra
borate deca hydrate. It occurs naturally as “Tincal” or “Suhaga”.
Preparation
(i) From Boric acid
When hot solution of boric acid is treated with Na2CO3 or NaOH, it gives crystals of
borax.
4𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐵4 𝑂7 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂
4𝐻3 𝐵𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐵4 𝑂7 + 7𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) From Colemanite
The mineral colemanite when boiled with sodium carbonate solution gives white
crystals of borax.
𝐶𝑎2 𝐵6𝑂11 + 2𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐵4𝑂7 + 2𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐵𝑂2
ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF CARBON

“The existence of an element in two or more forms having the
same chemical properties but different physical properties
is called allotropic modification or allotropy”.
Carbon exists in the following allotropic modifications.
Crystalline Allotropic forms

There are two crystalline allotropic form of carbon named as Diamond and Graphite.
Amorphous Allotropic forms

There are various amorphous allotropic form of carbon named as Coal, Coke,
Charcoal, Lamp black etc.
Structure of Diamond and Graphite
• In diamond each carbon is covalently linked with four other carbon (sp3 hybridized)
to give basic tetrahedral structure.
• The shape of unit cell of diamond is face centered cubic which consist of 8 corner 6
face centered atom and four other atoms.
• The lattice of diamond consist of network of covalent bonding hence entire crystal
behave as single giant molecule.
In graphite each carbon atom is bonded to only three other carbon atoms (sp 2
hybridization) to give basic hexagonal rings.
These hexagonal rings of carbon atoms are arranged in the form of layers. Each layer
is 3.35A apart from other layer and held by Vander Waal force.
Properties of Diamond and Graphite

Graphite is conductor of electricity while Diamond is not
In Graphite only three electrons of each carbon atom are involved in covalent bonding
with other carbon atom while the fourth valence electron is delocalized. This delocalized
electron is free to move throughout the plane and responsible for electrical conductivity. Due
to this behavior graphite is often used as electrode in various electrolytic cells.
In diamond all four electrons of each carbon atom are covalently bonded to other
carbon atoms hence the movement of electrons is restricted in diamond that is why it does not
conduct electric current.
Diamond is very hard whereas graphite is soft
Diamond is the hardest known material because it consists of strong tetrahedral
network of covalent bonds and high bond energy is required to break this network of covalent
bonding. Due to hardness, diamond is used in making drill bits.
In graphite, there are flat layers of hexagonal ring of carbon atoms which are 3.35A
apart from each other and held together by weak Vander Waal forces. These layers can easily
be slip one over the other. This makes graphite extremely soft and slippery. Due to this
behavior graphite powder is used as dry lubricant and making pencils.
Density of Diamond is higher than Graphite
In graphite, there is large inter layer space (3.35A) which makes its density lower.
In diamonds, atom held together through network of strong covalent bonding in a
cubic close packing which makes its density higher.
The density of diamond is 3.51g/cm3 and the density of graphite is 2.23g/dm3 hence
graphite is lighter than diamond.
Refractive index of Diamond and Graphite
Diamond has very high refractive index (2.45) due to which it sparkles with great
brilliance. The reason is that light entering on diamond surface cause total internal reflection
with a very small critical angle. Due to this properly diamond is mostly used in Jewelleries.
Melting point of Diamond and Graphite
The melting point of diamond and graphite is very high because these are Giant
molecular lattice structure in which atoms held together by network of strong covalent
bonding. Hence to melt them a large number of covalent bond must be broken which require
high temperature.
Due to high melting point, graphite is used in making crucible and electric furnace.
Stability of Diamond and Graphite
Graphite is more stable allotropic form than diamond because the density of graphite
is less than diamond hence according to Le-chatlier principal high pressure is required to
convert graphite into diamond.
Thermodynamically diamond can be converted into graphite, but graphite cannot be
converted into diamond.
Colour of Diamond and Graphite
Pure diamond is colourless but due to the presence of impurities it exists in various
colours e.g. Kohinoor, Regent, Excelsior, Victoria, Hope, Black diamond (also known as
Bort and Carbonado).
Graphite is silvery black in colour showing dull metallic luster.
Difference between Diamond and Graphite
General Features Diamond Graphite
Arrangement of atoms Each carbon is covalently bonded to Each carbon is covalently bonded
four other carbon atoms to three other carbon atoms
Crystal system Face centered cubic system Hexagonal crystal system
Hybridization of carbon sp3 sp2
Density 3.51 g/cm3 2.23 g/dm3
Physical appearance It sparkle with great brilliance It appears in dull metallic luster
Colour Pure Diamond is transparent It is a black and opaque
Hardness Diamond is hardest substance Graphite is soft
Electric Conduction Diamond is electrical insulator Graphite is good conductor of
electricity
Stability It less stable allotropic form of It is more stable allotropic form
carbon due to low density
ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF SULPHUR
When an element can exist in more than one crystalline form, it is called as allotrope
and the phenomena is known as allotropy. The different form of such element have different
physical properties but similar chemical properties. These different forms are termed as
allotropic form or allotropic modification.
Sulphur exist in the following allotropic forms.
(i) Crystalline Allotropes.
(a) Rhombic Sulphur (octahedral or sulphur)
(b) Mono clinic Sulphur (prismatic or sulphur)
(ii) Amorphous Allotropes.
(c) Plastic Sulphur (y sulphur)
(d) Colloidal Sulphur
RHOMBIC SULPHUR
It is an orthorhombic crystalline form of sulphur also known as sulphur or octahedral
sulphur.
General features
(i) It is pale yellowish crystalline solid.
(ii) It is soluble in CS2, S2Cl2, Benzene, turpentine etc. but insoluble in water.
(iii) Its M.P is 112.80C.
(iv) Its density is 2.1g/cm3 at 200C.
Structure
Rhombic sulphur exist in S8 molecules.
Each S8 molecules is a puckered ring of eight sulphur atoms. These atoms are bonded
by single covalent bonds in such a way that four s-atom lie in one plane and other four atoms
lie in another plane. The S-S bond angle is 1050 and bond length is 2.12A.
These puckered rings unit with one another and form a crystal of rhombic sulphur.
MONOCLINIC SULPHUR
It is a monoclinic allotropic form of sulphur also known as sulphur of prismatic
sulphur.
General Feature
(i) It is dark yellow transparent needle like crystalline form of sulphur.
(ii) Its melting point is 119.250C.
(iii) It is soluble in CS2 but insoluble in water.
(iv) Density 1.96g/cm3.
Structure
Monoclinic sulphur consist of S8 puckered ring molecule similar to that of sulphur
however the packing of S8 molecule is different making monoclinic crystal system.
Transition temperature of and sulphur

The inter conversion of and sulphur can be expressed by following equilibrium.
95.5𝑜 𝐶
𝑅ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟 ⇔ 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟
The transition temperature is 95.50C, hence below this temperature sulphur is stable
and above this temperature sulphur is stable.
PLASTIC SULPHUR
It is dark brown, soft, sticky and rubber like mass,
which can be pressed between fingers.
Structure
Each chain consists of millions of sulphur atoms
and coiled to another chain. The elasticity of plastic
sulphur is due to the uncoiling of chain and then recoiling
of chain to release the tension.
Preparation
When rhombic sulphur is heated to its boiling point and then suddenly pour in to cold
water, it gives a rubber like mass, known as plastic sulphur.
When heated at 1600C, one of the s-s bond of S8 breaks and the ring open up to give
small chains. On further heating small chain join together to form long irregular coiled
chains.
LEAD PIGMENTS
Oxides and hydro oxides of lead are solid
colouring matters and commonly known as lead pigments.
The composition and preparation of lead pigments are describe below.
Lead Monoxide
* It is most stable oxide of lead also called Plumbous oxide of Murdasang or Litharge.
* It is commercially prepared by heating lead with oxygen.
2𝑃𝑏 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑃𝑏𝑂
Red Lead
* The chemical name of Red lead is “triplumbic tetraoxide” or “lead sesqui oxide” but
commonly known as Sandhur.
* It is prepared by heating lead monoxide at 4500C.
450𝑜𝐶
6𝑃𝑏𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑃𝑏3 𝑂4
Chrome Yellow Pigment
Chemical name of this pigment is “Lead Chromate”.
It can be prepared either from lea acetate or lead nitrates.
(i) 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂)3 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 → 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 2𝐾𝑁𝑂3
(ii) 𝑃𝑏(𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂)2 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 → 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐾
Chrome Red Pigment
It can be prepared by treating chrom yellow pigment with caustic soda.
2𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑃𝑏2 𝐶𝑟𝑂5 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Turner’s Yellow Pigment
It is prepared by heating Litharge with sodium chloride solution.
5𝑃𝑏𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 → 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙2 . 4𝑃𝑏𝑂 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
White Pigment
It is commonly prepared by Dutch process in which lead oxide is treated with CO 2 and lead
acetate.
2𝑃𝑏𝑂2 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑃𝑏(𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂)2 → [2𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑂3 . 𝑃𝑏(𝑂𝐻)2 ] + 2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂2
Name of lead pigment Formula Another Name
Lead mono oxide PbO Litharge, Murda-sang
Red lead pigment Pb3O4 or 2PbO.PbO2 Lead sesquioxide, Sandhur
Chrome yellow pigment PbCrO4 Lead chromate
Chrome red pigment Pb2CrO5 or PbCrO4.PbO ----
Turner yellow pigment PbCl2.4PbO ----
White lead pigment 2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2 ----
H2S GAS
It is colourless gas with foul order of rotten egg. It is 1.2 time heavier than air. It
liquefies at -60.80C and solidify at -85.70C. Its aqueous solution is called as H2S water which
is used in the analysis of cations of salt.
H2S is very toxic and its prolong inhaling cause serious poisoning. Best antidote of
H2S poisoning is dilute Cl2 gas.
Methods of Preparation
(i) From Sulphur
Sulphur when heated with Hydrogen at high temperature gives H2S gas.
600𝑜𝐶
𝑆 + 𝐻2 → 𝐻2 𝑆
(ii) From Stibnite
Stibnite when heated with conc. HCl gives pure H2S gas.
𝑆𝑏2 𝑆3 + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑆𝑏𝐶𝑙3 + 3𝐻2 𝑆
(iii) Kipp’s Method
It is a laboratory method for the preparation of H2S gas in which iron sulphide is
treated with conc. H2SO4.
𝐹𝑒𝑆 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆
Structure of H2S
H2S is a nonlinear molecule and exist in bent geometry in which
the bond length between C and H is 1.34A0 and bond angle between H-S-
H is 92.20.
Chemical Behavior of H2S
(i) As a Weak dibasic acid
H2S when dissolved in water it gives off two H+ ions.
(𝐾𝑎=10−7 )
𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇔ 𝐻𝑆 − + 𝐻3 𝑂 +
(𝐾𝑎=10−14)
𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇔ 𝑆 −2 + 𝐻3 𝑂 +
The “Ka” value is very small shows that H2S is a very weak acid.
(ii) As a reducing gent
H2S, in most of the reaction, itself oxidizes into free sulphur and reduces others,
therefore it acts as reducing agent.
𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝐵𝑟2 → 2𝐻𝐵𝑟 + 𝑆
2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐻2 𝑆 → 2𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑆
2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆 → 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑆
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆 → 𝑆𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑆
Combustion of H2S
H2S burns in air with blue flame to form SO2 and H2O.
2𝐻2 𝑆 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑆𝑂2
CHLORINE GAS
Chlorine gas is commercially prepared by the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride
by using Nelson cell method.
Structure of Nelson’s Cell

* It consists of a U-shaped perforated steel vessel which
acts as cathode.
* A carbon rode is vertically hang in the cell which
serves as anode.
* A thin Asbestos layer is coated inside cathode which
serves as separator between cathode and anode.
* Cell consist of aqueous concentrated solution of NaCl.
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ⇌ 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑙 −
𝐻2 𝑂 ⇌ 𝐻+ + 𝑂𝐻−
Process of Nelson’s Cell
On passing electricity, the Cl- and OH- ions migrate towards graphite anode where
they oxidized. Chlorine gas thus obtained is collected as a main product.
2𝐶𝑙 − → 𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑒 −
2𝑂𝐻 − → 𝐻2 𝑂 + [𝑂] + 2𝑒 −
Na+ ions on the other hand passes through asbestos layer and discharge on U-tube
cathode to produce molten sodium.
𝑁𝑎+ + 𝑒 − → 𝑁𝑎
Molten sodium is tapped down into catch basin by passing through perforated U-tube
where it is treated with steam to give NaOH.
2𝑁𝑎 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
Physical Properties
1. It is greenish yellow gas with a pungent irritating odour.
2. It is fairly soluble in water and the solution is known as chlorine water.
3. It liquefies at – 340C and solidifies at – 1010C.
4. It is 2.5 time heavier than air and its density is 3.2 g/dm3.
5. It exist in -1, +1, +3, +5, +7 oxidation states.
Auto oxidation and Reduction Property of Chlorine

In certain chemical reactions chlorine acts as auto oxidizing and reducing agent.
For example.
(i) Chlorine when dissolve in water, it forms hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid.
𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + +𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙
In this reaction, Cl2-gas oxidizes to hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and reduces to
hydrochloric acid (HCl), therefore acts as auto oxidizing and reducing agent.
(ii) Chlorine when passed through Cold dilute solution of caustic soda, it forms chlorides
and hypochlorite.
3𝐶𝑙2 + 6𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 5𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
In this reaction chlorine gas oxidizes to NaClO 3 and reduces to NaCl indicating its
auto oxidation reduction ability.
Bleaching Action of Chlorine gas
Chlorine forms HCl and HOCl when dissolve in water.
𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝑂𝐶𝑙
HOCl is strong oxidizing agent, it readily lose nascent oxygen. This nascent oxygen
then oxidize coloured compounds into colourless.
Hence chlorine is used as bleaching agent for many compounds like cotton, Rayon,
pulp etc.
Addition reaction of Chlorine gas
Chlorine forms addition compounds with SO2, and CO
𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙2 (𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠)
𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝑆𝑂2 𝐶𝑙2
Action with Alkali
(i) Chlorine when reacts with cold dilute solution of an alkali to give chlorite.
𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) Chlorine when reacts with hot conc. Solution of an alkali to give chlorate.
3𝐶𝑙2 + 6𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 5𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
Significance of Chlorine Gas
Chlorine is one of the most important chemical of national economy because of its
wide range of uses.
i) It is used in the preparation of synthetic products like PVC and rubber.
ii) It is used in the preparation of various organic compounds like chloroform and
CCl4.
iii) It is used in the preparation of some affective pesticides like DDT, and hexa
chlorocyclohexane.
iv) It is used in layer test for Br- and I- ions.
v) It is used in the s terilization of drinking water.
Displacement reaction:
The oxidizing power of halogen decreases from chlorine to iodine.
This means that if chlorine is dissolve in water containing bromide or iodide ions, it is
replaced.
𝐵𝑟 − + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐵𝑟2 + 𝐶𝑙 −
𝐼 − + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐼2 + 𝐶𝑙 −
NITRIC ACID
Nitric acid is commercially prepared by “Ostwald process” which is based on the
catalytical oxidation of ammonia.
The schematic diagram of the plant showing various unit chambers is illustrated below.
The important steps involved during the process are given below.
(i) Catalytic oxidation of ammonia
This thermochemical operation is carried out in an aluminum made chamber named as
“converter”. This chamber is internally consists of Platinum / Rhodium wire gauze (90:10
ratio) which serves as catalyst.
A mixture of NH3 and purified air in the ratio of 1:8 is entered into this chamber at
about 6000c.
Here Ammonia is oxidized with air to produce Nitric oxide gas.
4𝑁𝐻3 + 5𝑂2 ⇌ 4𝑁𝑂 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 (∆𝐻 = −25𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
This is a reversible and exothermic reaction, hence the equilibrium can be pushed in
the forward direction by considering lechatlier principle.
Generally, the process is favourable at 6000C to 8000C under specific pressure to get
a 97% yield of products.
Nitric oxide gas is then pumped into cooling chamber where it is cooled.
A complication in this process is that some nitric oxide (NO) is involved in a side
reaction with NH3 to get back N2 gas.
4𝑁𝐻3 + 6𝑁𝑂 → 5𝑁2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
This side reaction can be minimize by reducing the time of gas mixture.
(ii) Oxidation of Nitric oxide gas

It is carried out in “oxidizing tower”, where nitric oxide gas is further oxidize with air
to give nitrogen dioxide.
2𝑁𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑂2(𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝑂2(𝑔) (∆𝐻 = −26.9 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
Since this is a reversible and exothermic reaction, it favours in the forward direction
at low temperature and high pressure.
(iii) Absorption of NO2 into water

Now gas is then transferred in absorption tower where fixed amount of water is
showed on it to produce HNO3.
4𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3
Acid obtained in the beginning is very dilute. It will be concentrated up to 65.68% by
continuing the process of absorption till maximum saturation is obtained.
In order to increase the conc. of HNO3, vapours of HNO3 are passed over conc.
H2SO4. Being the hydrating agent, H2SO4 absorb water from HNO3, conc. HNO3 is obtained.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HNO3

(i) It is a colourless nonvolatile liquid.
(ii) It boils at 860C and freeze at -410C to yield a transparent crystalline.
(iii) Its specific gravity is 1.522 at 150C.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HNO3
As a strong mono basic acid
Nitric acid is a strong monobasic acid because.
(i) It ionizes readily in water and give off one proton.
𝐻𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑁𝑂3− + 𝐻3 𝑂 +
(ii) It reacts with alkalis, to forms only one type of salt.
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
As a Nitrating Agent
Nitric acid in some organic reactions replace one or more hydrogen of an organic
compound by its nitro group (-NO2) therefore it called as nitrating agent.
450𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐶6 𝐻6 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 𝐶6 𝐻5 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
As an Oxidizing Agent
The oxidation no. of Nitrogen in HNO3 is highest (+5). When HNO3 reacts with
metals and non-metals it reduces in to NO2, NO, N2O etc. during which oxidation number of
nitrogen decreases hence it serves as oxidizing agent.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝐶𝑢 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
3𝐶𝑢 + 8𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 3𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 4𝐻2 𝑂
Reaction of HNO3 with metals

The reaction of nitric acid with metals are complicated because of dual nature of
HNO3 as an acid and as an oxidizing agent and give various product for example NO, N 2O,
NO2, NH4NO3 depending upon.
(i) Whether the metal is placed below or above hydrogen in electrochemical series.
(ii) Whether the nitric acid is concentration, dilute or very dilute.
The reaction of nitric acid with some metals is given below.
Magnesium
Magnesium is more active metal and found above hydrogen in electrochemical series.
* When dilute Nitric acid reacts with Mg to gives N2O.
𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
4𝑀𝑔 + 10𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 4𝑀𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝑁2 𝑂 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
* When concentration nitric acid reacts with magnesium gives NO 2.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝑀𝑔 + 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Zinc
Zinc is more active metal and found above hydrogen in electrochemical series.
* When very dilute Nitric acid when reacts with Zinc gives NH 4NO3.
𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
4𝑍𝑛 + 10𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 4𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
* When concentration nitric acid reacts with Zinc gives NO2.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝑍𝑛 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Copper
Copper is less active metal and found below hydrogen in electrochemical series.
* Dilute Nitric acid when reacts with Copper gives nitric oxide.
𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
3𝐶𝑢 + 8𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 3𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂 + 4𝐻2 𝑂
* Concentrated nitric acid when reacts with copper, gives nitrogen dioxides.
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝐶𝑢 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Action with non-metals
Nitric acid oxidizes various non-metals to their corresponding oxy acids for example.
* Phosphorus is oxidized to phosphoric acid
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑃 + 5𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 + 5𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
* Sulphur is oxidizes to sulphuric acid.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑆 + 6𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 6𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
* Silicon is oxidizes to silisic acid.

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑆𝑖 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 4𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
AQUA REGIA
A mixture of conc. HNO3 and conc. HCl in the name
of 1:3 by volume is known as aqua regia.
Aqua regia is a Latin word meaning Royal water. This name was given because of its
ability to dissolve Gold & Platinum etc.
Gold when put down in aqua regia, the free chlorine liberated from aqua regia reacts
with gold and change it to soluble AuCl3.
𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) + 3𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐) → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑁𝑂𝐶𝑙 + 2𝐶𝑙
𝐴𝑢 + 3𝐶𝑙 → 𝐴𝑢𝐶𝑙3
𝐴𝑢𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐻+ [𝐴𝑢𝐶𝑙4 ]−
Structure of HNO3
The structure of nitric acid is planer trigonal in which three oxygen atom and one
nitrogen atom are in one plane forming a triangle, while hydrogen atom attached
perpendicular to one oxygen.
The structure of nitric acid gaseous state and in solid state have different bond angles
and bong length.
Use of HNO3 in explosives

Nitroglycerine is highly explosive material prepared from by reacting nitric acid and
glycerin. It is extremely shocked sensitive and dangerous to transport or use in its pure form.
To make it safer, siliceous rock powder. (Kieselgohr) is added into it. This mixture of
nitroglycerine and Keiselgohr is called Dynamite.
Use of HNO3 in fertilizers
Many nitrogen containing fertilizers are prepared by nitric acid for example
Ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate etc.
Use of HNO3 in chemical
Nitric acid is used in making many useful chemcials like Aqua Regia, Puric acid,
Silver nitrate, organic dyes etc.
SULPHURIC ACID
Sulphuric acid is a strong mineral oxy acid of sulphur commonly known as “oil of
vitriol”.
The most common commercial method for the preparation of H 2SO4 is called as
“Contact process”.
Plant Construction
The plant consist of various unit chambers which re made up of metals and coated
with lead as well as anti-acid material.
These unit chambers are connected to each other by inter linked pipes and operate by
automatic machinery hence 100tons H2SO4 may be produced per day by only few workers.
Steps involved in contact process
The main steps involved in this process are given below:
(i) Oxidation of Sulphur
It is carried out in a combustion chamber known as “sulphur Burner”. Here, sulphur is
heated with air at 8500C to give SO2 gas.
𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2
Pyrite ore may also be taken for producing SO2 gas.
4𝐹𝑒𝑆2 + 11𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 8𝑆𝑂2
However, sulphur is a preferred raw material if it is available at reasonable cost. About 65%
of the world production is based on sulphur, 16% on pyrite and 19% on other sources.
(ii) Purification of SO2
SO2 gas which is produced in “Burner” may contains some impurities of Arsenic,
Silica and CO2.
These must be removed from SO2 gas before entering it into catalytic chamber
because catalyst (V2O5) get poisoned in the presence of these impurities and hence decreases
the rate of formation of SO3.
These impurities are removed from SO2 by passing if through a series of chambers.
(a) Dust filter chamber
Here, Dust particles including Arsenic oxide are removed.
(b) Washing tower
Here, other particles including silica are removed.
(c) Drying tower
Here, SO2 gas is dried with conc. sulphuric acid.
(iii) Catalytic oxidation of SO2
This process is carried out in specially designed chamber known as “Contact tower”.
Here SO2 is oxidized with air in the presence of a catalyst V2O5 to give SO3.
𝑉2 𝑂5 , 1.6−1.7 𝑎𝑡𝑚
2𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑂2 ⇔ 2𝑆𝑂3 ( −45𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒)
Since this is a reversible and exothermic reaction, the favourable conditions for
obtaining maximum yield of SO3 are.
* Low temperature
* High pressure
* Excess of air
However, in actual practice this reaction is carried out 450-5000C and 1.6-1.7
atmospheric pressure to get 95-96% yield of SO3.
Function of Catalyst
The function of V2O5 is contact chamber is to catalyst the rate of reaction however
access not effects on equilibrium. Platinum gauze can also be used instead of V 2O5 but due to
its expansiveness and high ability of poisoning, generally V2O5 is selected catalyst.
Heat generated in contact chamber
Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 is highly exothermic process in which 45 Kcal/mole nect is
produced causing a temperature of over 20000C. This heat is used to generate steam which
supply power for all activities of the plant for example operating of pumps and fans to move
the material from one chamber to another.
(iv) Absorption into H2SO4
This process is carried out in primary absorption tower. Here SO 3 gas is absorbed into
H2SO4 at low temperature to give oleum.
𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐻2 𝑆2 𝑂7
(v) Absorption into Water

Oleum is then passed through “Secondary absorption tower” where it is absorbed into
a fixed amount of water to give H2SO4.
𝐻2 𝑆2 𝑂7 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
H2SO4 obtained by this method is 98% pure and known as commercial H2SO4.
Kinds of Sulphuric Acid

(i) Dilute sulphuric acid
It contains 65% H2SO4 and has a density of 1.55g/cm3.
(ii) Concentrated sulphuric acid of laboratory grade
It contain 98% H2SO4 and has a density of 1.839g/cm3.
(iii) Pure sulphuric acid
It contains 100% H2SO4 and has a density of 1.838g/cm3.
(iv) Fuming sulphuric acid
It contains dissolve 20% SO3 and have a density of 1.929g/cm3.
Physical Properties of H2SO4

(i) It is colourless odourless viscous oily liquid often called as oil of vitrial.
(ii) It melting point is 10.50C and boiling point is 2900C.
(iii) It is hygroscopic and highly corrosive in nature.
Structure of H2SO4 molecule

X-ray analysis shows that the shape of SO4-2 ion is tetrahedral.
High Boiling point and viscosity of H2SO4
H2SO4 is a polar molecule, it consist of electropositive hydrogen and electronegative
oxygen terminals. These molecules link in large aggregates through intermolecular hydrogen
bond. That is why boiling point and viscosity of H2SO4 is high.
Sulphuric acid as a king of chemical

Sulphuric is often called king of chemicals because only few industries could operate
without its use. Progress and prosperity of any nation can be measured in term of amount of
H2SO4 that is industries consume annually.
Chemical Behaviour of Sulphuric acid

As a Diprotic acid
Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid because on dissolving in water it gives two protons (H + ions)
in two stages.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− + 𝐻3 𝑂 +
𝐻𝑆𝑂4− + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑆𝑂4−2 + 𝐻3 𝑂 +
It reacts with alkali from bisulphate and sulphate.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑁𝑎𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
M.C.Q’s
1. p-block elements occur in:
(A) Groups IA and IIA (B) Groups IIIA to VIIIA
(C) Groups IB to VIIB (D) Groups IB to VIIB
2. The general electronic configuration of p-block elements may be represented as:
(A) ns1, ns2 (B) ns2, np6
2 1-6
(C) ns , np (D) None of the above
3. The total number of electrons in the outer most shell of p-block elements varies
from:
(A) 1 to 6 (B) 3 to 8 (C) 2 to 7 (D) 1 to 8
4. Nitrogen has the electronic configuration:
(A) 1s2, 2s2, 2p2 (B) 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
(C) 1s2, 2s2, 2p4 (D) None of the above
5. Laughing gas is:
(A) NO (B) N2O (C) N2O3 (D) N2O5
6. In all p-block elements, atomic radii:
(A) Decreases down the group (B) Increases down the group
(C) Remains same in the group (D) None of the above
7. Ion are formed
(A) Gain of electron (B) Loss of electron
(C) Gain or loss of electron (D) None of the above
8. The electron negativity is related to atomic size as follows:
(A) Inversely proportional (B) Directly proportional
(C) Equal to (D) None of the above
9. The tendency of an atom to lose electrons is called:
(A) Electro negativity (B) Electro positivity
(C) Electron affinity (D) Ionization potential
10. The chemical formula of Boric acid is:
(A) B2O3 (B) Na2B4O7
(C) H3BO3 (D) None of the above
11. Which of the following does not belong to group IIIA:
(A) B (B) Ge (C) A1 (D) In
12. Borax is:
(A) Sodium metaborate (B) Sodium borate
(C) Sodium tetraborate (D) Sodium thioborate
13. Which is the chief ore of Aluminum:
(A) Corundum (B) Diaspore (C) Bauxite (D) Cryolite
14. Which is not a mineral of Aluminum:
(A) Bauxite (B) Diaspore (C) Corundum (D) Malachite
15. In Alumino thermic process Al acts as:
(A) A flux (B) Solder
(C) Oxidizing agent (D) Reducing agent
16. In the electrolysis of Alumina, Cryolite, Na3AIF6 is added to:
(A) Remove impurities.
(B) Raise the M.P. of Alumina
(C) Increase the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte
(D) Minimize the volatilization of the electrolyte
17. Which of the following metals is extracted by electrolytic reduction method:
(A) A1 (B) Cu (C) Fe (D) None of the above
18. Which of the processes is used for the purification of bauxite ore containing
excess of silica, SiO2 as impurity:
(A) Hall’s process (B) Baeyer’s process
(C) Serpeck’s process (D) Hoope’s process
19. In the purification of bauxite by Hall’s process, the bauxite ore is:
(A) Heated with NaHCO3 (B) Fused with Na2CO3
(C) Heated with NaOH solution
(D) Heated with carbon at 1800ºC in a current of nitrogen
20. When A1 is added to NaOH solution.
(A) H2 is evolved (B) O2 is evolved
(C) H2O is produced (D) No reaction occurs
21. Bauxite mineral containing iron as impurity is purified
(A) Baeyer’s process (B) Hoope’s process
(C) Serpeck’s process (D) Electrolytic process
22. A1 reacts with N2 form:
(A) A1N (B) A12N (C) A12N3 (D) A14N6
23. Common alum is:
(A) K2SO4- Cr2(SO4)3- 24H2O (B) K2SO4- A12(SO4)3- 24H2O
(C) (NH4)2SO4- Fe2(SO4)3- 24H2O (D) Na2SO4- A12(SO4)3- 24H2O
24. Which of the following is alum:
(A) NaA1O2 (B) KC1- MgC12- 6H2O
(C) FeSO4- (NH4)2SO4- 6H2O (D) (NH4)2SO4- A12(SO4)3- 24H2O
25. The general electronic configuration of group IV elements is:
(A) ns2, np2 (B) ns2, np3 (C) ns2, np4 (D) ns2, np6
26. Which of the following is true regarding the various allotropes of carbon:
(A) Diamond is hardest and graphite is the softest
(B) Diamond is t he hardest and lampblack is softest
(C) Diamond is the hardest and coke is the softest
(D) Coal is the hardest and graphite is the softest
27. The crystalline allotrope of carbon is:
(A) Diamond (B) Charcoal (C) Lampblack (D) Coke
28. Two or more forms of the same element which differ in t he arrangement of
atoms in the crystal lattice are called:
(A) Isotopes (B) Allotropes
(C) Isomorphous (D) Homologues
29. Poisonous gases present in the fumes of automobiles is:
(A) CH4 (B) CO (C) CO2 (D) CO + H2
30. Dry ice is:
(A) Solid water (B) Solid CO2 (C) Solid CO (D) Solid benzene
31. Carbon dioxide is identified by its reaction with:
(A) Calcium Hydroxide (B) Hydrochloric acid
(C) Oxygen. (D) Sodium Carbonate
32. Carbon monoxide is dangerous because it has:
(A) A pungent odour (B) A suffocating odour
(C) Sweet odour (D) No odour
33. Reacting coke with calcium oxide in an electric furnace produces:
(A) Calcium (B) Calcium Carbide
(C) Calcium Carbonate (D) Carbon Dioxide
34. The “brown ring test” is used to determine the presence of:
(A) Carbonate (B) Chloride (C) Nitrate (D) Sulphate
35. Carbon reacts with metals to form:
(A) Carbide (B) Carbonate (C) Hydroxide (D) Oxide
36. Which of the following is a good conductor of electricity:
(A) Coal (B) Diamond (C) Charcoal (D) Graphite
37. Sulphur burns in air to produce:
(A) SO2 (B) SO3 (C) H2S (D) H2SO4
38. Chlorine has bleaching action in the presence of moisture. The bleaching action
of chlorine is due to the formation of:
(A) HC1 (B) HOC1 (C) C12 (D) SO2
39. In diamond carbon atoms are covalently bounded to give the structure of:
(A) Tetrahedral unit (B) Hexagonal ring
(C) Octahedral structure (D) Trigonal unit
40. Water gas is a mixture of:
(A) H2O + air (B) SO + N2 (C) CO + H2
(D) CO + CO2 (E) CO + H2O
41. Phosgene is:
(A) PH3 (B) POC13 (C) CS2 (D) COC12
42. The composition of white lead is represented as:
(A) PbCO3- Pb(OH)2 (B) [2PbCO3- Pb(OH)2]
(C) [2PbO- PbO2] (D) PbC12- 4PbO
43. Red lead (Sandhur) is:
(A) PbO2 (B) Pb3O4 (C) PbO (D) None of the above
44. Aqueous solution of potash alum is:
(A) Acidic (B) Alkaline (C) Neutral (D) None of the above
45. In the Contact process the reaction in the presence of catalyst in Contact tower
produces:
(A) SO2 (B) SO3 (C) H2SO4 (D) H2S2O7
46. Galvanization is the:
(A) Deposition of Zn on Fe (B) Deposition of A1 on Fe
(C) Deposition of tin on Fe (D) Deposition of Cu on Fe
47. Bauxite is an oxide mineral of:
(A) Barium (B) Iron (C) Copper (D) Aluminum
48. Hoope’s Electrolytic method is used in the refining of:
(A) Copper (B) Aluminum (C) Iron (D) Zinc
49. Glauber’s salt is:
(A) Na2CO3- 10H2O (B) CuSO4- 5H2O (C) Na2SO4- 10H2O (D) FeSO4- 7H2O
50. Soda ash is:
(A) Na2CO3 (B) Na2CO3- 10H2O (C) NaOH (D) NaHCO3
51. Group VA of the periodic table has the electronic configuration:
(A) ns2, np3 (B) ns2, np4
2 5
(C) ns , np (D) None of the above
52. According to Hund’s the correct electronic configuration of Nitrogen is:
(A) 1s2, 2s2, 2p3 (B) 1s2, 2s2, 2px2, 2py1
2 2 1 1 1
(C) 1s , 2s , 2px , 2py , 2pz (D) None of the above
53. Hydrogen Sulphide has:
(A) Pungent smell (B) Rotten-egg smell
(C) Burning sulphur (D) No smell
54. The anhydride of nitric acid is:
(A) N2O3 (B) N2O4 (C) N2O5 (D) N2O
55. Iodine can be separated from a mixture of sand and iodine
(A) Adding bromine water (B) Adding chlorine water
(C) Adding MnO2 and H2SO4 (D) Heating
56. Chlorine reacts with water to form HC1 and HOC1. This reaction is:
(A) Oxidation (B) Reduction
(C) Displacement (D) Self oxidation-reduction
57. The gas, which is least soluble in water:
(A) N2 (B) CO2 (C) NH3 (D) PH3
58. At high temperature N2 combines with CaC2 to give:
(A) Calcium Cyanide (B) Calcium Cyanamide
(C) Calcium Carbide (D) Calcium Nitride
59. Aqua Regia is a mixture of:
(A) 3HC1 + 1HNO3 (B) H3PO4 + H2SO4
(C) 3HNO3 + 1HC1 (D) HC1 + CH3COOH
60. The gas produced in Kipps apparatus by the action of HCl or H2SO4 on Ferrous
Sulphide (FeS) is:
(A) SO2 (B) C12 (C) C12 (D) H2S
61. Yellow colour of commercial Nitric acid is due to the presence of:
(A) NO2 (B) NO (C) N2O (D) N2O5
62. The general electronic configuration of VIth group is:
(A) ns2, np2 (B) ns2, np3 (C) ns2, np4 (D) ns2, np5
63. Nitric acid is prepared commercially
(A) Haber’s process (B) Oswald’s process
(C) Contact process (D) Deacon’s process
64. H2SO4 has great affinity for water because:
(A) It decomposes the acid (B) It hydrolysis the acid
(C) Acid decomposes water (D) It acts as dehydrating agent
65. An element on heating gives gaseous oxide, which upon dissolving in water gives
an acidic solution. The element is:
(A) H2 (B) Na (C) Mg (D) S
66. Which one of the following is Rhombic Sulphur:
(A) S2 (B) S4 (C) S6 (D) S8
67. Which one of the following dissolves in H2SO4 to form Oleum:
(A) SO2 (B) SO3 (C) S2O (D) H2S
68. The chemical formula of Oleum is:
(A) H2SO5 (B) H2SO4 (C) H2S2O7 (D) H2S2O8
69. The catalyst used in the manufacture of H2SO4 by Contact process is:
(A) Finely divided Fe (B) Ni (C) Oxides of N2 (D) V2O5
70. Which of the following statements is not true about H2SO4:
(A) Oxidizing agent. (B) Reducing agent
(C) Dehydrating agent (D) Sulphonating agent
71. The charring action of sulphuric acid due to its being:
(A) A strong acid (B) An oxidizing agent
(C) A reducing agent (D) A dehydrating agent
72. The reaction between Cu and conc. H2SO4 produces:
(A) SO2 (B) SO3 (C) Cu+ (D) H2
73. In t he reaction Zn + 2H2SO4 ZnSO4 + 2H2O + SO2+ H2SO4 acts as:
(A) Reducing agent (B) Oxidizing agent
(C) Catalytic agent (D) Dehydrating agent
74. Oxalic acid when heated with cone. H2SO4 gives out:
(A) CO + CO2 (B) H2O + CO2 (C) CO2 + H2S (D) CO + SO2
75. Which is the most stable allotropic form of Sulphur:
(A) Rhombic sulphur (B) Prismatic sulphur
(C) Plastic sulphur (D) None of the above
76. Which form of sulphur is insoluble in water as well as CS2:
(A) Rhombic sulphur (B) Prismatic sulphur
(C) Plastic Sulphur (D) None of the above
77. Which of the following halogen is solid at room temperature:
(A) F (B) C1 (C) Br (D) 1
78. Which is the allotropic modification of Phosphorus:
(A) White Phosphorus. (B) Red Phosphorus
(C) Black Phosphorus (D) All mentioned above
79. When H2S is passed thorough a solution of CuSO4. Copper Sulphide is
precipitated. The colour of precipitate is:
(A) Brown (B) Black (C) Orange (D) Yellow
80. Bleaching powder is:
(A) CaC1O3 (B) CaC1O
(C) CaOC12 (D) None of the above
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
81. In the reaction, C + 4HNO3 → CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O, Nitric acid is acting as:
(A) An oxidizing agent (B) An acid
(C) A nitrating agent (D) A dehydrating agent
82. Which of the following statements is true of Hydrogen Sulphide:
(A) The gas is a reducing agent (B) The gas is a bleaching agent
(C) The gas is a dehydrating agent (D) It has no smell
83. Rhombic, monoclinic and plastic sulphur are:
(A) Isomers (B) Isotopes
(C) Allotropes (D) Homologues
84. Sulphuric acid is a dibasic acid because:
(A) Each molecue contains two hydrogen ions.
(B) Each molecule ionizes to form two protons
(C) It turns blue litmus red
(D) Sulphur has a valency of two
85. Which acid is used as a dehydrating and drying agent:
(A) Hydrochloric acid (B) Nitric acid
(C) Sulphuric acid (D) Acetic acid
86. Which halogen acts as a strong bleaching agent and disinfectant:
(A) Fluorine (B) Chlorine (C) Bromine (D) Iodine
ANSWER KEYS
01. B 21. A 41. D 61. A 81. A
02. C 22. A 42. B 62. C 82. A
03. B 23. B 43. B 63. B 83. C
04. B 24. D 44. A 64. D 84. B
05. B 25. A 45. B 65. D 85. C
06. B 26. A 46. A 66. D 86. B
07. C 27. A 47. D 67. B
08. A 28. B 48. B 68. C
09. B 29. B 49. C 69. D
10. C 30. B 50. A 70. B
11. B 31. A 51. A 71. D
12. C 32. D 52. C 72. A
13. C 33. B 53. B 73. B
14. D 34. C 54. C 74. A
15. D 35. A 55. D 75. A
16. C 36. A 56. D 76. C
17. A 37. C 57. A 77. D
18. C 38. B 58. B 78. D
19. B 39. A 59. A 79. B
20. A 40. C 60. B 80. C
5 d-BLOCK ELEMENTS
“The elements which have partially filled ‘d’
orbitals are known as d-block elements”.
These are characterized by the entrance of last electron into d-orbital of (n-1) shell.
These elements are located in mid region and belongs to sub group-B of periodic table.
D-block elements are generally called as transition elements because they have
intermediate properties between.
S-block elements which form ionic compounds.
P-block elements which form covalent compounds.
Classification of d-block elements

Based on whether the differentiating electron goes to 3d, 4d, 5d or 6d orbitals, d-block
elements have been classified into following series.
3d-Series
This series corresponds to the filling of 3d-subshell and consists of ten elements from
Sc (At. No. =21) to Zn (At. No. =80). These elements belong to the 4 th period of the periodic
table.
4d-Series
This series corresponds to the filling of 4d-subshell and consists of ten elements from
U (At. No. =39) to Cd (At. No. =48). These elements belong to the 5 th period of the periodic
table.
5d-Series
This series corresponds of the filling of 5d-subshell and consists of ten elements from
La (At. No. =57) to Hg (At. No. = 80). These elements belong the 6th period of the periodic
table.
6d-Series
This is an incomplete series of d-block element.

Electronic Configuration
The general trend of electronic configuration of first series of d-block elements is ns2 (n-1)1-10.
Element Symbol At. No. Electronic Configuration
Scandium Sc 21 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d1, 4s2
Titanium Ti 22 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d2, 4s2
Vanadium V 23 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d3, 4s2
Chromium Cr 24 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d4, 4s2
Manganese Mn 25 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d5, 4s2
Iron Fe 26 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d6, 4s2
Cobalt Co 27 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d7, 4s2
Nickel Ni 28 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d8, 4s2
Copper Cu 29 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d10, 4s2
Zinc Zn 30 1s2, 2s2p6, 3s2p6d10, 4s2
Exceptional electronic configuration of Cr and Cu

Chromium and copper have some variation in the electronic configuration from
general trend.
• In chromium one electron of 4s jump into 3d orbital make it half-filled and extra
stable that is why it exist as 4s1, 3d5 in stated of 4s2, 3d4.
• In copper one electron of 4s jump into 3d orbital make it full filled and extra stable
that is why it exist as 4s1, 3d0 instated of 4s2, 3d9.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF D-BLOCK ELEMENTS

Physical Properties
Since the outer most shell of these elements have the similar general trend of
electronic configuration, these element may have most of their physical and chemical
properties similar. For example:
i) They are hard and brittle with high melting and boiling point.
ii) They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
iii) They form alloys with one another or with other element.
Variable Oxidation States

Transition element exists in more than one oxidation state in their compounds.
The variable oxidation state is due to.
* Very small energy difference between 3d and 4s orbitals.
* Both 3d and 4s electrons takes part in the bond formation.
Various oxidation states of 3d series are given in the following table.

Element Outer electronic configuration Oxidation states
Sc 3d1 4s2 +2, +3
Ti 3d2 4s2 +2, +3, +4
V 3d3 4s2 +2, +3, +4, +5
Cr 3d5 4s1 +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6
Mn 3d5 4s2 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7
Fe 3d6 4s2 +2, +3, +4, +5, +6
Co 3d7 4s2 +2, +3, +4
Ni 3d8 4s2 +2, +3, +4
Cu 3d10 4s1 +1, +2
Zn 3d10 4s2 +2
Above table shows that:

• All transition elements have +2 oxidation state in addition to some higher oxidation state.
• From Sc to Mn oxidation number increases because number of unpaired electrons which
involves in bonding increases.
• From Mn to Zn, oxidation number decreases because of d-orbits filled up regularly and
number of unpaired electrons decreases.
Para Magnetic behaviour

“The substance which are attracted by magnetic field are
called para magnetic and the phenomena is known as para magnetism”.
Para magnetic behavior is found in those elements which have one or more unpaired
electrons in their orbitals.
Most of the transition metal ions show paramagnetic behavior because
* They have unpaired electrons in their d-orbitals.
* Spinning of unpaired electrons creates magnetic moment and hence they are attracted by
magnetic field.
The paramagnetism first increases in the transition element series up to middle and
then decreases upto end hence the maximum paramagnetism is seen around the middle of the

series. The reason is that unpaired electr4on in the d-orbital increases upto middle and them
decreases.
Diamagnetic
* These substance have weak negative susceptibility to magnetic field and are repel by the
magnetic field.
* In these substance all electrons of d-orbitals are paired.
Para magnetic
These substance have small positive susceptibility to magnetic field and are slightly
attracted by the magnetic field. They does not retain the magnetic properties when the
external magnetic field is removed.
These substances passes one or more unpaired electrons in their d-orbitals.
Ferromagnetic
These substance have large positive susceptibility to an external magnetic field. They
exhibit a strong attraction to the magnetic field and re able to retain their magnetic properties
after the magnetic field has been removed.
Some paramagnetic elements like Fe, Co etc are capable of becoming ferromagnetic.
In a ferromagnetic element electrons of atoms are grouped into domains in which each
domain has the same charge. In the presents of a magnetic field these domains line ups o that
charges are parallel throughout the entire compound.
Paramagnetism Diamagnetism
Transition atom or ion which have at least one Transition atom or ion in which all electrons are
unpaired electron in d-orbital. paired.
Weakly attracted by magnetic field. Weakly replied by magnetic field.
For example Cu+2 is para magnetic because it For example Cu+1 is diamagnetic because it has
has one unpaired electron in d-orbital. all paired electrons in d-orbitals.
Complex Formation
“A compound in which transition metal ion is coordinated by a
specific numbers of ligands is known as coordination complex”.
Transition metals have unique ability to form complexes because.
(i) Their cat ions have smaller size with high positive charge.
(ii) They possess vacant d-orbitals of suitable energy.
The vacant d-orbitals of transition metal cat ion accept lone pair of electrons from specific
number of ligand, there by assisting complex formation.
Colour Formation

The colour formation of transition element ions can be explained in term of crystal
field theory which tells that:
• When ligand approaches to transition metals ion five degenerated d-orbitals split up
into two sets of energy level.
• One set has high energy.
• Other set has low energy.
• The difference between the two energy sets (t2g and eg) is equivalent to a wave
length in visible region.
When visible light falls on a transition metal ion the electrons of lower energy level
(t2g) absorb some wave length of light and get excited to a higher energy level (eg). While
the remaining wave length of light is transmitted or reflected and show the colour of the
substance.
The colour is only seen if the energy of crystal field splitting correspond to a wave
length of visible light. If the energy gap is large it may well correspond to U.V light in which
the d-d transition would be but no colour would be seen.
The colour of transition metal ion is affected by difference of energy between t2g and
eg level and it depends upon following factors.
(i) Identity of metal ions.
(ii) Identity of oxidation.
(iii) Identity of ligand.
For example in the following two cortexes different colour of chromium ion is due to
different oxidation number.
Complex Oxidation no. of Cr Type of Ligand Colour
+2
[Cr(H2O)6] +2 H2O Pale Blue
[Cr(H2O)6]+3 +3 H2O Yellow Brown
In the following three complexes the different colour of Ni+2 is due to the effect of
strong field and weak field ligands.
Complex Oxidation no. of Ni Type of Ligand Colour
+2
[Ni(H2O)6] +2 H2O Green
+3
[Ni(NH3)6] +2 NH3 Deep Blue
[Ni(CN)4]-2 +2 CN Yellow

The colour of some transition metal ions in aqueous medium re given as.
Ion Colour
Sc3+ Colourless
3+
Ti Purple
3+
V Green
Cr3+ Green Dark
3+
Mn Violet
Fe3+ Yellow Brown
2+
Fe Green
Co2+ Pink
2+
Ni Green
Cu2+ Blue
2+
Zn Colourless
Why Cu+2 is blue but Zn+2 is colourless?

The splitting of d-orbitals of Cu+2 ion is given is as.
When light fall on Cu+2 ion, it absorbs some components of light and promote an
electron form t2g to eg energy level but transmit Wavell length of blue light.
The splitting of five d-orbitals of Zn+2 ion is given as.
Both tg2 and e.g. level are completely filled with electrons therefore white light
instead of splitting pass straight through it. Hence it exists in white colour.

Interstitial Compound Formation
Transition elements have some empty spaces in their crystal lattice therefore, atoms of
smaller size like hydrogen and carbon etc can reside within these interstitial spaces and form
compound of indefinite structure and proportion hence these are called as interstitial or non
stoichiometrical compounds.
This behavior is due to:
(i) Their variable oxidation state.
(ii) Defects in their solid structure.
For example alloys are non stoichiometrical or interstitial compound.
Catalytic Property
A catalyst is a substance that speed up a reaction without being used up or chemically
changed by it. Catalyst provide an alternative path way that has a lower energy of activation.
There are two theories of catalysis.
Activated complex theory

A catalyst (C) reacts with reactant (A) to form an intermediate (AC) having a lower energy of
activation.
𝐴 + 𝐶 → [𝐴𝐶] → 𝐵 + 𝐶 (𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑧𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐴 → [𝐴∗ ] → 𝐵 (𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑧𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
The intermediate (AC) is called activated complex. It has a transitionary existence and
readity decomposes into product “B” simultaneously releasing the catalyst “C”.
Transition element fulfill on this theory because they possess variable oxidation state
and at least in one of the oxidation states the activated complex is formed with lower energy
of activation.
Absorption theory
According to this theory.
A substance acts as catalyst only if it has ability to absorb the reactant molecules. Transition
elements fulfill on this theory because their surface consist of many interstitial spaces known
as active sites where the reactant molecule get adsorbed.
Transition elements and their compounds acts as catalyst because of following two main
reasons.
(i) They possess variable oxidation state and at least in one oxidation state they form
activated complex with reactant molecule having a lower energy of activation.
(ii) They possess interstitial spaces on their surface hence reactant molecules gas
adsorbed on their surface causing a lowering of energy of activation.

Melting & Boiling Point
M.P and B.P of transition elements are very high as
compared to representation elements because.
(i) They possess small atomic radii.
(ii) Have stronger inter atomic attraction.
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
o
M.P( C) 1539 1668 1760 1875 1245 1535 1480 1452 1083 419
B.P oC) 3900 3130 3000 2480 2087 2450 2900 2900 2310 907
If look at the table, it is observed that B.P and M.P first increases up to middle and
then decreases. This is because the number of unpaired electron first increases to Mn and then
decreases to Zinc.
Hence zinc has the lowest m.p in the series due to its completely filled d-orbital.
Ionization Potential
The I.P of transition elements is in between s-block and P-block. This suggest that
* These elements are less reactive than s-block and more reactive than p-Block.
* They can form both ionic and covalent bonds depending upon the conditions.
* Generally they form ionic compounds in low oxidation state and covalent compound in
high oxidation state.
* I.P values show variation in certain places due to half-filled and completely filled
configuration as well as variable oxidation states.
Elements Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
First I.P (KJ/mol) 632 659 650 652 716 762 758 736 744 906
LIGAND
“A chemical species which is bonded
to metal through coordinate bond in a complex”.
The term ligand comes from the Latin word care meaning to bind.
Ligand serves as Lewis base because it donates one or more electron pair to the metal atom
and form coordinate bond.
A ligand may be a neutral molecule (eg. NH3, H2O), a negative ion (e.g. CL-, OH) or in rare
case it may be positive ion for example Nitrosonium (NO+) and hydrazanium (NH2 – NH+3).
The atom of ligand which is directly attached to the metal is known as “Ligating atom” or
“Bonding site”. For example in NH3 the ligating atom is nitrogen and in H2O the ligating
atom is oxygen.

Classification of Ligand
On the basis of “denticity” ligand are classified into monodentate and multidentate
ligand.
(i) Monodentate Ligand

A ligand which has only one donor atom and hence provide only one lone pair
of electron for complexation is called as monodentate ligand.
Neutral molecules Ligand name Neutral molecules Ligand name

3 Ammine CL Chloro
H2O Aqua NO-2 Nitro
NO Nitrosyl OH Hydroxo
CO Carbonyl CN Cyano
Bidentate Ligand
Ligand which has two donor atom hence provide two lone pair of electrons the central
metal in coordination complex are called bidentate ligand.
Some bidentate ligands are expressed in the following.
̅
O ̅
O
H2 N̈ − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − N̈H2
|| ||
(𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒)
Ö − 𝐶 − 𝐶 − Ö
Tridentate Ligand
These ligand have three donor atom hence form three coordinate bond coordination
complex.
For example.
𝐻2 𝑁 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑁𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑁𝐻2
Hexa dentate ligand

It form six coordinate bond with transition metal.

A list of common ligands along with their denticity is given as:
Name of ligand Denticity Abbreviation
Flouro Monodentate F-
Chloro Monodentate Cl-
Bromo Monodentate Br-
Iodo Monodentate I-
Cyano Monodentate CN-
N-Thiocyanato Ambidentate NCS-
S-Thiocyanato Ambidentate SCN-
Hydroxo Monodentate HO-
Nitrito Ambidentate ONO-
Nitro Ambidentate NO2-
Nitrate Monodentate NO3-
Amido Monodentate NH2-
Oxalao Bidentate C2O4-2
Oxo Monodentate O-2
Mercapto Monodentate HS-
Thiosulphato Monodentate S2O3-2
Dimethyl glyoxime Bidentate DMG
Aqua Monodentate H2O
Ammine Monodentate NH3
Nitrosyl Monodentate NO
Carbonyl Monodentate CO
Ethylene diamine Bidentate En
Diethylene triamine Tridentate Dien
Ethylene diamine tetra acetate Hexadentate (Flexidentate) EDTA
Coordination Number
“The total number of coordinate bond exist between central atom
and ligand in a complex ion is known as coordination number”.
The coordination number of a complex depends upon the denticity of ligand which
are attached to metal ion.
For example the coordination of [Cu(NH3)4] is 4 because four mono dentate ligand
are attached with copper. Similarly the coordination number of [Ni(C 2O4)2] is 6 because
C2O4-2 is a bidentate ligand.
Most common coordination number of complexes are 2, 4 and 6.

The geometry of complex depends upon coordination number of complex.
Coordination number Geometry Example
2 Linear [Ag(NH3)2]
4 Tetrahedral [CuCl4]2
4 Square Planar [Cu(CN)4-2]
6 Octahedral [Fe(H2O)6]2+
CHELATE
“When a multidentate ligand coordinate to metal ion by more
than one conor sites, a ring like structure is obtained.
This is known as chelate”.
Chelate is derived from Greek word chele meaning claw.

For example DMG is a bidentatate, ligand, it form nickel dimethyl glyoximate complex
which is also known as chelate.
COPPER
Copper is a redish brown metal. It is malleable, ductile and has very high termal and
electrical conductivity. It is mostly found in sulphide and oxide ores. Some of the chief ores
of copper are given below:
Type of copper ore Name Formula
Copper pyrite CuFeS2
Sulphide ore
Chalcocite Cu2S
Malachite CuCO3, Cu (OH)2
Carbonate ore
Azurite 2CuCO3 Cu (OH)2
Oxide ore Cuperite Cu2O
Copper pyrite which is also known as chalco pyrite is a copper Iron sulphide ore. It contains
sulphur (S), silicon (Si), Arsenic (As) and Antimany (Sb) as impurities.
The steps involves in the extraction of pure copper from copper pyrite ore are
described below.

(i) Concentration
This step involves the removal of ganged particles from ore and makes it
concentrated. The concentration of sulphide ore is carried out by froth floating
method in which powdered ore and some pine oil is mixed in water and air is blown.
The ore particles are wetted by oil and comes over to the surface along with the froth
while the gange particles remain un-wetted and settled down at the bottom.
(ii) Roasting
In this metallurgical operation concentrated ore is heated in a furnace, where
following chemical changes occur.
i) Sulphur present in the ore burns to SO2 and removed.
ii) Antimony (Sb) and Arsenic (As) present in the ore burns to their volatile oxide
and removed.
iii) Copper pyrite decomposes to form CuS and FeO.
2𝐶𝑢𝐹𝑒𝑆2 + 4𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 + 2𝐹𝑒𝑂 + 3𝑆𝑂2
The mixture Cu2S and FeO is taken out from the furnace and this is known as
“Roasted ore”.
(iii) Smelting
This metallurgical operation is carried out in a long vertical “Blast furnace”. Roasted
which is a mixture of Cu2S and FeO is heated with sand in the presence of hot air.
Following changes occur in blast furnace.
* The FeO part of the Roasted ore reacts with sand (SiO 2) to form Iron silicon which
is separated out.
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝑒𝑂 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑂3
* CuS part of Roasted are along with a little unreacted FeS is settled at bottom and
known as “matte”.
Matte is a mixture of Cu2S along with very small amount of FeS and SiO2.
(iv) Bessemerization
This metallurgical operation is carried out in a pear shaped revolving furnace known
as Bessemer converter.
Here matte is converted into Blister copper.
Following chemical charges occur in Bessemer
converter.
(i) FeS and SiO2 which are present in the matte as
impurities are changed irons ilicate and
separated out.
2𝐹𝑒𝑆 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒𝑂 + 2𝑆𝑂2
𝐹𝑒𝑂 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑂3
(ii) Cu2S of matte is partly oxidized to form Cu2O.
2𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑢2 𝑂 + 2𝑆𝑂2

(iii) Cu2O is then reacts with the remaining Cu2S to give metallic copper in molten
state.
2𝐶𝑢2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 → 6𝐶𝑢 + 𝑆𝑂2
Copper obtained here is of 99% pure and it is called as Blister copper.
(v) Electrolytic Refining

Refining of Blister copper is carried out in an electrolytic tank having aqueous
acidified copper sulphate solution where blocks of blister copper serves as anode and
pure copper serves as cathode.
At Anode
Blister copper from anode oxidizes to liberate Cu+2 ions.
𝐶𝑢 → 𝐶𝑢 +2 + 2𝑒 −
At Cathode
Cu+2 ions of solution deposit at cathode
leaving the impurities behide. These impurities are
called as sludge or anode mud.
𝐶𝑢 +2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑢
In this way 99.99% pure copper is obtained.
PHOTOGRAPHY
“The art of developing a picture on a photographic film
By exposure to light is known as photography”.
A photographic film is a sheet of transparent plastic coated with gelatin emulsion with
silver halide. The silver halide crystals of photographic film are light sensitive in the presence
of gelatin.
When light of specific intensity is fall on photographic film in a camera, some silver
ions coverts into silver atoms which becomes black and form a latent (hidden) image.
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐴𝑔+ → 𝐴𝑔
Now film is converted into a positive print through a series of following three
chemical processes.
Developing
The reproducing of film to get a clear image is known as developing.
* It may be done in the presence of developing agent like metal hydroquinone or pyrogallol.
* These chemcials continuous the process started by light covering more silver ions in the
area affected by light into silver atoms.
* After developing the film is called negative.

Fixation of Negative
* Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O) which is called as Hypo is used as fixer.
* Hypo reacts with unsensetized AgBr of film to form silver thiosulphate complex.
𝐴𝑔𝐵𝑟 + 2𝑁𝑎2 𝑆2 𝑂3 → 𝑁𝑎3 [𝐴𝑔(𝑆2 𝑂3 )2 ] + 𝑁𝑎𝐵𝑟
The negative film is now fixed and cane be exposed to light.
Positive Printing
Image on negative is then printed on a light sensitive printing paper.
The negative is placed on printing paper and exposed to light for a few seconds during which
the image is printed on the paper with the light and dark portion reversed.
The paper is now developed and fixed in the same way as described in developing.
STAINLESS STEEL
“An iron chromium alloy which shows resistance to
corrosion is known as stainless steel”.
Preparation
Stainless steel is prepared by mixing molten Iron and Chromium in a fixed ratio.
However, Nickel, Carbon and some other metals may also be added to make stainless steel of
specific use.
How is stainless steel protect against corrosion
The chromium of stainless steel oxidizes readily in air to form a very thin oxide film
on the surface. This layer protect further corrosion and can not be affected on colour and
appearance of stainless steel.
Types of Stainless Steel
Stainless steel are classified into following three types based on their microstructure
(predominant crystal structure).
(i) Type-1
It contains 13% Cr and 0.1 – 0.4% carbon.
(ii) Type-2
It contains 17% Cr and 2% Ni.
(iii) Type-3
It contains 18% Cr and 6% Ni.

Uses of Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is extensively used due to its strength, corrosion, resistance ability and
as attractive material.
(i) Domestive
Cutlery, Sinks, Saucepans, washing machine, cooking container razor blades.
(ii) Commercial
Door, Window fittings, Street chair, Process pipes, Storage tanker, Rail vehicle,
Turbine blade, engine parts.
(iii) Medical
Surgical instruments, MRI scanners.
CORROSION
“The reaction of metal with air during which surface
of metal change into its oxide is called as corrosion”.
Corrosion rate
The process of corrosion occur in almost all metals, however it is different in different
metals for example.
• Sodium, potassium corrade very quickly.
• Iron and copper corrode slowly.
• Tin and lead corrode very slowly.
• Corrosion on Iron makes the surface brown and generally known as “Rust”.
• Corrosion on copper makes the surface green.
Corrosion type
Corrosion of metal is caused by air, water and some reactive liquids hence it is classified as.
(i) Atmospheric corrosion.
(ii) Liquid corrosion.
How a metal protected against corrosion
Corrosion makes the metal harmful and reduces its strength.
For example the strength of corroded iron reduces 1/5 time after one year.
Following prevention are applied to protect a metal against corrosion.
(i) Surface Coating of non-Metallic Material:
It is the simplest way of protecting a metal from surrounding. Non-metallic materials
such as points, oils, grease, varnish are coated on the surface of metal to prevent it from
corrosion.
(ii) Surface Coating of Metals:
Metals can be prevented by coating a thin layer of less corrosive metal, this technique
is generally named as “plating”.
The plating of Zinc is called “Galvanizing” and the plating of tin is called “Tinning”.

(iii) Alloying of Metals:
Alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals, alloy formation is also a very
useful way to protect a metal from corrosion commonly used alloy are Stainless Steel, Brass,
German, silver, Bronze and Duralumin.
TIN PLATING
“The process of coating of thin layer of tin on the
surface of a metal is known as Tin Plating or Tinning”.
Tin plating is most common and widely used technique for the protection of a metal
from corrosion and poisoning because of the following properties of tin.
(i) This is soft, maliable and ductile hence easily be plated.
(ii) This is nontoxic and corrosion resistant.
(iii) This is silvery white hence its plating is decorative.
(iv) This is cheaper than other plating metals like God, Silver, Zinc etc.
Tin plating is generally carried out by mechanical or electrolytic method.
Mechanical Process
This is a common and economical process and consist of following steps.
(i) Cleaning of metal sheet
The metal sheet which is to be plated is first washed cleaned and dried.
(ii) Removal of Previous rust
The previous rust of iron and steel sheet its removed by dipping them into warm
dilute H2SO4.
(iii) Plating Process
The metal sheet is then dipped into a both of malten tin and then pass through hot pair
of roller to remove super flours tin. The surface of the sheet is then polished with rag.
Electrolytic Process
It is carried out in an electrolytic tank which contain a bath of molten SnCl2 / HCl. Metal
sheets whose plating required dipped into the tank and connected to cathode where as pure tin
plates serves as anode.
At Anode
Tin atoms of anode oxidizes into Sn+2 ions and fall down into the solution.
𝑆𝑛 → 𝑆𝑛 +2 + 2𝑒 −
At Cathode
Sn+2 ions of the solution migrate to cathode where they get deposited.
The process of electrolysis remain continue until the required amount of tin deposited on
metal sheet.
𝑆𝑛 +2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑆𝑛

Significance of tin plating
Tin plating is used extensively in making.
(i) Fruit juice can oil and Ghee container etc.
(ii) Utensils of Brass and copper for domestic and commercial use.
SILVERING OF MIRROR
“The coating of a thin layer of pure silver on a transparent
glass plate is known as silvering of mirror”.
There are two common techniques for making mirrors.
Amalgamation Technique
This is an old technique in which molten “Tin-mercury alloy” is put on transparent
glass sheet, spread it by roller and make a thin smooth layer.
Liebig Technique
Presently, mirror are made chemically by using Liebig technique. This technique is
based on reduction of silver ammine complex into metallic silver by using a reducing gent
such as aldehyde.
𝑅 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 2[𝐴𝑔(𝑁𝐻3 )2 ]𝑂𝐻 → 𝑅 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐴𝑔 + 4𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Procedure of making mirror
(i) Preparation of Tollen’s solution (mild oxidizing agent)
Put some AgNO3 is distilled water, add liquid ammonia drop by drop with constant
heating and stirring. It first change into white of silver hydroxide but then redissolved
into a clear solution of silver ammine complex, which is also known as Tollen’s
solution.
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝐻4 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐴𝑔𝑂𝐻 ↓ +𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3
(white ppt)
(𝑝𝑝𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑)
𝐴𝑔𝑂𝐻 + 2𝑁𝐻4 𝑜𝐻 → [𝐴𝑔(𝑁𝐻3 )2 ]𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) Preparation of Glucose solution (Reducing agnet)

Take some glucose in a breaker containing distilled water mixed well to make a clear
solution.
Glucose can be replaced by sodium potassium tartarate solution (Ruchle salt) which is
also work as reducing agent in silvering of mirror.
(iii) Preparation of Silver paste
Put glucose solution in Tollen’s reagent and mixed with continuous shaking till the
Tollen reagent reduces to metallic silver.

(iv) Mirror making
Take a clean and transparent glass sheet and pour the silver paste immediately on the
middle of glass sheet. Now spread by using roller until a smooth thin and continuous film of
silver is formed. Finally spray a coat of chrome red to protect silver layer.
POTASSIUM CHROMATE (K2CrO4)

It is a lemon yellow crystalline solid, highly soluble in water and gives a yellow
coloured solution.
It can be prepared by the following methods.
(i) From Natural Chromite

4[𝐹𝑒𝑂. 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 ] + 8𝐾2 𝐶𝑂3 + 7𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 8𝐾2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 8𝐶𝑂2
(ii) From Chromium Oxide

𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3 + 10𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 3𝐵𝑟2 → 2𝐾2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 6𝐾𝐵𝑟 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
POTASSIUM CHROMATE (K2Cr2O7)

It is an orange red crystalline solid, sparingly soluble in water and considered to be a
powerful oxidizing agent.
It is prepared by the following methods.
(i) From Potassium Chromate
Potassium chromate (yellow) can be converted into potassium dichromate (red) by
adding H2SO4.
2𝐾2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 𝐾2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) From Sodium Dichromate
𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 2𝐾𝐶𝑙 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7
Chemical Reactivity
(i) 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻 → 2𝐾2 𝐶𝑟𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(ii) 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 4𝐾𝐶𝑙 + 6𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 6𝐾𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐶𝑟𝑂2 𝐶𝑙2 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
(iii) 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 2𝐾𝐻𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐶𝑟𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE (KMnO4)

It is a dark purple crystalline solid, which gives deep pink or purple colour when
dissolved in water.
Preparation
On large scale, it is prepared by the fusion of MnO2 with KOH in the presence of air
to give green coloured K2MnO4.
2𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 4𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐾2 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

Potassium mangnate (K2MnO4) is then treated with Cl2 or water to give KMnO4.
𝐾2 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 2𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 2𝐾𝐶𝑙
2𝐾2 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2
Working of KMnO4 in acidic, basic and neutral medium

(i) In acid solution MnO-4 ion accept five electrons to form Mn+2.
𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 5𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛+2
(Purple) (Colourless)
(ii) In basic and neutral medium it accept 3 electrons and form MnO2.
𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 3𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛𝑂2
(Purple) (Brown)
Reactions of KMnO4 in acidic medium
𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 5𝐹𝑒 +2 + 8𝐻+ → 𝑀𝑛 +2 + 5𝐹𝑒 +3 + 4𝐻2 𝑂
2𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 5𝑁𝑂2− + 6𝐻+ → 2𝑀𝑛 +2 + 5𝑁𝑂3− + 3𝐻2 𝑂
2𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 5𝐻2 𝐶2 𝑂4 + 6𝐻+ → 2𝑀𝑛 +2 + 10𝐶𝑂2 + 8𝐻2 𝑂
2𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 5𝐻2 𝑂2 + 6𝐻+ → 2𝑀𝑛 +2 + 5𝑂2 + 8𝐻2 𝑂
2𝑀𝑛𝑂4− + 10𝐾𝐼 + 16𝐻+ → 2𝑀𝑛 +2 + 10𝐾 + + 5𝐼2 + 8𝐻2 𝑂
Reaction of KMnO4 in alkaline medium

In alkaline or neutral solution, it reduces into MnO2 by gaining free electrons.
𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
2𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐾𝐼 → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 2𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 𝐾𝐼𝑂3
Reaction of KMnO4 in neutral medium
𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
2𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 3𝐻2 𝑂2 → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻 + 2𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 3𝑂2 +2𝐻2 𝑂
COPPER SULPHATE
Copper sulphate is mostly exists in pentahydrated form and known as “Blue vitriol”
or “Neela Thatha”.
Preparation
𝐶𝑢𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Chemical Properties
(i) Action of Heat
Blue vitriol when heated at 2300C, it loses molecules of water of crystallization and
changes into colourless anhydrous CuSO4.
230𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 5𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
(Blue) (colourless)

(ii) Reaction with Potassium Iodide
When heated with potassium iodide, it fives white ppt of cuprous iodide.
2𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 4𝐾𝐼 → 𝐶𝑢2 𝐼2 + 2𝐾2𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐼2
(iii) Reaction with Ammonia
When treated with aqueous ammonia it first gives light blue ppt of Cu(OH) 2, which
then dissolves in excess of ammonia forming deep blue complex.
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑢(𝑂𝐻)2 + (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + 4𝑁𝐻3(𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠) → [𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝐻3 )4 ]𝑆𝑂4
SILVER NITRATE
Preparation
It is prepared by dissolving silver foil in cold dilute solution HNO3.
3𝐴𝑔 + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑑𝑖𝑙) → 3𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑂 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Properties
(i) It is silvery white crystalline solid highly soluble in water and also soluble in some
organic solvent like alcohol.
(ii) It is darken by sun light or contact with organic matter like human gaskin.
(iii) It is poisonous and corrosive. It m.p is 2120C and density is 4.35 g/cm3.
(iv) Silver nitrate is white shiny crystalline solid but severe to skin a cause a painful burn
with a black spot that is why it is often called as lunar caustic.
Reaction of AgNO3
(i) It decomposes to metallic silver when heated at 4500C.
450𝑜 𝐶
2𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 → 2𝐴𝑔 + 2𝑁𝑂2 + 𝑂2
(ii) When treated with ammonia it gives silver amine complex.
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 + 2𝑁𝐻3 → [𝐴𝑔(𝑁𝐻3 )2 ]𝑁𝑂3
(iii) When heated with NaOH, it changes into AgOH which is then converted into brown
ppt of Ag2O.
𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐴𝑔𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
2𝐴𝑔𝑂𝐻 → 𝐴𝑔2 𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Uses
(i) It is used in laboratory for the identification of chloride, bormide and iodide ions.
(ii) It is used in making silver halides for photography.
(iii) It is used in making Tollen’s reagent for the identification of Aldehyde group.
(iv) It is used is silvering of mirror.
(v) It is used in silver plating, hair dyes and ink manufacturing.
(vi) It is used in external medicines as bactericides.
(vii) It is used in silver staining in biology.

M.C.Q’s
1. The transition elements which have partially filled d-orbital are called:
(A) d-block elements (B) f-block elements
(C) p-block elements (D) s-block elements
2. The elements which have partially filled f-orbital are called:
(A) Outer transition elements (B) Inner transition elements
(C) Main transition elements (D) None of the above
3. The first transition element present in first series of d-block is:
(A) Scandium, Sc (B) Zinc, Zn
(C) Chromium, Cr (D) Nickel, Ni
4. Which of the following is not the ore of copper:
(A) Chalcocite pyrite (B) Cuprite
(C) Malachite (D) Blue Vitriol
5. Transition elements form complexes very readily because of:
(A) Small cation size. (B) Vacant d-orbital
(C) Large nuclear charge (D) All the above factors
6. Transition metals are often paramagnetic because of:
(A) The presence of vacant orbital (B) The presence of unpaired electron
(C) Malleability and ductility (D) High M.P. and B.P.
7. Which of the following is diamagnetic:
(A) Cu2+ (B) Zn2+ (C) Ni2+ (D) Co2+
8. The formula of hematite is:
(A) Fe2O4 (B) Fe2O3 (C) FeCO3 (D) FeS2
9. Iron obtained from blast furnace is known as:
(A) Cast iron (B) Wrought iron (C) Pig iron (D) Steel
10. Bessemer’s Converter is used in the manufacture of:
(A) Cast iron (B) Pig iron (C) Wrought iron (D) Steel
11. Which of the following statements is false.
(A) Rusting of iron can be prevented by CO2
(B) Rusting of iron takes place in moist air
(C) Rusting of iron is a chemical process
(D) Rusting of iron produces hydrated ferric oxide
12. The most durable metal plating on iron to protect against corrosion is:
(A)Tin plating (B)Zinc plating (C)Copper plating (D)Nickel plating
13. Oxidation number of Fe in K3Fe (CN6)is:
(A) +1 (B) +2 (C) +3 (D) +4
14. The colour of Fe2+ ion is:
(A) Blue (B) Light green (C) Yellow (D) Brown
15. Mohr’s salt is:
(A) (NH4)2SO4 .FeSO4 .6H2O (B) A12(SO4)3 .K2SO4-24H2O
(C) FeSO4 .7H2O (D) CuSO4 .5H2O
16. Blue Vitriol is:
(A) CoC12 (B) CuSO4 .5H2O
(C) FeSO4 .7H2O (D) ZnSO4
17. The method used in the concentration of copper ore is:
(A) Gravity separation method (B) Froth floatation method
(C) Amalgamation process (D) All of the above

18. FeSO4 .7H2O is also known as:
(A) Blue Vitriol (B) Green Vitriol
(C) White Vitriol (D) Mohr’s Salt
19. Oxidation number of Cr in the complex [Cr (H2O)4 C12] is:
(A) +3 (B) +2 (C) +1 (D) +6
20. Cobalt, nickel and iron of first transition series can be magnetized hence they are
called:
(A) Paramagnetic. (B) Diamagnetic
(C) Ferromagnetic (D) None of the above
21. The following represents the main reaction occurring when dilute HNO3 is added
to Cu turnings, X Cu + YHNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
The value of X and Y are:
(A) 1, 4 (B) 3, 8 (C) 5, 6 (D) 7, 1
22. d-block elements generally form:
(A) Covalent hydrides (B) Complex hydrides
(C) Interstitial hydrides (D) Salt like hydrides
23. On heating crystals of copper sulphate become white. This is because:
(A) White anhydrous copper sulphate is formed
(B) There is a change in crystalline structure
(C) Copper sulphide is formed
(D) Copper is formed which is oxidized to Copper oxide
24. The undesirable impurities in the mineral are called:
(A) Flux (B) Gangue (C) Slag (D) Alloy
25. A substance used in smelting metals to react with silicates and other impurities
to convert into fusible mass is called:
(A) Ore (B) Flux (C) Gangue (D) Slag
26. A fusible mass of oxides produced in the smelting of metals is called:
(A) Flux (B) Slag
(C) Gangue (D) None of the above
27. The natural material in which the metallic compounds occurs in the earth crust
is known as:
(A) Ore (B) Mineral (C) Flux (D) Gangue
28. Which occurs in nature in a free state:
(A) Fe (B) Cu (C) Al (D) Pt
29. The process of extracting a metal in pure form from its ore is known:
(A) Metallurgy (B) Extraction (C) Smelting (D) Dressing of ore
30. The extraction of Pig iron is carried out in:
(A) Blast furnace (B) Reverberatory furnace
(C) Heroult’s electric furnace (D) Bessemer’s furnace
31. The chief ore of copper is:
(A) Cuprite (B) Malachite (C) Azurite (D) Copper Pyrite
32. Crude form of copper obtained by Bessemerization has blisters on its surface due to:
(A) Carbon dioxide (B) Water vapours
(C) Impurities present in copper (D) Sulphur dioxide
33. Which of the following elements has highest electrical conductivity?
(A) Zn (B) Fe (C) Cu (D) Ag
34. The substance added to ores to remove the impurities is called:
(A) Flux (B) Catalyst (C) Gangue (D) Slag
35. The substance used in t he extraction of iron from heamatite in t he blast furnace is:
(A) Calcium phosphate (B) Limestone (C) Silica (D) Common salt

36. Which one of the following does not belong to d-block elements?
(A) Cu (B) Cr (C) Co (D) Ca
37. The Matte is an impure substance of:
(A) Iron (B) Aluminum (C) Copper (D) Zinc
38. The purest form of iron is:
(A) Cast iron (B) Wrought iron (C) Hard steel (D) Stainless
steel
39. Which of the following metals is extracted by reduction process?
(A) Cu (B) Fe (C) A1 (D) None of the above
40. IUPAC name of [Ni(CO)4]:
(A) Nickel Carbonyl (B) Tetra carbonyl Nickel
(C) Tetra Carbonyl Nickel (D) None of the above
41. Copper sulphate is commonly known as:
(A) Green Vitriol (B) White Vitriol
(C) Blue Vitriol (D) None of the above
42. Which of the following can be used as disinfectant for the purification of water:
(A) Copper sulphate (B) Potassium dichromate
(C) Potassium permaganate (D) Silver nitrate
43. Lunar caustic means:
(A) NaOH (B) AgNO3
(C) Na2CO3 (D) K2Cr2O7
44. For the detection of halide ions in laboratory, we use:
(A) AgNO3 (B) CuSO4
(C) K2Cr2O7 (D) KMnO4
45. One of the most important ways of protection of a metal from corrosion is:
(A) Alloying (B) Electroplating
(C) Galvanizing (D) Coating with non-metallic materials
46. Photographic films and plates have an essential coating of:
(A) Silver nitrate (B) Sodium bromide
(C) Silver bromide (D) None of the above
47. Which is most reactive metal:
(A) Fe (B) Pt (C) Ni (D) Co
ANSWER KEYS
01. A 11. A 21. B 31. D 41. C
02. B 12. B 22. C 32. D 42. C
03. A 13. C 23. A 33. D 43. B
04. D 14. B 24. B 34. A 44. A
05. D 15. A 25. B 35. B 45. A
06. B 16. B 26. B 36. D 46. C
07. B 17. D 27. B 37. C 47. A
08. B 18. B 28. D 38. B
09. C 19. A 29. A 39. B
10. D 20. C 30. A 40. C

INTRODUCTION TO
6 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Compounds that contain the element “carbon” are known as organic compounds and
the study of the structures, properties and reactions of the compound of carbon and their
derivatives is called as organic chemistry.
VITAL FORCE THEORY
Berzelios a Swedish chemicst postulated that organic compounds was those obtained
from vegetable and animals sources that is form material produced by living organisms such
as sugar, urea, etc. and it was thought that:
“Organic compounds only be produced in the
living beings and a vital force (vital, life) which is present
in living cells involve for their syntheses”.
This theory was, however rejected by German chemist Wohler who prepared on
organic compound “urea” by inorganic material ammonium cyanate.
WOHLER UREA SYNTHESIS
In 1828 Wohler, a German chemist prepared on organic compound “urea” in the
laboratory by heating inorganic material “ammonium cyanate”.
Heat
NH4OCN NH2-CO-NH2
{Ammonium Cyanide) (Urea)
Urea is a typical organic compound and it is excreted through urine during the process
of metabolism. Synthesis of urea rejected the concept of Vital force theory.
Since the synthesis of urea from ammonium cyanate, millions of organic compounds
have been prepared and analysed. All of these contain carbon as an essential element. Apart
from carbon, organic compounds also contain hydrogen oxygen nitrogen sulphur and
halogen.
Organic Chemistry as a Separate Branch
Organic chemistry is treated as a separate branch chemistry because of the two unique
properties of carbon i.e. “tetra valent nature” and “catenation” which lead to vast number of
cyclic, acyclic, straight chain, branch chain, aliphatic and aromatic compounds.
Some compounds are not included in organic chemistry
Although organic compound are identified by the presence of carbon in their
molecule, few compounds e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide carbonate, bi-carbonates,
carbides, cyanides etc does not fit in the family of organic compounds because of the
following facts.

• Organic compounds are classified on the basis of typical functional groups but,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonate, bi-carbonate etc do not resemble with
any functional group.
• Each class of organic compounds has specific reaction but the reaction of carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbonate, bi-carbonate are totally different (except
combustion reaction).
• Carbonate and bi-carbonate contain ionic bond which is not found in organic
compound.
Significance of Organic Compounds
Organic chemistry is associated with nearly every aspect of our life and we are living
in the age of organic chemistry, for example.
(i) All the chemical reactions taking place in living systems are organic nature
because they involves life molecules such as protein, enzymes carbohydrates,
nuclei acid lipids vitamins etc.
(ii) Essential natural products such as plastic, rubber, fertilizers, fiber etc are organic
compounds.
(iii) Most of the synthetic products such as paints, varnish, pesticides preservatives, are
organic compounds.
(iv) Most of the medicine are organic compounds.
Ability to Catenate
“The linkage of atoms of the same element into
longer chain is known as catenation”.
Catenation is the pet property of carbon. In many organic compound carbon atoms
linked to each other and form long chain, branch chain or ring structures.
The reasons why this self-linkage property is associated to carbon is
(i) Carbon is tetravalent, it may form four covalent bond with other carbons in
different combination thus generate chain like structure.
(ii) Carbon has smaller atomic size therefore its linkage with other carbons is stable.
Silicon is also tetravalent but due to bigger atomic size it is unable to catenate.
Although earth crust contains only 0.027% carbon, millions of organic compounds are
known because of this self-linkage ability of carbon.
Ability to form four covalent bond
Carbon has the electronic configuration 1s2, 2s2, 2px1, 2py1.
With this configuration, carbon appears to be divalent.
Kekule assumed that one electron rom 2s orbital is exited to 2pz orbital giving the electronic
configuration as:
1s2, 2s1, 2px1, 2py1, 2pz1

With this excited configuration carbon is tetravalent and has ability to form four strong
covalent bonds.
Classification of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are mainly classified into two major groups.
(i) Open Chain Compound (Acyclic Compounds)
These compounds have an open chain system of carbon atoms. The chain may either
straight or branched.
CH3
CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH3 |
(Straight chain compound) CH 3 − CH − CH3
(n − Butane) (𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑)
(𝑖𝑠𝑜 − 𝐵𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒)
Open chain compound are also called “Aliphatic Compounds”.
The name aliphatic is derived from the Greek word “Aleiphar” meaning fats, as earlier
known compounds of this class were obtained from animal fats.
(ii) Closed Chain Compound (Cyclic Compounds)

These compounds contain one or more rings of carbon
atoms in the molecule.
These are further classified into following two groups.
Homocyclic Compounds
Ring compounds which consist of carbon atoms only are called homocyclic or
carbocyclic compounds.
These are further classified into Alicyclic and Aromatic compounds.
Alicyclic Compounds
These are ring compounds but resemble
with aliphatic hydrocarbons.
They do not contain benzene ring therefore also called as “non benzenoid compounds”.
They saturated Alicyclic compounds have a general formula CnH2n.
Aromatic Compounds
These are closed chain organic compounds that
contain alternate double bands and resemble with benzene.
These were so named because most of the early discovered
compounds of this class were obtained from balsams
(Aroma fragrant)
Hetero Cyclic Compounds
In these compounds, ring contains one or more
hetero atom for example oxygen, Sulphur or Nitrogen.

SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
A large number of organic compounds have been obtained from animals and plants,
however mineral source of organic compounds are coal, petroleum and natural gas.
(i) Coal
Coal is a major source of organic compounds. It exists in two forms under the surface
of earth.
(i) Bituminous (ii) Anthracite
It is believed that the decaying trees and plants which were burnt under earth surface
millions years ago change into coal by heat and pressure.
The destructive distillation of coal gives the following four products.
(a) Coaltar
Coaltar is a thick black oily liquid. It is a mixture of about 200 organic compounds
which can be separated by using fractional distillation process.
Some useful components of coaltar are benzene, xylene, toluene, naphthalene, phenol
etc.
Benzene which is a unique aromatic compound was first isolated from coaltar (1845)
by Hoffman. Generally 100 kg of Coaltar contain 1kg benzene.
(b) Coal Gas
It is a flammable gaseous fuel and consists of mainly methane and Hz. It is obtained
from earth along with coal. It is also known as town gas because in past it has been
supplied for sale ton consumer as domestic fuel.
(c) Coke
It is grayish solid containing about 80% carbon and used as a fuel and reducing agent.
(d) Ammonia Liquour
It is a concentrated solution of ammonia and other ammonium compounds, it is
obtained as a byproduct in the destructive distillation of coal.

(ii) Natural Gas
“It is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbon (C1-C4)
obtained from earth crust of porous sedimentary area”.
It is mainly consist of methane as along with small amount of ethane propane butane
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. It was discovered in Pakistan at “Sui” in late sixties. Since then
it is called Sui gas in Pakistan.
The exact composition of Sui gas is given as.
Composition of Suigas
Gases %age
Methane 94.6%
Ethane 1.05%
Propane 0.28%
Butane 0.17%
N2 3.88%
CO2 0.02%
Being a cheap source, it is used for power generation, domestic fuel automobile fuel
and for many industries like fertilizers, cement etc.
(iii) Petroleum
Petroleum is a thick black flammable liquid occur naturally deep below the earth crust
and believed to originate from remains of ancients plants and animals millions years ago.
Petroleum is derived from Latin (Petra; Rock) and (oleum; oil).
It may be define as.
“Petroleum is complex mixture of alkanes of the range
C1 to C30 along with some aromatic hydrocarbons”.
Petroleum consist of more than 500 hydrocarbons which are gases liquids and low
melting solids at room temperature. Some most considerable hydrocarbons obtained from
petroleum are gasoline, naphtha, diesel, heavy oil, lubricating oil, wax etc.

REFINING OF PETROLEUM
“It is a chemical process which involves the
fractional distillation of petroleum into useful products
such as Gasoline, Kerosene, Diesel & Naphtha”.
Fractional distillation is the most common separation technique used in petroleum
refining. It involves the separation of various component of crude oil at their different boiling
range. It is performed in a large vertical cylindrical tower known as fractionation tower.
Crude oil is first heated at about 4000C until oil fractions become vaporized and then
force into fraction tower.
Fractional tower is temperature gradient coolest at the top and hottest or the bottom.
There are trays across the tower with holes through which the more volatile hydrocarbons
pass and less volatile hydrocarbons condense and withdraw from the outlets.
Each fractions obtained from specific outlet consist of a mixture of various
hydrocarbon of different boiling range. Heaver fractions obtained from the bottom whereas
lighter fractions obtained on the top.
The detail of fractional distillation of petroleum is given below.
OCTANE RATING
“A measure of the ability of fuel to resist knocking when
ignite in an internal combustion engine is called
as octane number or octane rating”.
Knocking is a sound produces when gasoline ignite in internal combustion engine
without sparking by sparking plug.
Octane number is based on a scale on which iso-octane is arbitrary assigned 100
(minimum knocks) and n-hepane is assigned zero (bad knocks). The higher the octane
number, the greater the fuel resistance to knocks during combustion. The requirement of
octane number is based on compression ratio of engine. The recommended octane rating for
most vehicles is usually 87
The petrol available in Pakistan has a standard octane number 87, however in certain
petrol station “Hi-octane” petrol (octane number 97) is also available.
Causes of Knocking Sound
Long chain and straight chain alkenes have low octane number and considered to be
bad fuel because when mixed with air in internal combustion engine, they ignite on being
compressed before the spark is applied. This pre mature ignition results in uncontrolled
explosions. The energy produced by this premature ignition is not utilized in moving the
piston but produces knocking sound.
Low quality petrol cause the following issues.
(i) Engine will be damage is few years.
(ii) Increased engine noise.
(iii) Poor milage.

(iv) Engine shut down oil its own randomly.
(v) Reduced top speed.
How to upgrade the octane rating of petroleum

Octane number of petroleum can be improved by the following methods.
(i) Lead containing petroleum additives (knock inhibitors)
Since 1920s till recently, small amount of tetra ethyl lead (TEL) has been used as
economical and effective anti-knock additive (knock inhibitor). It helps to prevent the
reaction which cause knocking.
However, it produces certain toxic compounds which are exhausted into atmosphere
and cause pollution.
(ii) Lead free petroleum additives (oxiginates)
To avoid the atmospheric pollution, TEL is replaced by some led free additives which
increases the octane number but their toxicity is very low. These are oxygen
containing fuel for example alcohol, ether etc.
(iii) Reforming of Petroleum
“The process of upgrading of low octane number hydrocarbon of
petroleum (C5 – C10) into high octane petrol is known as reforming”.
Reforming is carried out under high pressure and high temperature using “platinum
catalyst”.
During this process some straight chain hydrocarbon are converted into branch
change (isomerization) while other converted into aromatic hydrocarbon (aromatization).
Since branch chain alkane and aromatic hydrocarbon are much more resistant to
knock and considered as good fuel reforming is preferably used to upgrade the octane number
of petroleum.
n − Pentane Iso – pentane

Reforming
(𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑒)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝. 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡
(𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜 = 62) (𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜 = 93)
n − Octane Reforming Iso – Octane

(𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑒)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜 = 20) (𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜 = 100)
n − Hexane Reforming Benzene

(𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜 = 26) (𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑜 = 101)
CRACKING
“The process of decomposition of long chain hydrocarbons
of petroleum into smaller fragments
thermally or catalytically is known as cracking”.
During the process of cracking, big hydrocarbon molecule is broken down randomly
to produce mixture of smaller hydrocarbons including alkanes and alkenes.
The cracking of decane at specific temperature is illustrated as.
Decane cracking Pentane Propene Ethene

(C10 H22 ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
400 − 800𝑜 𝐶 (C5 H12) + (C3 H6) + (C2 H4 )
Types of Cracking
(i) Thermal Cracking
This type takes place under high temperature (600 -8000C) and high pressure
(700kpa). The fragments produce in thermal cracking is a mixture of are straight chain
alkenes of gasoline range (C5 to C10) and smaller alkenes (C2 to C3).
700𝑜 𝐶 2C2 H4 C3 H6 C8 H18

C15 H22 → + +
(𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒) (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒) (𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒)
Thermal cracking is generally applied for the splitting of relatively smaller chain
hydrocarbon to obtained ethane and ethyne which are very useful raw material of many
chemical industries such as plastics, alcohol, acetone, benzene, toluene, fertilizer, rubber etc.
2C3 H8 700– 800o C C3 H6 C2 H4 CH4 H2

+ + +
(𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Abesence of air (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒) (𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒) (𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛)
(ii) Catalytic Cracking.

It involves the splitting of long chain of alkanes of relatively low temperature in the
presence of a catalyst. The most suitable catalyst in this type of cracking is
Aluminosilicate commonly known as zeolite.
C29 H60 𝑍𝑒𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 C7 H16 C7 H14 C15 H30

+ +
(𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑖𝑙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
500– 550o C (𝐻𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝐻𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒) (𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑒)
Comparison of thermal and catalytic cracking

Catalytic cracking is preferred on thermal cracking because of the following facts.
(i) Most of the fragments in catalytic cracking are alkane of gasoline range (C5 – C8).
(ii) Fragments of catalytic cracking have high octane number because they exists in
branch chain. While in thermal cracking most of the fragments are in straight
chain.
(iii) The rate of catalytic cracking is 1000 time faster than thermal cracking.
Application of Cracking in Petroleum Industry

(i) Gasoline Production
In the refining of petroleum, only 20% gasoline is obtained. The additional quantity of
petrol is obtain by cracking of higher boiling fractions such as kerosene, naphtha,
heavy oil etc.
(ii) Petrochemical Production
Beside the increase of percent yield of petrol, another advantage of cracking is to
obtained ethylene and propylene which are called as petro chemicals (by products).
These are used as a raw material of the synthesis of various organic compounds like
plastics, ethanol, acetone, benzene, toluene etc.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
“It is an atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule
that describe its chemistry”.
Functional group is an active part of organic compound. It makes the molecule unique
in respect of its structural and chemical properties.
Characteristics of Functional Group

(i) Each functional group undergoes a specific reaction. Hence by recognizing
functional group in a molecule, one can predict the type of reaction.
(ii) It serves as basis to classify organic compounds.
(iii) It serves as basis for nomenclature of organic compound.
Following is a list of some common function groups along with their structures.
Functional gp Type formula Structure

O
Aldehydes R – CHO ||
R−C− H
O
Ketones R – CO – R ||
R−C− R
O
Carboxylic acids R – COOH ||
R − C − OH
O
Esters R – COO – R ||
R − C − OR
Ethers R–O–R R–O–R
Alcohols R – OH R – OH
Alkyl halides R–X R–X
Amines R – NH2 R – NH2

Alkenes >C = C< >C = C<
Alkynes –C = C– –C = C–
O
Amides R – CO – NH2 ||
R − C − NH2
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
“It is a series of organic compounds having same structural feature but
differ from each other by the numbers of – CH2 – (methylene) group”.
Consider the following compounds.
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – OH
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 –OH
CH3 – CH2 – OH
The above compounds have the same structural features with respect to the functional
group, but the difference among them is the number – CH2 –group, therefore these belong to
the same homologous series and are homologous to each other.
Characteristics Features of Homologous Series

(i) Gasoline Production
The composition of the members of a homologous series can be represented by a
general formula example.
Homologous Series General Formula
Alkanes CnH2n+2
Alkenes CnH2n
Alkyne CnH2n-2
Alcohol CnH2n+1..OH
Alkyl halide CnH2n+1 .. X
Amine CnH2n+1 .. NH2
Carboxylic acid CnH2n+2 COOH
Ether CnH2n + 20
Aldehyde CnH2n O
Ketone CnH2n O
(ii) Family name

Each homologous series has a specific name based on functional group present in the
molecule.

Homologous Series Functional Group
Alkenes C=C
Alkyne C=C
Alcohol R – OH
Amine R – NH2
Alkyl Halide R–X
Aldehyde R – CHO
Carboxylic Acid R – COOH
(iii) Mass Difference

Successive members of a homologous series always differ by -CH2- group hence
molecular mass in each homologous series increases by 14.
Alkane Family Molecular Mass Mass Difference Methylene Difference
CH4 16 - -
C2H6 30 30 – 16 = 14 C2H6 – CH4 = CH2
C3H8 44 44 – 30 = 14 C3H8 – C2H6 = CH2
C4H10 58 58 – 44 = 14 C4H10 – C3H8 = CH2
C5H12 72 72 – 58 = 14 C5H12 – C4H10 = CH2
(iv) Method of Preparation
All the members of a homologous series have almost the same general methods of
preparation.
e.g. members of alkanes family can be prepared by: Reduction of alkyl halide.
(v) Chemical Properties
Members of a homologous series almost similar chemical properties. For example all
members of alkane family burns in air to form CO2 and H2O.
(vi) Physical Properties
The physical properties of the members of a homologous series show a gradual
change with the increase number of CH2 group.
For example.
▪ Melting Point and Boiling Point increases.
▪ Solubility in water decreases.
▪ Physical state becomes denser.
ISOMERISM
“Different compounds that have the same molecular formula are

called isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism”.
The term “isomer” is derived from (iso ; same) and (mer ; unit ); as they have same
units that is molecular formula or molecular mass but differ in structure or stereochemistry.
Structural Isomerism
Structural have some molecular formula but different structure and further classified
into following four types.
(i) Chain or Skeleton isomers
“Organic compounds which have same molecular formula but differ in
their structure with respect to carbon chain are called as chain isomers”.
For example pentane (C4H10) exist in two chain isomeric structures.
CH3
CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH3 |
(Straight chain compound) CH3 − CH − CH3
(n − Butane) (𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑)
(𝑖𝑠𝑜 − 𝐵𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒)
(ii) Position Isomerism
“Organic Compounds which have same molecular formula, but differ in the
position of functional group in the carbon chain are called position isomer”.
For example propanol (C3H7OH) represents the following two position isomers.
OH
CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − OH
|
(1 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 CH3 − CH − CH3
2 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
Xylene exists in the following three position isomers.
(iii) Functional Group Isomerism

“Compounds having the same molecular formula but with

different functional group, are called functional isomers”.
For example
(i) Di methyl ether and ethyl alcohol both have the same molecular formula (C 2H6O)
but belong to two different class of compounds.
CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH2 − OH CH3 − CH2 − O − CH2 − CH3

(Butyl alcohol) (diethylether)
(ii) Propanol and acetone both have the same molecular formula (C3H6O) but one has
aldehydic group (-CHO) and other has ketonic group ( = O )
CH3 − CH2 − CHO CH3 − CO − CH3

(Propanal) (Propanone)
(iii) Propionic acid and methyl acetate both have some molecule formula (C 3H6O2) but
one is carboxylic acid and other is ester.
CH3 − COO − CH3

CH3 − CH2 − COOH
(Methyl acetate)
(Propionic acid)
(iv) Metamerism
“Compounds which have the same functional groups but
consist of different alkyl radicals on multivalent atom”.
For example
Diethyl ether and methyl propyl ether both having the same functional group but metameres
to each other.
C3 H7 − O − CH3 C2 H5 − O − C2 H5
(Propyl ethylether) (Diethyl ether)
POLYMERIZATION
“The process in which many smaller molecules (monomer) join
together to form a single large molecule is called as polymerization”.
Polymer is a giant molecule obtained by intermolecular combination of large number

of smaller molecules of the same or different type (poly; many and mer; unit).
Polymers are of various types based on their structure, source and density.
Biopolymers It occur naturally like protein starch cellulose

Synthesis polymers It is synthesized by chemical reaction

Homopolymers It is formed by only one type of monomer
Copolymers It is formed by two different kinds of monomer
Linear polymer It is a straight chain polymer
Branch chain polymer It has side chain attached to the linear chain
Type of Synthetic Polymers

Synthetic polymers are classified into addition condensation polymers.
Addition Polymers
“These polymers are formed by the union of
monomers containing double or triple bond”.
The joining of monomer takes place in head – tail or head – head arrangement in
which catalyst add on monomer to yield an intermediate which then reacts with another
monomer to yield a new intermediate and so on. This is called as chain growth
polymerization.
The empirical formula of addition polymer is same as that of its monomer, however it
has high molecular mass.
Examples of some addition polymers are given below.
Monomers Addition Polymer
CH2 = CH2 (–CH2– CH2–)n
Ethylene Polyethylene
CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH–
| ( | )
Cl Cl n
Vinyl Chloride Poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
Condensation polymers
“These polymer are formed by consideration of
monomers having the same or different functional group
with the elimination of small molecule like H2O”.
Empirical formula and molecular mass of condensation polymer are quite different
from its monomers.
Example of some condensation polymer are given below.
M.C.Q’s

1. The Chemistry of carbon compounds is known as:
(A) Biochemistry (B) Inorganic chemistry
(C) Organic chemistry (D) None of the above
2. First organic compound synthesized in t he laboratory was:
(A) Citric acid (B) Acetic acid
(C) Urea (D) Glucose
3. Name the scientist who first synthesized an organic compound in the laboratory:
(A) Friedrich Wohler (B) Von Leibig
(C) G.N. Lewis (D) Victor Grignard
4. Organic compounds are studied separately from inorganic compounds because:
(A) Organic molecules are essentially made up of carbon atoms joined covalently
with one another
(B) Organic compounds are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents
(C) Organic reactions are molecular in nature and are slow and complicated
(D) All the factors mentioned above.
5 Petroleum is refined
(A) Steam distillation (B) Vacuum distillation
(C) Fractional distillation (D) By passing over activated charcoal
6. Which of the following is a good source of organic compounds:
(A) Coal gas (B) Coal tar
(C) Coke (D) None of the above
7. The thermal decomposition of organic compounds in the absence of air is called:
(A) Combustion (B) Pryolysis
(C) Polymerization (D) Synthesis
8. In petroleum industry the thermal decomposition of alkanes or paraffins is
known as:
(A) Pyrolysis (B) Cracking
(C) Combustion (D) None of the above
9. Nitrogen present in an organic compound is detected in laboratory
(A) Liebig’s method (B) Duma’s method
(C) kjeldhl’s method (D) Lassaigne’s method
10. The percentage of nitrogen in an organic compound can be estimated by;
(A) Liebig’s method (B) Lassaigne’s method
(C) Kjeldahl’s method (D) None of the above
11. What are the important sources of organic compounds:
(A) Plants (B) Animal
(C) Coal tar, natural gas, petroleum (D) All of the above
12. The process of distillation is employed for the purification of liquids from:
(A) Volatile impurities (B) Non volatile impurities
(C) Insoluble impurities (D) All kinds of impurities
13. Which element is the essential constituent of organic compounds:
(A) S (B) H (C) N (D) S
14. What is the chemical formula of Prussian Blue:
(A) Fe3[Fe (CN)6]4 (B) Fe4[Fe (CN)6]3
(C) Fe2(Fe (CN)6]3 (D) None of the above
15. The IUPAC name of the compound CH2= CH ⎯ C  CH is:

(A) 1-butene-3-yne (B) 3-butene-1-yne
(C) but-3-ene-1-yne (D) None of the above

16. The revolutionary discovery which over threw the Vital force theory was:
(A) Extraction of acetic acid from vinegar
(B) Extraction of sugar from sugar cane
(C) Fermentation of sugar
(D) Wohler’s synthesis of urea from NH4CNO
17. Most of the hydrocarbons from petroleum are obtained
(A) Cracking (B) Pyrolysis
(C) Fractional distillation (D) Destructive distillation
18. When petroleum is heated gradually at 20-60°C, the batch of vapours evolved will
be rich in:
(A) Petroleum ether (B) Kerosene
(C) Lubricating oil (D) Paraffin wax
19. Organic compounds are very large in number because of:
(A) Tetravalency of carbon (B) Catenation.
(C) Ability of C to form multiple bond (D) All the factors mentioned above
20. Coal tar is obtained as a by product during destructive distillation of:
(A) Coal (B) Wood (C) Bones (D) Coke
21. The linking of two or more molecules of a substance to form a large single
molecule is called:
(A) Fusion (B) Synthesis
(C) Polymerization (D) Polymorphism
22. All such organic compounds having open chain structure of carbon are called:
(A) Aromatic (B) Aliphatic
(C) Alicylic (D) None of the above
23. Closed chain compounds in which ring is made up of carbon atom along with
some other atom are called:
(A) Homocyclic (B) Carbocyclic (C) Heterocyclic (D) Alicyclic
24. All closed chain compounds possessing a hexagonal ring of six carbon atoms are
called:
(A) Aliphatic compounds (B) Aromatic compounds
(C) Carbocyclic compounds (D) None of the above
25. Pentane (C5H12) has got:
(A) No isomer (B) Two isomers (C) Three isomers (D)Five isomers
26. Kerosene is composed of hydrocarbons containing how many carbon atoms:
(A) C1-C4 (B) C5-C8 (C) C6-C10 (D) C10-C12
27. Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) can be made by polymerization of:
(A) CH2 – CH2 (B) CH3 – CH = CH2
(C) CH2 = CH – CL (D) None of the above
28. The empirical formula of a compound is CH2O. Its molecular mass is 180. The
molecular formula of the compound is:
(A) C3H6O3 (B) C6H12O6 (C) C5H10O5 (D) C2H4O2
29. The existence of two or more chemical compounds with same molecular
formulae but different structural formulae is called:
(A) Structural isomerism (B) Optical isomerism.
(C) Cis-trans isomerism (D) None of the above
30. Ethanol and methoxy methane (dimethyl ether) can be represented by the same
molecular formula:
(A) C2H5OH (B) C2H6O (C) CH3 - CH3 (D) C3H8O

31. A homologue differs from its next higher or previous lower homologue in
molecular masses.
(A) 12 (B) 14 (C) 16 (D) 18
32. General formula of alkanes is:
(A) CnH2n (B) CnH2n+2 (C) CnH2n-2
33. A group of atoms in a compound that is responsible for the characteristic
reactions is called:
(A) Reactive group (B) Electrophilic group
(C) Nucleophilic group (D) Functional group
34. Which of the following are devoid of any functional group:
(A) Alkanes (B) Alkenes (C) Alkynes (D) None of
the above
35. ⎯ X is the functional group of:
(A) Alcohols (B) Alkyl (C) Alkane (D) halide
36. ⎯ OH is the functional group of:
(A) Alkyl halides (B) Alcohols (C) Phenols (D) Both
Alcohols and Phenols
37. Olefinic double bond is the functional group of:
the above
38. ⎯ C  C ⎯ is the functional group of:
the above
39. Compounds, which have same composition but differ in structural formulae:
(A) are called polymers (B) are called isomers
(C) are called homologue (D) are called homologue
40. The first ad simplest alkane is:
(A) Ethane (B) Methane (C) Propane (D) C2H2
41. Which of the following is a Ketone:
(A) CH3⎯ O ⎯ CH3 (B) CH3⎯ CHO
(C) C2H5⎯ CO ⎯ C2H5 (D) CH3⎯ COOH
42. Three molecules of ethyne polymerizes in the presence of catalyst to form:
(A) Polyethylene (B) Polypropylene (C) Benzen
(D) None of the aboves
43. C6H14 is the formula of:
(A) Hexene (B) Hexan (C) Hexyne (D) None of
the above
44. A homologue differs from the proceding member
(A) CH (B) CH2 (C) CH3 (D) None of
the above
45. Alkynes have the general formula:
(A) CnH2n + 2 (B) CnH2n (C) CnH2n - 2 (D) CnH2n - 6
46. Which of t he following is a hetrocyclic compound:
(A) Benzene (B) Pyridene (C) Toluene
(D) Chlorobenzene
47. Which of the following statement is correct about homologue:

(A) The molecular mass of each homologue differs by 14.
(B) Homologues differs in their physical properties.

(C) Homologues have the same functional group in them.
(D) All of the above.
48. The IUPAC name of CH3⎯ O ⎯ C2H5 is:
(A) Ethoxy ethane (B) Methoxy ethane
(C) Methyl ethyl et her (D) Ethyl methyl ether
49. The IUPAC name of the compound CH2= CH ⎯ CH(CH3)2 is:
(A) 2-vinyl Propane (B) 3-methyl-1-butene
(C) 1, 1-dimethyl-2-propene (D) 1-isopropyl ethylene
ANSWER KEYS
01. C 11. D 21. C 31. B 41. C
02. C 12. B 22. B 32. B 42. C
03. A 13. C 23. C 33. D 43. B
04. D 14. B 24. B 34. A 44. B
05. C 15. A 25. C 35. B 45. C
06. B 16. D 26. D 36. D 46. B
07. B 17. C 27. C 37. B 47. D
08. B 18. A 28. B 38. C 48. B
09. D 19. D 29. A 39. B 49. B
10. C 20. A 30. B 40. B

CHEMISTRY OF
7 HYDROCARBONS
Compounds which consist of carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons
Based upon the nature of bond, structure and reactivity, these are classified into two
main categories i.e. aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons. The aliphatic hydrocarbons are
further classified into saturated and unsaturated.
SATURATED HYDROCARBONS UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

In these hydrocarbons, all the carbon atoms In these hydrocarbons one or more double or
are bonded to each other by single bond only. triple bonds are present the carbon chain.
These are called alkanes for an open chain Alkenes and alkynes are considered as
and cyclo alkanes for a close chain. unsaturated or chain hydrocarbons.
The reason they are called saturated The reason theya re called unsaturated
hydrocarbon is that all carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon atoms have not utilized the full
molecule are bonded to each other by single combining capacity with hydrogen due to
bond only. double or triple bond.
These are non-polar and chemically less These are chemically reactive or undergoes
reactive. addition reactions.
These compounds do not decolorize KMnO 4 These compounds have tendency decolorize
and bromine water. KMnO4 and Bromine water.
Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Alkane CnH2n+2 Alkene CnH2n Alkyne CnH2n-
Methane CH4 Ethene C2H4 Ethyne C2H2
Ethane C2H6 Propene C3H6 Propyne C3H4
Propane C3H8 Butane C4H8 Butyne C4H6
Butane C4H10 Pentene C5H10 Pentyne C5H8
Pentane C4H12 Hexane C6H12 Hexyne C6H10
Hexane C6H14 Heptane C7H14 Heptyne C7H12
Heptane C7H16 Octane C8H14 Octyne C8H14
Octane C8H18 Nonene C7H16 Nonyne C9H16
Nonane C9H20 Decene C9H18 Decyne C10H18
Decane C10H22

CHEMISTRY OF METHANE
Occurrence
It is the first member of alkane family. It is mostly found in Marshy places therefore,
it is also named as “Marsh Gas” It is found about 94% in natural gas and is to a constituent of
coal gas.
ORBITAL STRUCTURE
Types of Hybridization
Carbon atom of methane is sp3 hybridized and consist of four sp3 orbitals.
Geometry of Molecule
These sp3 orbitals are arranged in space
in such a way that their axis are directed towards
the corner of regular tetrahedron at an angle of
109.50.
Sigma Bonding
These SP3 orbitals of carbon overlap
with S-orbitals of hydrogen to form four carbon-
hydrogen sigma bonds.
Bond length (C-H) = 1.1 A0
Bond angle (H-C-H) = 109.50
METHODS OF PREPARATION
By the Reduction of Methyl Iodide
When methyl iodide is treated with H2 in the presence of “Pd” (catalyst), methane gas
is produced.
𝑃𝑑
CH3 I + H2 → CH4 + HI
Zn/HCl can also be used instead of “Pd” which liberates nascent hydrogen. This nascent
hydrogen readily with methyl iodide to produce methane.
CH3 I + 2[H] ⎯⎯→

Zn
CH4 + HI
Hcl
Hydrolysis of Methyl Magnesium Iodide

Methyl Magnesium Iodide is highly polar and reactive chemical, commonly called as
“Grignard reagent”. It on treating with water gives methane.
CH3 MgI + HOH → CH4 + HOMgI

Decarboxylation of Sodium acetate
When the sodium salt of acetic acid is heated with soda lime (NaOH +CaO), methane gas is
formed.
CaO
CH3 COONa + NaOH → CH4 + Na2 CO3
Physical Properties
(i) It is colourless, odourless and nonpoisonous gas.
(ii) It is less soluble in water due to its non-polar nature.
(iii) It is lighter and less denser than air and water.
FREE RADICAL REACTION IN METHANE

Methane reacts with Cl2 in sunlight or at high temperature (3000C-4000C) yielding
chloromethane.
sunlight
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + HCl
The reaction does not stop at this stage and further chlorination occurs since all the
hydrogen atoms are replaced by chlorine.
𝐶H3 Cl + Cl2 → CH2 Cl2 + HCl
CH2 Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl
Mechanism
The mechanism of free radical reaction in methane consist of the following three steps.
(i) Chain Initiation

Cl2 molecule undergoes homolytic fission to give chlorine free radicals.
light
Cl ∶ + Cl → ∙ Cl + ∙ Cl
The energy for this cleavage is supplied by light or by heating under high
temperature.
(ii) Chain Propagation
(a) Chlorine free radical attacks on methane molecule to produce methyl from radical.
Cl ∙ + H ∶ CH3 → ∙ CH3 + ∙ HCl
(b) Methyl free radical attacks on another Cl2 molecules to give methyl chloride.
H3 C ∙ + Cl ∶ Cl → ∙ H3 C ∶ Cl + Cl ∙
(iii) Chain Termination
The above reaction comes to an end when the free radicals combine themselves.
∙ Cl + ∙ Cl → Cl2

Mitations
The reaction is suitable for CH4 while higher alkane for example ethane gives more
product due to.
(a) Six Hydrogen atoms in ethane than four in methane.
(b) Isomerism may possibly occur.
This reaction is specific for chlorine however bromine can also be reacted but less
readily.
This is a photochemical reaction and occurs in sunlight or at high temperature.
CHEMISTRY OF ETHANE
Is the second member of alkane family? It occurs in natural gas, and coal gases etc.
ORBITAL STRUCTURE
Hybridization and Geometry
Each, carbon in ethane is SP3 hybridized and consists of four SP3 hybrid orbitals
which are arranged in a tetrahedral fashion with an angle of 109.50.
Sigma Bonding
Three SP3 orbitals of each carbon overlap with s-orbital of hydrogen while the
remaining fourth sp3 orbitals of both carbon overlap with each other to form 7 sigma bonds.
sp3 – s = 6 sigma bond
sp3 – sp3 = 1 sigma bond
METHOXDS OF PREPARATION
(i) Reduction of Ethyl Iodide
Ethyl iodide when reacted with nascent hydrogen gives ethane.
𝑍𝑛/𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝐼 + 2[𝐻] → 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝐻𝐼
(ii) Hydrolysis of Ethyl Magnesium Iodide
Ethyl magnesium iodide, (commonly known as Grinard’s reagent) when reacts with water
gives ethane.
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑀𝑔𝐼 + 𝐻𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝐻𝑂𝑀𝑔𝐼
(iii) Catalytic Hydrogenation of Ethene and Ethyne
When ethene and ethyne are treated with hydrogen in the presence of nick (catalyst) at
2000C-3000C, ethane is formed.
𝑁𝑖
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻3
𝑁𝑖
𝐶𝐻 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 2𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻3

(iv) Wurtz Synthesis
This method involves the reaction of methyl halide with sodium metal yield alkane of
even number of carbon atoms.
𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
2𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐼 + 2𝑁𝑎 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻3 + 2𝑁𝑎𝐼
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKANES

Alkanes are relatively less reactive to common reagents such as acid, alkali oxidizing agent at
room temperature and known as paraffin (para; little and an affinity). The reason of their less
reactivity is given as.
(i) The C-C bond is completely non polar and C-H bond is almost non polar theref polar
reagent find no reaction sites on alkane molecules.
(ii) C-C and C-H bonds are stronger, need high energy for breaking.
Halogenation
The replacement of hydrogen atom of ethane with halogen atom in the presence of
light is known as halogenation.
𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
Among halogens, this reaction is specific for Cl2 and Br2 because l2, undergoes
reversible reaction. F2 is very eactive and causes explosion.
CHEMISTRY OF ETHENE
Ethene is the first member of alkene family. It is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with
double bond.
ORBITAL STRUCTURE
Each carbon in ethene is SP2
hybridized and consists of three SP2 hybrid
orbitals which are arranged in trigonal
fashion with an angle of 1200.
Sigma and pi bonding

Two Sp2 orbitals of each carbon overlap with s-orbital of hydrogen while the sp2,
orbitals of both carbon overlap with each other to form 5 sigma bond.
The unhybrid pz orbital of the two carbon atoms overlap side wise to form bond.
sp – s = 4 sigma bond
2
sp2 – sp2 = 1 sigma bond

pz – pz = 1 pi bond

1. By the Dehydration of Alcohol
When ethanol is heated with Conc. H2SO4 at 1700C, an elimination of -H high
electronegative OH group takes place to give ethene.
CH2 – CH2 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4(𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑒)

| | → CH2 = CH2 + H2O
H OH 17𝑂𝐶
Dehydration of alcohol may also be carried out in the presence of Al2O3 H3PO4 as a catalyst.
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 /350𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2
𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 /𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 /350𝑜𝐶
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2
2. By Dehydrohalogination of Ethyl Chloride

When ethyl chloride is treated with alcoholic KOH, an elimination of Hydrogen and
halogen atom takes place to give ethene.
alcohol/heat
CH3 − CH2 − Cl → CH2 = CH2 + KCl + H2 O
3. Dehalogination of Vicinal Dichloride

When 1, 2 – Dichloroethane (vicinal dihalide) is treated with zinc powder, elimination of
both chlorine atoms takes place to give ethene.
CH2 – CH2 + Zn Heat

| | → CH2 = CH2 + ZnCl2
CI CI
CHEMICAL REACTIVITY OF ALKENE

Why alkenes are more reactive than alkanes?
Because in Alkene C=C consist of a strong sigma bond & a weak pi bond. Pi bond is
rich of electron centre and can easily be broken by the attack of electrophile.
Addition reactions of alkene
The mechanism of addition reaction may illustrated as.
Common addition reaction in alkene are described below:
Addition of Halogen
Alkenes react with halogen like Cl2, Br2 in darkness in the presence of inert solvent
(e.g. CCl4 or chloroform) to give dihalo derivatives (vicinal dihalide).
Roome temperature CH2 – CH2

CH2 = CH2 Cl2 → | |
𝐶𝐶𝐿4 CI CI
Heat CH2 – CH2
CH2 = CH2 Br2 → | |
𝐶𝐶𝐿4 Br Br
CH2 – CH2
Ethanol
CH2 = CH2 l2 → | |
l l
Among the above three reaction, addition of Bromine on alkene is significant because,
when bromine is added to an alkene, the redish brown colour of bromine disappears. Hence
bromine, in this reaction, serves as a test for the presence of carbon – carbon multiple bond.
The order of reactivity of ethene with halogens is Cl2, Br2, I2
The reason is that chlorine atom is smaller in size and it minimizes the steric influence
of alkene molecule as compared to bigger atomic size of bromine and iodine. The reaction of
fluorine is too vigorous and explosive.
Addition of Hydrogen
Alkene when heated with hydrogen gas in the presence of catalyst Pt, Pd or Ni, it
change into alkane. This process is known as hydrogenation.
𝑁𝑖 /200𝑜 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 300𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻3
Addition of Hypohalous Acid

Hypohalous acid (HOCl, HOBr) when added to double bond of alkene, it gives
Hypohydrin.
OH Cl
| |
CH2 = CH2 + HOCI →
CH2 − CH2
(Chlorohydrin)
CH2 – CH2
| |
CH2 = CH2 + HOB𝑟 →
OH Br
(Bromohydrin)
The halogen of hypoholous acid constitute the positive part with respect hydroxyl (-
OH) group and therefore in the addition of hypohalous acid unsymmetrical alkene, -OH
group goes to carbon of poor number of hydrogen.
Addition of Halogen Acid

When dry gaseous hydrogen halide (HCl, HBr, H) passes directly over alkene,
corresponding haloalkanes are formed.
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐼 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐼
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐵𝑟 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐵𝑟
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝑙
The orer of reactivity of ethene with halogen acid is.
HF << HCl < HBr < Hl
The reason is that, as the halogen atom get bigger, the strength of “Hydrogen Halogen bond”
falls.
The bond strength is given as.
H–F H – Cl H– Br H–I
569 432 366 298
Markounikoff’s Rule
This is an empirical rule for the addition of halogen acid on an unsymmetri alkene
introduced by Markounikoff. It states as
“The negative part of the attacking reagent adds to that carbon
of double bond which has minimum number of hydrogen (s)”
Consider the addition of HCl on propene we may get two products.
According to Markounikoff rule, 2-chloropropane is predominantly obtain because it

is formed by more stable carbocation.
Markounikoff rule can be explained in term of stability of carbocation.
The order of stability of carbocation is
30 < 20 < 10
In the mechanism of electrophilic addition of HCl to an unsymmetrical alkane
carbocation is formed in first step. Because 20 carbocation is more stable than carbocation,
this reaction favours the formation of 20 carbocation and her 2 – chloropropane will be the
major product.
Addition of H2SO4
Ethene when passes through cold concentrated sulphuric acid, it gives ethyl hydrogen
sulfate.

CH2 − CH2
| |
H2 C = CH2 + H2 SO2 →
H OSOH3 H
(Ethyl Hydrogen sulfate)
Ethyl hydrogen sulphate on boiling with water gives ethanol.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
CH2 − CH2 𝑂 → CH3 CH2 OH + H2 SO4
| |
H OSO3 H
Reaction With S2Cl2

Ethene, when treated with sulphur monochloride (S 2Cl2), gives ,  dichlorodiethyl
sulphide, commonly called as “Mustard gas”.
Mustard gas is a poisonous gas which is acts as a powerful blistering agent, it attacks
very dangerously on skin and cause pain full death. It was used in first world war and now its
preparation is strictly prohibited.
OXIDATION REACTION
Combustion
Alkene oxidizes in air to give CO2 and water with the release of heat through
luminous flame.
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 (Δ𝐻 = −𝑣𝑒)
Oxidation with KMnO4 (Hydroxylation)
The reaction of alkene with cold dilute alkaline KMnO4 at low temperature.
Hydroxylation of double bond occur results in the formation of a dihydroxy compound down
as glycol.
The KMnO4 solution is decolourized in the process, (turning from purple to

colourless) because the magnate (VII) ions are reduced to magnate (II) ions. This action is
often used to distinguished between an alkene and alkane.
The overall reaction is generally written as.
Cold dilute alkaline KMnO4
CH2 − CH2
CH2 = CH2 + H2 𝑂 + [𝑂] → | |
OH OH
Simple chemical test to distinguished between alkane and alkene
i) Bromine water test
When few drops of 5% Bromine water is added to given sample of alkene, the brown
colour of Bromine water disappears indicating the presence of double bond.
The major product of the reaction is 2-bromo ethanol because OH ion from water and
Br ion from bromine are added to double bonded carbon.
However, some 1, 2-Dibromoethane is also formed because Br2 of bromine water also
reacts with ethene simultaneously.
Conclusively, there are two different reactions taking place at the same time but the
end result is always that bromine water is decolorized.
Because alkane does not decolourized the colour of Bromine water, it can be
distinguished from alkene.
ii) KMnO4 test
When few drops of 1% dilute alkaline KMnO4 is added to given sample of alkene, the
purple colour of KMnO4 disappears on shaking indicating the presence of double
bond.
𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4
CH2 CH2
CH2 = CH2 + H2 O + [O] → | |
OH − OH
During this reaction the purple of colour of KMnO 4 disappears because Mn change
into Mn+2 hence alkene can be distinguished from alkane.
Polymerization Reaction of ethene
Polymerization is the process of joining of small molecules (known as monomers) to
form a large molecule (polymer).
Polymerization of ethene takes place at 2000C under 100 atmospheric pressure and in
the traces of oxygen.
200𝑜𝐶,100𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑛𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 → (−𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 −)𝑛
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2
Where n = very large number (approx 10000)

Physical Properties
i) First three members of alkene family are gases a room temperature, later alkenes
are liquids and solids.
ii) They are insoluble in water but soluble in certain organic solvents.
iii) They have characteristics smell and burn with luminous flame.
iv) They are less volatile then alkane.
v) Boiling point, melting point and specific gravity are higher then corresponding
alkane.
Use of Ethene
i) It is used as anaesthetic.
ii) It is used in the preparation of Mustered gas.
iii) It is used in making plastic.
CHEMISTRY OF ETHYNE
Ethyne (acetylene) is the first member of alkyne family. It is unsaturated hydrocarbon
with triple bond.
ORBITAL STRUCTURE
Each carbon in Ethyne is SP hybridized and consists of two SP hybrid orbitals which
are arranged in a linear geometry at an angle of 1800.
Sigma bonding
One SP orbital of each carbon overlap with s-orbital of hydrogen while other orbital
of both carbon overlap with each other to form 3 sigma bonds.
sp – s = 2 sigma bond
sp – sp = 1 sigma bond
Bonding
The unhybrid py and pz orbitals of both
two carbon atoms overlap side wise to and two
pi – bonds.
1. From Calcium Carbide
Acetylene is prepared in laboratory by the action of water on calcium carbide.
𝐶𝑎𝐶2 + 2𝐻𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2

2. By Dehalogination of Tetrahalides
Tetrahaloalkene (four halogens are attached to two adjoining carbon atoms) or treatment
with active metal like zinc to give alkyne.
Cl Cl
| |
𝐴𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
CH − CH + 2 Zn → CH = CH + 2 Zn CL2
| |
Cl Cl
3. By Dehydrohalogination of Dihalides
When 1, 2 – dihaloalkene is heated with a strong base in the presence of alcohol to give
ethyne.
Cl Cl
| |
𝐴𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙
CH2 − CH2 + 2KOH → CH = CH + 2 ZN CL2
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
Physical Properties
i) First four members of alkyne family are gases.
ii) Ethyne has garlic odour while rest of the members are odourless.
iii) Boiling point and melting point increases regularly with the increasing molecule
mass.
Summary of preparation of Ethane, Ethene and Ethyne
C2H5Mgl + H2O
Zn/HCI
C2H5 + 2[H] Ethane
2CH3 + 2Na
Ethyl chloride + KOH
H2SO4(conc.)
Ethanol Ethene
Heat
1, 2 – Dicloro Ethane + Zn
1, 2 – Dichloro ethane + 2KOH
Calcium Carbicle + H2O Ethyne
1, 2 – chloro Ethane + Zn

Chemical Reactions of Ethyne
Important chemical reactions of ethyne are.
Addition reactions
Oxidation reaction
Polymerization reaction
Reaction due to acetylenic hydrogen.
REACTIVITY OF ALKYNE
Alkyne being unsaturated hydrocarbon undergoes addition reaction. However it is
reactive than alkene. This is explained on the basis of following facts.
Alkynes the (C≡C) has shorter bond length (1.20A) therefore pi electrons are strongly
bonded to their nucleus. Hence it is difficult for an electrophilic to take the electron pair from
triple bond.
The addition of electrophile in alkynes gives vinyl carbocation whereas alkene on
action gives alkyl carbocation. The alkyl carbo cat ion is more stable favouring reaction of
alkene under mild conditions.
i) Addition of Hydrogen
Complete hydrogenation of Ethynes gives corresponding ethane.
𝑁𝑖/ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝐻 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2
𝑁𝑖/ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻3
ii) Addition of Halogen
Chlorine and bromine undergo addition an ethyne to give a tetra haloethane.
Cl Cl
| |
Cl2
CH = CH + Cl2 → CH = CH → CH − CH
| | | |
Cl Cl CI CI
Br Br
| |
Br2
CH = CH + Br2 → CH = CH → CH − CH
| | | |
Br Br Br Br
Iodine is less reactive and only one mole of Iodine is added to ethyne to form
diiodoethene.
CH = CH
CH = CH + I2 → | |
Br Br
Less reactivity of iodine is due to its bigger atomic size.

iii) Addition of Hydrogen Halide
The addition of hydrogen halide to ethyne gives a1, 1-dihalo ethane.
The addition of first HBr molecule results in the formation of vinyl bromide. The
addition of 2nd HBr to vinyl bromide is followed by Markourikoff rule giving 1, 1-
Dibromo ethane.
H Br
| |
HBr
CH = CH → CH CH
CH = CH + Hbr → | |
| |
H Br H Br
(Vinyl bromide) (1.1 − 𝐷𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑜 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑒)
But by using mercury catalyst at 650C, the reaction can stop at vinyl bromide. Order
of reactivity of halogen acid is HI  HBr  HCl
In common practice, ethyne reacts with
(i) Hydrogen iodide at room temperature.
(ii) Hydrogen bromide at 1000C.
(iii) Hydrogen chloride very slow.
(iv) Addition of HCN

Ethyne reacts with HCN in the presence of CuCl/NH 4Cl or Ba(NO3)2 to give vinyl
cyanide which is also called Acrylonitrile.
– C ≡ C – + CN − → + CN Nu – C = C –
This is a nucleophilic addition reaction in which negative charge of vinyl carboanion

is on sp2 carbon.
Because the negative charge on sp2 carbon is more stable than negative charge sp 3
carbon, vinyl cyanide is not further go to addition.
Addition of Water
Ethyne reacts with water in the presence of H 2SO4 and HgSO4 at 750C to produce
vinyl alcohol which on rearrangement gives aldehyde or ketone.
O
H2 SO2 OH
→ ||
CH ≡ CH + H2O [ | ] Rearrangment
→
𝐻𝑔𝑆𝑂4 (75 𝐶) CH3 − C − H
CH2 = CH
(𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙)
This is a nucleophilic addition reaction proceed in acidic medium and catalyzed a

heavy metal ion (Hg+2) following Markaunikoff rule.

REACTIONS DUE TO ACETYLENIC HYDROGEN
Carbon atom of ethyne molecule has high s-character due to which electron ______ of
–H bond gets displaced more towards carbon and makes the hydrogen electro positive. This
hydrogen can be the release by a strong base and hence the astylenic hydrogen is acidic.
3 3 3
Sp Sp Sp
| |
| |
−C−C−H −C≡ C−H
| | −C=C−H
(25% character) (33% character) (50% character)
Hydrogen atom in acetylene is acidic due to high s-character therefore it acts with hot
ammonical solution of AgNO3 and CuCl to form corresponding silver acetylide and copper
acetylide.
NH3(aq)
HC ≡ CH + 2 AgNO3 → AG C ≡ C AG + 2 HNO3
Silver Acetylide (White PPP)
NH3(aq)
HC ≡ CH + 2 AgNO3 → Cu C ≡ Cu + 2 HCI
Copper acetylide (Red PPT)
Acetylene also reacts with hot sodium metal to give mono and disodium acetylide.
Heat Further
CH ≡ CH + Na → CH ≡ CNa → Na C ≡ C Na
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
(Monosodium acetylide) (disodium acetylide)
Sodium acetylide when reacts with acid, it reconverted into acetylene.
Na C ≡ CNa + 2HCI → HC ≡ H + 2NaCl
Chemical Test to distinguish between ethene and ethyne

Ethyne reacts with hot ammonical solution of AgNO 3 and CuCl to form
corresponding silver acetylide (white ppt) and copper acetylide (red ppt) respectively.
NH3(aq)
HC ≡ CH + 2 AgNO3 → Ag C ≡ C Ag + 2 HNO3
Silver acetylide (White)
NH3(aq)
HC ≡ CH + 2CuCI → Cu C ≡ C Cu + 2 HCI
Copper acetylide (Red PPT)

Ethene does not react with AgNO3 and CuCl due to the unavailability of acid
hydrogen hence can be distinguished.
Polymerization reaction (Self addition reaction)

Ethyne when heated in a red hot metallic tube, a cyclo polymeric reaction in which
three molecules of ethyne undergo, self-addition to form Benzene.
Oxidation reactions of ethyne

Combustion
Alkynes when burnt in air, it gives carbon dioxide and water the release of heat.
Due to the release of high heat Acetylene is used for the preparation oxyacetylene
flame which has a temperature of 30000C and hence used for we purpose.
2CH ≡ CH + 502 → 4CO2 + 2H2O (∆= –312 Kcal)
Oxidation with KMnO4

Triple bond between carbon atoms can be easily oxidized by oxidizing like KMnO 4 to
give carboxylic acid.
However, if cold KMnO4 is used, it gives formic acid and if hot KMnO4 is _________
it gives oxolic acid.
The reason is that temperature effects on the path of mechanism ________ which
oxidation on triple bond occur.
KMnO4
2HCOOH
CH ≡ CH + H2O + 3[O] →
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 Formic acid
OH OH
KMnO4
| |
CH ≡ CH + 4 [O] →
Hot O=C − C=O
Oxalic acid
BENZENE
Benzene is an aromatic compound, its molecular formula is C 6H6 and molecular
________ is 78. It was first isolated by Faraday is 1825. The presence of benzene in star was
first by Hofmann in 1845.
Aromaticity
“Informally, it is a term used to describe
the stability of benzene and its derivatives”.

Formally aromaticity is found in all cyclic planer organic molecules having cycalized
pi electrons.
According to the modern approach, organic compound is considered to be aromatic if it.
• Cyclic and have conjugated system.
• Planar with sp2 hybridized carbons.
• Consist of delocalized pi electrons
• Favours substitution reaction instead of addition reaction.
• Number of pi electrons follow Huckle rule (4n +2).
ALIPHATIC COMPOUNDS AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
These compounds carbon atoms join neither in In these compounds carbon atom join together in a
straight chain, branch in or non-aromatic ring through planer cyclic ring through alternate double bond.
_________, double or triple bond.
These are referred as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and Informally these are referred as benzene and their
their derivatives. derivatives.
These was so named because some of early There these were so named because most of early
discovered compounds derived from fat. discovered compounds had special fragrance.
They do not give black smoke when burn in air. They give black smoke when burn in air.
How is benzene by simple chemical test?

Aromatic compounds (Benzene and its derivation) contains higher proportion of
carbon in the molecules as compared to similar order of alkane. Hence they burn in air
partially leaving the carbon particles and can be identified by Smokey flame.
Aliphatic compounds on the other hand oxidize completely in air & do not burn with
Smokey flame. On the basis of above fact aromatic compounds can be distinguished from
aliphatic compounds.
KEKULE’S STRUCTURE OF BENZENE

August kekule (1865) was the first who proposed structure of benzene on basis of
tetra valency of carbon. According to him.
“Benzene is a cyclic hexagonal molecule of six carbon with
alternative double bond and each carbon is bonded to one hydrogen”.
Objections on Kekule’s Formula

Seemingly, kekule suggested formula satisfied the structural feature benzene,
following objections were raised on kekule proposed structure.
(i) High stability of molecule?
Kekule structure failed to explain about remarkable stability of benzene towards
addition reaction although I contains three double bonds.
(ii) Ease of substitution reactions?
Kekule formula failed to explain why benzene easily undergoes substitution reaction
rather than addition reactions.

(iii) Identical C – C and C = C bond length?
Kekule formula failed to explain why the bond length of (C – C) and (C remains the
same (1.39A) in benzene ring.
(iv) Disubstituted bromo products
Kekule structure failed to explain that why only one disubstituted by product is
formed when benzene reacts with Bromine.
According to kekule suggested structure, benzene should give two isomers react with
bromine.
• In one isomer there is a single bond between two bromine atoms.
• In other isomer there is a double bond between the two bromine atoms.
But in actual practice there is only one dibromo benzene yield.
𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝐵𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝐵𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜

[ ] [ ]
𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑
Kekules Explanation
To overcome the objection raised on his proposed structure, kekule gave the
following explanation.
The three double bonds in benzene oscillate back and forth between two adjacent
positions continuously and hence.
“Benzene exist in a mixture of two structures in extremely rapid motion”.
(I) (II)
ARMSTRONG-BAYER’S CENTRIC FORMULA

To overcome the problem faced in Kekule’s structure Armstrong and Bayer proposed
another structure of benzene.
According to this proposal.
“The fourth valency of each carbon is directed towards
the center of hexagon and creating and equilibrium”.

This formula was rejected because it had no satisfactory explanation for the behavior
of polynuclear hydrocarbon.
RESONANCE THEORY OF BENZENE

In chemistry, resonance is a way of describing delocalize pi electrons with contain
molecule where bonding cannot express by one single structure.
Resonance theory introduced by Linus Pauling (1931) to explain the objections based
on Kekule suggested structure of benzene.
Its theory states as
Kekule suggested structure cannot individually explain the properties of benzene
molecule (e.g. stability, shape etc) and these are referred as resonating or contributing
structures and denoted by ( ).
The actual structure of benzene is a hybrid of these two contributing structures and
representing by a circle inside the ring.
Hybride structure represents actual properties of benzene and consider to be structure

because.
• It represents bond length of carbon-carbon (1.39A) which is intermediate C –C
(1.54A) and C = C (1.34A) and hence justify the planer hexagonal of benzene
molecule.
• It represents the delocalization of pi electrons in the rings and hence just the stability
of benzene molecule towards addition reactions.
MOLECULAR ORBITAL STRUCTURE OF BENZENE

This is a modern theory to explain the structure of benzene. It is based on fact that
“Benzene is a planer hexagonal molecule in which all carbons are hybridized. It tells that:
• Each carbon atom makes sigma bond by sp2 – sp2 overlap with two adjacent carbon
atoms and sp2 – s overlap with hydrogen atom.
• The six Pz orbitals overlap to form 6 pi molecular orbitals, out of which through
bonding  M.O and other three are anti-bonding  M.O.

• All six pi electrons fill in three bonding  M.O explain the high stability of ring.
• Out of these three  bonding M.O orbitals, only one  bonding M.O is divided two
lobes which lies above and below the plane of the ring explaining delocalize nature of
 system.
• The other two ⊓ bonding M.O have only one node each explaining the bond is in
between single and double bond.
Benzene is, thus, represented as a hexagon with a circle inside, when circle represents
delocalized  electrons.
RESONANCE ENERGY (stability of benzene)

“It is a measure of extra stability of a conjugated system
as compared to its isolated double bond structure”.
The stability of benzene toward addition reaction is described on the basis of

resonance energy which can be is calculated by using heat of hydrogenation (∆Hh).
__________∆Hh for cyclohexatriene should be 3 times higher than an isolated C = C.
_____∆Hh released experimentally from benzene is 49.8 Kcal/mole.
The difference of energy of

cyclohexatriene and benzene is calculated as
energy difference = 85.8 – 49.8 = 36 Kcal/mole.
____________ 36 Kcal/mole energy is
responsible for the stability of benzene molecule
and known as resonance energy.
Stability of benzene as compared to
cyclohexatriene is shown in the following energy
diagram.

Benzene as a Saturated Hydrocarbon
Although, benzene contain three double bond, it behave more like a saturated a
hydrocarbon because.
Presence of six delocalized pi electrons which are not restricted to any carbon but
spread to all nuclei.
Resonance stabilization energy (396 Kcal/mole)
Due to its saturated behaviour, benzene prefer to undergo substitution for example it
reacts with chlorine & nitric acid to give substituted products.
Benzene as Unsaturated Hydrocarbon

Benzene consists of three  bonds in the ring and may undergoes addition reaction
with H2 and Cl2 under special condition. Hence it also behaves like unsaturated hydrocarbon.
GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATIONS

(i) From n-hexane (Petroleum)
When n-Hexane is heated under high temperature and pressure a cyclization and
dehydrogenation process occurs to produce benzene.

(ii) From n-heptane (Petroleum)
When n-heptane is heated under the conditions described above, toluene is obtained.
Now toluene, is further heated with hydrogen, in the presence of catalyst (Co-Mo)
give benzene.
(iii) From Acetylene
Acetylene when heated in a metal tube at about 4000C, a cyclotrimerization process
occur to produce benzene.
The rate of formation of benzene depends upon the nature of catalyst for example in
copper the yield of benzene is optimum but in organ nickel complex the yield of benzene is
quite better.
(iv) From Phenol

When vapours of phenol are passed over red hot Zinc dust, it is converted in benzene.
(v) From Sodium Benzoate

Sodium benzoate on heating with Soda lime (NaOH +CaO) to give benzene. In this
reaction removal of carboxyl takes places hence this reaction is called carboxylation.
Isolation of Benzene
(i) From Coal
Luminous coal on heating gives coal tar which on fractional distillation produced
benzene.
Bituminous coal → Heat in the Coal tar → fractional Benzene
(1000kg) 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (50kg) 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (0.5 − 1.0kg)

(ii) From Light Oil
Light oil contain 60-65% benzene. On fractional distillation it gives benzene.
Physical Properties
(i) It is colourless liquid with a peculiar smell.
(ii) Its boiling point 800C and melting point is 5.50C.
(iii) It is immiscible in water.
(iv) It is highly inflammable and burn with sooty flame.
(v) It is toxic in nature and causes blood cancer.
ELECTROPHILIC AROMATIC SUBSTITUTION

REACTION
“The replacement of hydrogen of benzene by an electrophile
is known as electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions”.
Why benzene undergoes electrophilic substitute reaction?

Delocalized electrons of benzene exposed above and below the place hence benzene
is electron rich and highly attractive to electrophile and generally undergoes electrophilic
substitution reaction under mild conditions.
The attack of electrophile first break the system and lost the aromaticity of benzene
due to the formation of carbocat, it loses a proton instead of adding nucleophile restore
aromaticity hence it favour electrophilic substitution but an favour electrophilic addition.
BROMINATION
Benzene reacts with liquid bromine in the presence of Lewis acid catalyst (FeBr3)
yield bromo benzene.
Mechanism of Bromination of benzene is illustrated in the following steps.

Step – 1: Generation of Electrophile
FeBr4 −
FeBr3 [Br − Br − − − −FeBr3 ] Br
Br2 + ⇌ (Tetrabromo +
(Lewis acid) (Lewis acid complex) → (Bromoion)
terrateion)
Step – 2: Carbo cat ion intermediate (Slow Step)

Step – 3: Loss of Proton (Fast Step)
ALKYLATION
Benzene when heated with an alkyl halide in the presence of Lewis acid (AlCl 3) alkyl
benzene. This reaction is commonly known as Friedal Craft alkylation.
Mechanism of alkylation using isopropyl chloride is illustrated in the following some.

CH3 CH3
| |
CH3 − CH − CL + AlCl3 ⇌ CH3 = CH + + AlCl−
4
ACYLATION
Benzene reacts with an acyl halide in the presence of Lewis acid (AlCl 3) to give acyl
benzene. This reaction is commonly known as Friedal Craft acylation.
Mechanism of acylation of benzene is illustrated in the following steps.

O O
| |
CH3 − C − CL + AlCl3 → CH3 = C + + AlCl−
4
NITRATION
Benzene when heated with conc. Nitric acid in the presence of conc. H 2SO4 at – 600C
for one hour it give Nitrobenzene.
Mechanism of this reaction may illustrated in the following steps.

HNO3 + H2 SO4 → NO+ −
2 + H2 O + HSO4

SULPHONATION
Benzene reacts with fuming sulphuric acid (SO3 + H2SO4) at room temperature give
benzene sulphonic acid.
There are two proposed mechanism of sulphonation of benzene. One is illustrated the
following.

SO3 + H2 SO4 → SO3 H + + HSO−
4
ADDITION REACTION
Despite the high degree of unsaturation, benzene fairly resist addition reaction
because delocalization of pi electrons makes the double bond much less reactive preferring
substitution rather than addition reaction.
(i) Addition of Hydrogen
In the presence of Nickel catalyst, at 1500C, benzene undergoes hydrogenation to
produce cyclo hexane.
(ii) Addition of Halogen

In the presence of sunlight, the addition of chlorine to benzene gives 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Hexachloro cyclohexane (abriviated as HCH).
HCH is extensively used as an insecticide on commercial scale.

OXIDATION REACTION
(i) Catalytic Oxidation
Benzene, on heating with oxygen in presence of a catalyst vanadium pentaoxide
(V2O5) at 5000C results in the formation of maleic anhydride.
(ii) Oxidation with ozone

Benzene adds on three molecules of ozone to form a triozo onide, which on reductive
cleavage results in the formation three molecules of glyoxal.
(iii) Side chain reaction

Benzene itself does not decolourize KMno4 but alkyl benzene undergoes side chain
oxidation with acidic KMnO4 solution to give benzoic acid.
ORIENTATIONS OF BENZENE
“It is the invitation of mono substituted benzene to a
new electrophile to attack on ortho para or meta position”.
The nature of group, already attached to the benzene ring, determines the position of
incoming group and these are classified as ortho, para and meta director.

Ortho Para Directing Group
This group tends to release electron to the aromatic ring and increases the electron
density on ortho and para position therefore.
“This group allows the incoming electrophile to attack on
ortho & para position simultaneously”.
For example –OH of phenol is ortho para director hence substitution of phenol always
give a mixture of ortho and para products.
Meta Directing Group

This group tends to withdraw electron from the aromatic ring and decreases the
electron density on ortho and para position hence.
“This group allows the incoming electrophile
to attack on meta position only”.
For example –NO2 of nitrobenzene is meta director hence substitution nitrobenzene
always give meta product.
Some examples of ortho para and meta directing groups are given below.

Meta Director Mono Substituted Benzene
-NO2 Nitrobenzene
-SO3H Benzene Sulphonic acid
-COCH3 Acetophenone
- COOH Benzoic acid
Ortho Para Director Mono Substituted Benzene

-Cl Chlorobenzene
-CH3 Toluene
-NH2 Aniline
-OH Phenol
REACTIVITY EFFECT
The substituent, already attached to the benzene ring, not only governs the orientation
to further substitution but also describe on the reactivity of ring towards second- substitution
and classified as activating and deactivating gp.
Activating Group
“It increases the reactivity of the ring towards
electrophilic substitution as compared to benzene”.
For example the chlorination of toluene is 135 time faster than benzene.
Deactivating Group
“It decrease the reactivity of the ring
towards electrophilic substitution, as compared to the benzene”.
For example nitration of nitro benzene is 180 times lower than benzene.

Ring Deactivator Mono Substituted Benzene
-NO2 Nitrobenzene
-COOH Benzoic acid
-SO3H Benzene sulphonic acid
-CHO Benzal dehyde
Ring Activator Mono Substituted Benzene

-OH2 Phenol
-NH2 Aniline
-CH3 Toluene
-OCH3 Methoxy benzene
Conclusion of Substitution of Mono Substituted Benzene

During the electrophilic substitution of mono substituted benzene, the group already
attached to benzene ring describes.
i) The rate of electrophilic subtraction.
ii) The orientation of incoming electrophile.
Hence, it is concluded from above discussion that:
(i) Activating groups are generally ortho para director
These groups due to their high resonance effect, release electrons to the aromatic ring
and increase the reactivity for electrophilic substitution reaction and also allow the
incoming electrophile towards ortho and para positions.
Example are –OH, -CH3, –OCH3, -NH2
(ii) Deactivating group are always metal director
These groups because of their high inductive effect withdraw electrons from the
aromatic ring and decreases its reactivity for electrophilic substitution reaction and
ultimately allow the incoming electrophile towards meta position only.
(iii) Halogens are deactivating group but ortho but ortho para director
Halogen attached directly to the benzene ring exhibit dual nature.
• It shows an electron releasing nature due to the presence of unpaired electron on it.
This electron pair is released due to resonance effect. As a result, the substitution of
electrophile favoured at ortho para position.
• At the same time halogens being most electronegative, with drawl electron through
inductive effect (-I effect) and it destabilized carbocat ion and hence deactivate the
ring.
Examples are –Cl, -Br, Fl

M.C.Q’s
1. Hydrocarbons are compounds of:
(A) Carbon (B) Hydrogen
(C) Carbon and hydrogen (D) None of the above
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons possess:
(A) Single bond (B) Double bond
(C) Triple bond (D) Double and triple bond
3. Alkanes are:
(A) Saturated hydrocarbons (B) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
(C) Aromatic ------- hydrocarbons (D) None of the above
4. Olefins is an old term used for:
(A) Alkanes (B) Alkenes
(C) Alkynes (D) None of the above
5. Acetylenes is the common name for:
(A) Alkanes (B) Alkenes
(C) Alkynes (D) None of the above
6. The decomposition of alkanes in the absence of air is known as:
(A) Pyrolysis (B) Cracking
(C) Thermal decomposition (D) Combustion
7. The compounds of carbon and hydrogen containing rings of carbon atoms are
called:
(A) Cyclic (B) Acyclic (C) Alicyclic (D) Aromatic
8. Which of the following alkanes can be prepared by Wurtz reaction:
(A) Methane (B) Ethane (C) Propane
9. Chlorination of methane is an example of:
(A) Substitution reaction (B) Addition reaction
(C) Elimination reaction (D) None of the above
10. Closed chain hydrocarbons possessing a hexagonal ring of six carbon atoms are
called:
(A) Aliphatic (B) Aromatic (C) Cyclohexane (D) None of the above
11. The general formula of alkanes is:
(A) CnH2n (B) CnH2n+2 (C) CnH2n-2 (D) None of the above
12. Saturated hydrocarbons may undergo:
(A) Addition reaction (B) Substitution reaction
(C) Elimination reaction (D) Polymerization
13. Kerosene oil is a mixture of:
(A) Alcohols (B) Alkanes (C) Aliphatic acid (D)Aromatic compounds
14. Which of the following compounds represents an alkane:
(A) C9H10 (B) C5H18 (C) C7H16 (D) C10H10
15. Methane can be prepared:
(A) By heating sodium acetate with soda lime
(B) By the reduction of methyl iodide
(C) By the hydrolysis of Grignard’s Reagent (CH3⎯ Mg ⎯ I).
16. Which of the following is the correct statement for the compound C4H8:
(A) It must have a double bond (B) It is a saturated compound
(C) It must have a triple bond (D) Such a compound is impossible

17. Halogenation of alkanes occurs:
(A) At low temperature (B) At high pressure
(C) At high temperature
(D) At high temperature and in the presence of sunlight.
18. Homolytic fission of an alkane results in the formation of:
(A) Free radicals (B) Carbonium ions
(C) Carbanions (D) Nucleophiles
19. Marsh gas contains:
(A) CO (B) H2S (C) CH4 (D) C2H2
20. The most reactive hydrocarbon is:
(A) Methane (B) Ethane (C) Propane (D) Ethyne
21. Type formula of Grignard’s reagent is:
(A) R ⎯ Mg ⎯ X (B) R ⎯ Mg ⎯ OH
(C) R ⎯ O ⎯ Na (D) None of the above
22. Chemical name of Grignard’s reagent is:
(A) Alkyl magnesium halide (B) Alkyl magnesium hydroxide
(C) Sodium alkoxide (D) None of the above
23. The most reactive halogen for halogenation of methane in the presence of
sunlight is:
(A) Cl2 (B) Br2 (C) I2 (D) None of the above
3
24. The compound having sp -hybridized carbon atoms is:
(A) Ethene (B) Ethyne (C) Ethane
(D)Both Methane and Ethane
25. The number of sigma bonds in ethane is:
(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 10
26. The number of sigma and pi bonds in the structure of ethene is:
(A) 5 sigma and 2 pi bonds (B) 5 sigma and 1 pi bond
(C) 4 sigma and 2 pi bond (D) None of the above
27. The number of sigma and pi bonds in the structure of ethyne are:
(A) 3 sigma and 4 pi bonds (B) 3 sigma and 2 pi bonds
(C) 2 sigma and 1 pi bond (D) None of the above
28. The hydrocarbon, which is used for the production of oxyacetylene flame, is:
(A) Methane (B) Ethane (C) Ethene (D) Ethyne
29. Which of the following compounds decolourizes alkaline KMnO4 solution:
(A) C2H6 (B) C2H4 (C) C4H8 (D) both B & C.
30. Which of the following reactions will yield Ethyl bromide:
(A) CH3 - CH3 + H - Br (B) CH2= CH2 + H – Br
(C) CH3 CH + H – Br
31. Markownikoff rule will be applicable in the addition of H-Br on:
(A) CH2 = CH2 (B) CH3 - CH = CH2
(C) None of the above
32. The order of reactivity of addition of halogen acids in ethene is:
(A) HI < HBr < HCl (B) HI > HBr > HCl
(C) HCl > HI > HBr (D) HBr > HCl > HI
33. Which of the following is not linked with methane:
(A) Natural gas (B) Producer gas (C) Fire damp (D) Coal gas
34. Carbon atoms in benzene molecules are inclined at an angle of:
(A) 109.28° (B) 180° (C) 120° (D) None of these
35. The composition of Kerosene oil is:
(A) C6–C10 (B) C16–C18 (C) C13–C25 (D) C10–C12

36. Which of the following hydrocarbons is used in artificial ripening of fruits:
(A) C2H6 (B) C2H2 (C) C2H2 (D)Both C2H4 and C2H2
37. Which of the following hydrocarbons is used for preparing Mustard gas:
(A) Ethane (B) Ethene (C) Ethyne (D) None of the above
38. Which of the following hydrocarbons is used for preparing Poly vinyl Chloride
(PVC).
39. Catalytic polymerization of acetylene forms:
(A) Butane (B) Petane (C) Benzene (D) PVC
40. The method converting high boiling hydrocarbons into low boiling hydrocarbons
is called:
(A) Polymerization (B) Cracking
(C) Condensation (D) None of the above
41. The number of isomers of hexane is:
(A) 5 (B) 6 (C) 7 (D) 4
42. Which of the following is H-C-C bond angle in ethyne:
(A) 109.5° (B) 120° (C) 180° (D) 90°
43. Olefins means:
(A) Bitter hydrocarbon (B) Fatty origin
(C) Oil forming (D) Pleasant smelling
44. Compounds, which burn with soot:
(A) Aliphatic compounds (B) Aromatic compounds
(C) Alicyclic compounds (D) None of the above
45. Crude oil is a complex mixture of:
(A) Ketones (B) Alcohols (C) Hydrocarbons (D)None of the above
46. Which of the following can be used as monomer in polymerization reaction:
(A) Methane (B) Ethane (C) Ethene (D) None of the above
47. Halogenation of alkanes is an example of:
(A) Free radical substitution (B) Nucleophilic reaction
(C) Electrophilic reaction (D) Oxidation
48. The most stable hydrocarbon is:
49. Ethylene reacts with Baeyer’s reagent (alkaline KMnO4) to give:
(A) CO2 + H2O (B) Ethylene oxide
(C) Ethylene glycol (D) Ethyl alcohol
50. Natural gas is a mixture of:
(A) CO + H2 (B) CO + N2
(C) CO + H2 + CH4 (D) CO + N2 + CH4
51. All closed chain hydrocarbons possessing a hexagonal ring of six carbon atoms
like benzene or benzene derivates are called:
(A) Aliphatic hydrocarbons (B) Aromatic hydrocarbons
(C) Alicyclic hydrocarbons (D) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
52. Shape of Benzene molecule is:
(A) Pyramidal (B) Hexagonal (C) Linear (D) Trigonal
53. The molecular formula of benzene is:
(A) CH (B) C2H2 (C) C6H6
(D) None of these
54. The word aromatic (Greek “aroma”) means:
(A) Bad smell (B) Sweet smell (C) No smell (D) None of these

55. Although benzene contains three double bonds, it does not give addition
reactions eadily at ordinary conditions because:
(A) Double bond in benzene are strong
(B) Double bond change their position rapidly
(C) Resonance lowers the energy of benzene molecules and leads to greater
stability.
56. Main source of aromatic compounds is:
(A) Coal tar (B) Petroleum
(C) Living organisms (D) Dead marine animals
57. Which fraction contains benzene when coal tar is fractionally distilled:
(A) Light oil (B) Middle oil (C) Heavy oil (D) Green oil
58. Satisfactory structure of benzene was first proposed in 1865
(A) Berzelius (B) Hofmann
(C) Dewar (D) Kekule
59. Structure of benzene is the resonance hybrid of:
(A) Two Kekule’s structures (B) Three Kekule’s structure
(C) Four Kekule’s structure (D) None of these
60. Benzene exhibits the properties of:
(A) Saturated hydrocarbons (B) Unsaturated hydrocarbons
(C) Both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons (D) None of these
61. Which of the following is an aromatic compound:
(A) CH3⎯CH2⎯Br (B) CH3⎯CH2⎯ CH2⎯CH3
(C) C6H5⎯CH3 (D) CH3⎯CH2⎯ CH2⎯CH2⎯ CH2⎯CH3
62. The carbon atoms is benzene are:
(A) sp3-hybridized (B) sp2-hybridized
(C) sp-hybridized (D) None of these
63. The total number of sigma bonds in benzene is:
(A) 6 (B) 12 (C) 18 (D) None of these
1
64. The pi electrons (2pz ) in benzene consist of:
(A) 2 electrons (B) 4 electrons (C) 6 electrons (D) None of these
65. Aromatic hydrocarbons are the derivates of:
(A) Paraffins (B) Alkenes (C) Benzene
(D) Cyclohexane
66. Aromatic compounds burn with sooty flame because:
(A) They have high percentage (B) They have a ring structure
(C) They have high percentage of carbon (D) They resist reaction with air
67. The conversion of n-hexane into benzene by passing it over platinum catalyst at
500°C under pressure is called:
(A) Isomerization (B) Polymerization
(C) Rearrangement (D) Catalytic cyclization
68. Benzene molecule consists of:
(A) 6 sigma and 3 pi bonds (B) 9 sigma and 1 pi bond
(C) 12 sigma and 3 pi bonds (D) None of these

69. The C⎯C⎯C bond angles in benzene are:
(A) 109.28° (B) 90° (C) 120° (D)None of these
70. The extra-ordinary stability of benzene ring is attributed to:
(A) Three double bonds (B) Ring structure
(C) Delocalization of π electrons (D) Presence of sigma bonds
71. Benzene cannot undergo:
(A) Substitution reaction (B) Addition reaction
(C) Elimination reaction (D) Oxidation reaction
72. During Nitration of Benzene, the active nitrating agent is:
(A) NO 3 − (B) NO 2 + (C) NO 2 − (D) HNO3
73. The C⎯C bond length in benzene is:
(A) 1.54°A (B) 1.397°A (C) 1.09°A (D) 1.34°A
ANSWER KEYS
01. C 12. B 23. A 34. C 45. C 56. A 67. C
02. D 13. B 24. C 35. D 46. C 57. A 68. C
03. A 14. C 25. C 36. D 47. A 58. D 69. C
04. B 15. D 26. B 37. B 48. A 59. A 70. C
05. C 16. A 27. B 38. B 49. C 60. B 71. C
06. B 17. D 28. D 39. C 50. C 61. C 72. B
07. A 18. A 29. B 40. B 51. B 62. B 73. B
08. B 19. C 30. B 41. A 52. B 63. B
09. A 20. D 31. C 42. C 53. C 64. C
10. B 21. A 32. B 43. C 54. B 65. C
11. B 22. A 33. B 44. B 55 C 66. C

8 ALKYL HALIDES
ALKYL HALIDES
Organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen of
alkanes are replaced by halogen called alkyl halide or halo alkanes
CLASSIFICATION OF ALKYL HALIDES

Alkyl halides are mainly classified into mono halo alkanes, dihalo alkanes and poly
halo alkanes depending upon the number of halogen atoms attached to carbon chain.
CH3 − CH − CH3 CH3 − CH − CH2 CH2 − CH − CH2

| | | | | |
CI CI Cl Cl Cl Cl
(𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒) (𝑇𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑛𝑒)
Mono halo alkanes

The general formula of mono haloalkanes is CnH2n + 1 --- X and represented by R – X.
mono halo alkanes are further classified into primary (10) secondary (20), and tertiary (30)
alkyl halides on the basis of nature of carbona tom to which halogen is attached.
10 – Alkyl halide
When halogen atom is attached to primary carbon, this is known as primary or 1 0 –
alkyl halide.
20 – Alkyl halide
When halogen atom is attached to secondary carbon, this is known as secondary or 2 0
alkyl halide.
30 – Alkyl halide
When halogen atom is attached to territory carbon, this is known as tertiary or 30 alkyl
halide.
H H H
| | |
H3 C − C − X CH3 − C − X H3 C − C − X
| | |
H CH3 H
(1𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑦𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒) 𝑜
(1 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑦𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒) (1𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑦𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒)

(i) Direct halogenation of alkanes
Under the influence of light, heat or suitable, catalyst alkanes react with halogen
through free radical mechanism to give the corresponding alkyl halide.
𝑈.𝑉 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
This method does not give pure mono halo derivative and usually gives a mixture of
halogen products.
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
However, this method has been frequently used because.

• It is relatively cheaper process
• The mixture can be separated by fractional distillation.
(ii) Addition of hydrogen halide to alkene

Alkenes react with hydrogen halide (e.g. HCl, HBr, HI) through addition mechanism
to give an alkyl halide.
𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐼 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐼
(iii) Action of Hydrogen halide on alcohol
When an alcohol is reacted with hydrochloric acid in the presence of ZnCl 2, it gives
alkyl halide.
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(iv) Action of Phosphorous Halide on Alcohol
Alcohol when refluxed with phosphorous halides (PCl3 and PCl5) to form alkyl halide
e.g.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙5 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑃𝑂𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
3𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙3 → 3𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3
(v) Action of Thionyl Chloride an Alcohol

Alcohol reacts with Thionyl chloride ((SOCl2) in the presence of pyridine to produce
alkyl halide.
𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
A summary of the preparation of alkyl halide from alcohol is given in the following table.

Identification of Alkyl Halide by simple Chemical test
Presence of halogen in the given organic compound has been identified by lasign test
in which given organic compound is first fused with sodium metal so that halogen is
extracted as X ion which then treated with AgNO 3 to get ppt of AgX. However, an alkyl
halide is generally identified in laboratory by the following simple chemical test.
The given alkyl halide is first warmed with ag NaOH solution and then treated with
AgNO3/HNO3 solution to give white or yellow precipitate of AgX.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑅 − 𝑋 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑅 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝑋
𝐻𝑁𝑂3
𝑁𝑎𝑋 + 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐴𝑔𝑋 + 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3
Alkane on the other hand cannot be treated with NaOH and AgNO3.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
(i) Physical State
Among alkyl halides, CH3CI, CH3I and C2H5Cl, are gases at room temp; others, up to
C18, are colourless liquids.
(ii) Solubility
These are insoluble in water due to their inability to form hydrogen bond with water,
however they are soluble in organic solvents.
(iii) Bond Strength
The bond strength of C-X decreases with the increased bond length. This is attributed
to the size of P-orbital which increases from fluorine to iodine and thus makes the
overlap less effective.
C–F C – Cl C – Br C–I
Bopnd length (A) 1.38 1.77 1.93 2.14
Bond energy (Kj/mol.) 485 328 276 240

(iv) Boiling Point
• The boiling point of halo alkanes is higher as compared to the corresponding
alkanes due to dipole dipole interaction.
• Boiling point increases by increasing the molecular mass e.g. boiling point of
C2H5Cl is higher than CH3Cl.
• With the same alkyl group boiling point increases from fluorine to iodine due to
the increasing surface area.
(v) Toxicity
Alkyl halide are toxic compounds and dangerous when inhaled in larger amounts.
(vi) Density
Density of alkyl halide increases with increasing atomic weight of the halogen i.e. in
the order fluoride chloride bromide iodide and decreases with the increase size of
alkyl group.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKYL HALIDE

The molecule of alkyl halide is dipolar in nature because of the presence of high
electronegative halogen atom. Hence when an alkyl halide is in contact with nucleophile or a
strong base, either a substitution of halogen or an elimination of  hydrogen takes place.
Hence the reactions undergoing by alkyl halide be broadly classified into two categories.
i) Nucleophilic substitution reactions.
ii) -Elimination reactions.
NUCLEOPHILE
Nucleophile is a reagent that seeks a positive centre. The word nucleophile comes
from (nucleus; positive centre) and (philos; to love). It defined as:
“Any negative ion or any neutral molecule
that has at least one unshared electron pair”
A list of some nucleophile along with their typical reagent is given below.
Nucleophile Name Typical Reagent

OH Hydroxyl Group NaOH
SH Thiol Group KSH
OR Alkoxy Group NaOR
CN Cyano Group NaCN
NH2 Amino Group NaNH2
RCOO Ester Group RCOONa

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTION
“The replacement of halogen of alkyl halide by incoming
nucleophile is called as nucleophilic substitution reaction”
R−X
Nu → R − Nu + X−
| +
(𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝) (𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡) (𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑝)
(Substrate)
various nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkyl halide are summarized in the

following chart.
Depending upon the nature of substrate and reaction conditions the course of
nucleophilic substitution reactions may follow the following mechanism.
1) Substitution Nucleophilic unimolecular mechanism (SN1)
2) Substitution Nucleophilic bimolecular mechanism (SN2)
SN2 REACTION
“It is the replacement of nucleophile of substrate with incoming
nucleophile involving bimolecular kinetics is known as SN 2 reaction”
In this reaction the attack of nucleophile and the removal of halide ion occur
simultaneously in single step. It frequently takes place in methyl halide and primary alkyl
halide.
Mechanism of SN2 reaction

The mechanism of SN2 reaction completes in one step involves the following
chemical changes.

Reaction starts with the attack of nucleophile on carbon of substrate from the side the
side opposite to leaving halogen and thus form a “transition state” in which carbon atom is
partially bonded to both Nu and X.
The C – X bond in transactions states becomes weaker and weaker, finally breaks to
from substitute product.
The whole SN2 mechanism is illustrated as follow.
Kinetic of SN2 reaction

Since in SN2 reaction the rate determing step involves the attacking of both
nucleophile and substrate, the rate of SN2 reaction depends upon conc. of both substrate and
nucleophile and referred as bimolecular reaction which follows second order kinetics.
Rate = K [substrate] [NU]
Effect of alkyl halide on the reactivity of SN2 mechanism:

The reactivity of alkyl halide towards SN2 mechanism dependent upon the stability of
transition state which is governed by nature of alkyl group.
Methyl halide and primary alkyl halide preferably undergoes SN2 mechanism because.
(i) They have less steric effect.
(ii) Allow the nucleophile to attack from rear side.
(iii) Favor the formation of more stable transition state.
A tertiary alkyl halide unfavour SN2 mechanism because bulkier alkyl group attached
to carbon cause high steric effect and not allowed a nucleophile to attack from rear side.
Hence the order of reactivity of halo alkanes towards SN2 mechanism is.
CH3X > 1o > 2o > 3o

SN1 REACTION
“The replacement of nucleophile of substrate with incoming
nucleophile involving unimolecular kinetics is known as SN1 reaction”
In this reaction, attack of nucleophile and the removal of halide ion occur in two different
steps. It favorably takes place in tertiary alkyl halide in the presence of a polar protic solvent.
Mechanism of SN1 reaction

The Mechanism of SN1 reaction consists of following two steps.
Step – 1
Breaking of C – X bond: (Slow step)
This is a slow and rate determining step in which C - X bond of alkyl halide breaks slowly
and reversibly to give a carbocation.
Step – 2
Attacks of Nucleophile on carbocat ion: (Fast step)
Nucleophile (Nu) attacks on carbocat ion from either front or rear side to give substituted
product.
An attack from the front results in the formation of product having same configuration as that
of substrate. While the attack from rear side results in the formation of a product having
opposite configuration to that of substrate.
Kinetic of SN1 reaction:

Because only one molecule take part in rate determining step, the rate of SN1 reaction is
dependent upon conc. of substance only.
R = K [substrate]
Effect of alkyl halide on the reactivity of SN1 reaction

The effect of alkyl halide in favouring SN1 mechanism depends upon the stability of
carbocation.
A tertiary alkyl halide preferably undergoes SN1 mechanism because. It forms tertiary carbo
cat ion in C – X bond breaking step which is more stable and has high inductive effect.

In general the order of reactivity of alkyl halide to favour SN1 reaction maybe written as:
• It has bulkier group which unfavour attack from rare side.
• The C – X is weaker & can be broken by polar solvent.
Nature of alkyl halide describes the following information about mechanism of SN-reactions.
Nature of alkyl halide Structure Most favrouable mechanism

Methyl halide CH3X SN2
10 – Alkyl halide R – CH2X SN2
20 – Alkyl halide R2 CHX Mixed SN1 and SN2
30 – Alkyl halide R3 CH X SN1
Difference between SN1 and SN2 reaction

SN1 REACTION SN2 REACTION
It is a unimolecular reaction and governed It is a bimolecular reaction and governed by
by first order kinetics. second order kinetics.
Mechanism completes in two steps. Mechanism completes in one steps.
Reaction proceed through the formation of Reaction proceed through the formation of
carbo cat ion. transition state.
Rate of reaction is depended upon conc. of Rate of reaction is depended upon conc. of
substrate only both substrate and nucleophile
R = K [substrate] R = K [substrate] [Nu]
The order of reactivity of alkyl halide for The order of reactivity of alkyl halide for
SN1 reaction is SN2 reaction is
30  20  10  CH3X 30  20  10  CH3X
-ELIMINATION REACTION
Reaction which involves the loss of two atoms or groups from adjacent carbon atoms
in a molecule with the formation of double bond is known as -elimination or 1, 2-
elimination reaction. It is a characteristic reaction of alkyl halide.
When an alkyl halide (containing  hydrogen) is treated with hot conc.
alcoholic solution of strong base (KOH), a removal of halogen atom
from -carbon and hydrogen atom from  carbon occurs giving
an alkene. This is known as -elimination reaction.
CH2 − CH2 + 𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙

KOH → CH2 = CH2 + KX + H2 O
| |
X H
In gold and Hughes (1930) classified -elimination reactions in alkyl halide into E1
and E2 on the basis of their molecularity and mechanism.

E2-REACTIONS
“It is a bimolecular elimination reaction in which the removal
of halogen and -hydrogen takes place in one step only”
Mechanism of E2 Reaction
Reaction starts with the attack of base (OH) on -hydrogen of alkyl halide to form a
transition state.
In transition state following three chemical changes occur simultaneously.
• Removal of proton from -carbon
• Removal of halide ion
• Formation of double bond.
Rate of E2 Reaction
Since two molecules (base and substrate) are involved in transition state, the rate of
this reaction depends on the concentration of both substrate and the attacking base.
R = K [substrate] [Base]
E1-REACTIONS
“It is a unimolecular elimination reaction in which the removal of halogen
and -hydrogen takes place one after the another by involving two steps”
Mechanism of E1 Reaction
Mechanism of E1 reaction completes in two steps.
Step – 1: Formation of Carbocation (Slow Step)
Cleavage of polarized C – X bond which allows the loss of X ion to give carbo cat ion
intermediate.
This is a slow and endothermic process known as rate determining step.

Step – 2: (Fast Step) (Deprotonation)
Base attack on carbocat ion and eliminate -hydrogen hence a double is quickly generated
between  and  carbon to give alkene.

Rate of E1 Reaction
Since only one molecule involved in the rate determine step, the rate of E 1 mechanism
depends upon concentration of substrate but remains independent upon the concentration of
attacking base.
R = K [substrate]
E1 – Reaction E2 – Reaction
Mechanism
• Unimolecular • Bimolecular
• Completes in two steps • Completes in one step
• Reaction proceed through the formation of • Reaction proceed through the formation of
carbocat ion intermediate carbocat ion intermediate
Kinetics
• First order • Second order
• Rate of reaction depends upon • Rate of reaction depends upon
concentration of alkyl halide only concentration alkyl halide as well as base
R = K [Rx] R = K [Rx] [Base]
Effect of Alkyl Halide
30-alkyl halide is most suitable for E1 reaction 10-alkyl halide is most suitable for E2 reaction
Solvent
Polar protic solvent increase the rate of SN1 Polar a protic solvent increase the rate of SN2
reaction reaction
A summary of the reactions of alkyl halide are given in following table.

STABILITY OF CARBOCATION
Carbocat ion is a positively charged carbon. It is a trivalent carbon which contain six
electron in the outer most shell. It acts as electrophile in organic reactions.
Stability of carbo cat ion depends upon the number of Alkyl groups attached to the
electropositive carbon atom. Hence
A tertiary carbo cat ion is most stable because of its electron releasing nature
(inductive effect) which decreases the intensity of positive charge of carbon.
H H H CH3
| | | |
H − C+ < H3 C − C + < CH3 − C + < H3 C − C +
| | | |
H H CH3 CH3
(Methyl carbocation) (1o carbocation) (2o carbocation) (Carbocation)
ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds in which carbon is bonded to metal
are called organometallic compounds.
In these compounds carbon which is attached to the metal bear a negative charge due
to high electropositive character of metal.
The more electropositive is the metal, the more ionic is the carbon to metal bond.
Some common organometallic compounds are alkyl magnesium halide, Alkyl lithium,
Trimethyl aluminum. Tetra ethyl ead, Diethy zinc.
GRIGNARD REAGENT
This is an organo metallic compound and chemically
named as alkyl magnesium halide.
It is one of the most useful and versatile chemical prepared by victor Grignard
(university of Lyons) who received noble prize in 1912 for its discovery.
Method of Preparation
When a solution of alkylhalide is treated with metallic magnesium in the presence of
anhydrous ether, a vigorous reaction occurs, to give Grignard reagent.
𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝐶𝐻3 𝐼 + 𝑀𝑔 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑀𝑔𝐼
Reactivity of Grignard Reagent

In C-Mg part of Grignard reagent, a highly electropositive magnesium atom is attached
through covalent bond hence alkyl group which is bonded to magnesium bears a partially
negative charge and behave as nucleophile.
R- - Mg+ X

Due to nucleophilic nature of alkyl group of Grignard regent, it undergoes the following
types of reactions.
(i) Nucleophilic substitution reactions (ii) Nucleophilic addition reaction
1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions

Compounds in which hydrogen is attached to highly electronegative atom (e.g. R-OH,
NH3, H2O) are known as compounds of active source of proton. These compound can
easily be react with Grignard reagent through nucleophilic substitution mechanism and
from alkanes.
Reaction with Water

𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐵𝑟 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻𝑂 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐵𝑟
Reaction with NH3

𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐼 + 𝑁𝐻3 → 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝑁𝐻2 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐼
Reaction with Alcohol

𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐼 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐼
Reaction with Alkyl Halide

𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐵𝑟 + 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐵𝑟 → 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑀𝑔𝐵𝑟2
Reaction with Alkyl Amine

𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐼 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑁𝐻2 → 𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑁𝐻2 − 𝑀𝑔 − 𝐼
2. Nucleophilic Addition Reaction

Grignard reagent reacts with compounds having C=O group to form addition products
which on further hydrolysis give carboxylic acid and alcohol.
(i) Reaction with formaldehyde
(ii) Reaction with acetaldehyde

(iii) Reaction with Ketones
(iv) Reaction with carbon dioxide
Reactions of Grignard reagent can be summarized in the following chart.

M.C.Q’s
1. Organic compounds having the general formula CnH2n+1…X
(A) Alkyl halides (B) Akenyl halides
(C) Alknyl halides (D) Ary halide
2. Other name of alkyl halides is:
(A) Monohalo-alkanes (B) Dihalo-alkanes
(C) Trihalo-alkanes (D) Tetrahalo-alkanes
3. Compounds derived from alkanes by the replacement of more than one
hydrogen atoms by halogen atoms are known as:
(A) Alkyl halides (B) Dihalo-alkanes
(C) Trihalo-alkanes (D) Halo-alkanes
4. Which of the following is an alkyl halide:.
(A) CH3⎯C1 (B) CH2Br2
(C) CHI3 (D) None of these
5. An alkyl halide in which halogen bearing C atom is directly linked to one more
carbon atom is called:
(A) Primary, 1° (B) Secondary, 2°
(C) Tertiary, 3° (D) None of these
6. An alkyl halide in which the halogen bearing C atom is attached to two more
carbon atoms is called:
7. An alkyl halide in which halogen is attached to tertiary carbon atom is called:
8. Which of the following is a tertiary alkyl halide:
(A) CH3C1 (B) CHC13
(C) (CH3)3CCl (D) (CH3)2CHCl
9. Chloroform (CHCl3) is:
(A) Primary alkyl halide (B) Secondary alkyl halide
(C) Tertiary alkyl halide (D) None of these
10. When methane is treated with chlorine in the presence of sunglight it forms:
(A) CH3Cl (B) CH2Cl2
(C) CHCl3
(D) A mixture of various halogenation derivates of methane
11. Ethene adds a molecule of HI to form:
(A) Iodo-ethane (B) Iodo-ethene
(C) Di-iodoethane (D) None of these
12. Addition of halogen acid in unsymmetrical alkene is governed
(A) Markowinkoff’s Rule (B) Hund’s Rule
(C) Crum-Brown Rule (D) No rule is obeyed
13. The product formed in the reaction is
CH3⎯CH=CH2 + H⎯Br ……….
(A) CH3⎯CH2⎯CH2⎯Br (B) CH3⎯CHBr⎯CH3
(C) CH3⎯CH2⎯CHBr2 (D) None of these
14. Alcohols react with H⎯X in the presence of ZnCl2 as catalyst to give:
(A) Aldenydes (B) Ketones
(C) Alkyl halides (D) Aldols

15. In alkyl halides (R⎯X), the most reactive group is:
(A) Alkyl group, ⎯ R (B) Halide group, ⎯X
(C) R⎯X molecule as a whole (D) None of these
16. In alkyl halide R⎯CH2⎯X:
(A) Carbon atom is partially negatively charged.
(B) Halogen atom is partially negatively charged.
(C) Alky group (R) is partially negatively charged.
(D) There is no polarity any where in alkyl halide molecules.
17. A nucleophile is represented
+ − −
(A) E (B) Nu (C) Nu (D) Both Nu and Nu:
18. Those reagents or groups which are deficient in electrons are called:
(A) Nucleophile (B) Eectrophile (C) Substrate (D) Lewis base
19. Those reagents or groups which have excessive electrons are called:
(A) Nucleophile (B) Electrophile (C) Substrate (D) Lewis acid
20. A positively charges ion in which a carbon atom is bonded with three other
atoms or group of atoms is called:
(A) Oxonium ion (B) Carbanion (C) Carbonium ion (D) None of these
21. A substitution reaction in which one nucleophile displaces another nucleophile is
called:
(A) SN reaction (B) SN1 reaction
(C) SN2 reaction (D) β-elimination reaction
22. Chemical name of Grignard’s reagent is:
(A) Alkyl sodium halide (B) Alkyl potassium halide
(C) Alkyl magnesium halide (D) None of these
23. Type formula of Grignard’s reagent is:
(A) R⎯NaX (B) R⎯K⎯X (C) R⎯Mg⎯ (D) None of these
24. When methyl iodide (CH3⎯I) is treated with aqueous KOH, the product formed
is:
(A) CH4 (B) CH3-OK (C) CH3⎯OH (D) None of these
25. When CH3⎯I is treated with sodium methoxide CH3 ONa, the product formed
is:
(A) An ether (B) Alcohol (C) Alkane (D)None of these
26. Esters are formed when CH3⎯I is treated with:
(A) CH3COONa (B) CH3COOAg (C) CH3Na (D)None of these
27. A primary amine is formed when alkyl halide is treated with:
(A) Aqueous NH3 (B) Alchholic NH3 (C) NH3 gas (D)None of these
28. When CH3I is treated with KCN, the product formed is:
(A) Methyl Cyanide (B) Methyl amine
(C) Nitromethane (D) None of these
29. SN2 is:
(A) One steps process (B) Two steps process
(C) Three steps process (D) Multi steps process
30. SN1 is:
(A) One step process (B) Two steps process
(C) Three steps process (D) Multi steps process
31. SN2 reaction are given
(A) pri-alkylhalides 1° (B) Sec, alkylhalides, 2°
(C) Test alkyl halides, 3° (D) Primary and tert, Alkyl halides

32. Rate expression pf SN2 reaction is represented as:
(A) Rate = K[R-X] (B) Rate = K[R-X][Nu-]
(C) Rate ∞ [R-X] (D) Rate ∞ [Nu-]
33. SNI reactions are given
(A) p-alkyl halides, 1° (B) Sec. alkyl halides, 2°
(C) Tert, alkyl halides, 3° (D) Primary and tert, Alkyl halides
34. A grignard’s reagent may be obtained by reacting metallic magnesium with:
(A) Dethyl ether (B) Ethyl iodide
(C) Methyl amme (D) Ethy alcohol
35. The elimination of hydrogen and halogen atoms from two adjacent carbon atoms
in an alkyl halide is called:
(A) Hydrohalogenation (B) Dehydrohalogenation
(C) Dehydrogenation (D) Dehalognation
36. A nucleophile is also known as:
(A) Lewis acid (B)Lewis base (C)Electron loving (D) None of these
37. In elimination reaction of alkyl halides the main product formed is:
(A) Alchohol (B) Alkene (C) Alkyne (D)None of these
38. The reaction OH- + C2H5-Br C2H5⎯OH + Br-, is:
(A) Electrophilic (B) Nucleophilic (C) Free radical (D) Redox
39. Elimination reaction of primary halides is:
(A) Single step reaction (B) Two steps reaction
(C) Three steps reaction (D) Multi steps reaction
40. Alkyl halides are:
(A) Very reactive compounds (B) Moderately reactive compounds
(C) Least reactive compounds (D) None of these
41. In alkyl halides the following reaction are more common:
(A) Nucleophile substitution reactions (B) Elimination reactions
(C) Addition reactions (D) Organo-metellic reactions
42. What happens when methyl bromide is treated with sodium methoxide:
(A) Ethane is formed (B) Dimethyl ether is formed
(C) dimethyl ketone is formed (D) None of these
43. What is formed when ethyl iodide is reduced with Sn/HC1:
(A) Butane (B) Ethane (C) Ethene (D)None of these
44. Alkyl halide reacts with aqueous KOH to form:
(A) Potassium alkoxide (B) Alcohol
(C) Carboxylic acid (D) Aldehyde
45. Which of the following alkyl halides is used as methylating agent:
(A) CH3I (B) C2H5C1 (C) C2H5Br (D) C3H7C1
46. Which of the following is liquid at room temperature:
(A) CH3C1 (B) C2H5C1 (C) C2H5Br (D) CH31
47. A silver salt of fatty acid on heating with alkyl halides gives:
(A) Aldehydes (B) Ketones (C) Ester (D) Ether
48. The least polar compound is:
(A) C2H5C1 (B) C2H5OH (C) CHC13 (D) CC14

ANSWER KEYS
01. A 11. A 21. A 31. A 41. A
02. A 12. A 22. C 32. B 42. C
03. D 13. B 23. C 33. C 43. B
04. A 14. C 24. C 34. B 44. B
05. A 15. B 25. A 35. B 45. A
06. B 16. B 26. B 36. B 46. D
07. C 17. D 27. B 37. B 47. C
08. C 18. B 28. A 38. B 48. D
09. A 19. A 29. A 39. A 49.
10. D 20. C 30. B 40. A 50.

CARBON COMPOUNDS WITH
9 OXYGEN CONTAINING
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
ALCOHOLS
Aliphatic compounds which contain hydroxyl group (-OH) are called
alcohols.
These are derivatives of alkanes in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced
by -OH group.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALCOHOL
Alcohols are classified on the basis of number of -OH groups present in the
compound. Hence they may be considered as monohydric, dihydric, trihydric and polyhydric
alcohols.
• Monohydric alcohol contain one -OH group
• Dihydric alcohol contain two -OH groups
• Trihydric alcohol contain three -OH groups
CH2 − OH
CH3 − CH2 CH2 − CH2 CH2 − CH − CH2 |
| | | | | | (CHOH)4
OH OH OH OH OH OH |
(CHOH)4
(Ethylene glycol) (Ethylene glycol) (Glycerol) (Sorbitol)
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
(Monohydric alcohol) (Dihydric alcohol) (Trihydric alcohol) (Polyhydric alcohol)
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOHYDRIC ALCOHOL

Monohydric alcohol have general formula CnH2n+1…OH and represented by R-OH.
These are classified into the following three groups.
i) Primary alcohol (1o-Alcohol)
When -OH group is attached with the primary carbon atom, i.e. the carbon which contains
only one alkyl group is called primary alcohol or 1o alcohol.
ii) Secondary alcohol (2o-Alcohol)
When -OH group is attached with the secondary carbon atom, i.e. the carbon which
contains two alkyl group is called secondary alcohol or 2o alcohol.
iii) Tertiary alcohol (3o-Alcohol)
When -OH group is attached with the tertiary carbon atom, i.e. the carbon which contains
three alkyl group is called tertiary alcohol or 3o alcohol.

H R R
| | |
R − C − OH R − C − OH R − C − OH
| | |
H H R
(1𝑂 − 𝐴𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙) (2𝑂 − 𝐴𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙) (3𝑂 − 𝐴𝑙𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑜𝑙)
General Physical Properties of Alcohols
Physical State
i) The lower members of monohydric alcohol are mostly liquid but alcohol above C 12 are
solids.
ii) They are colourless and neutral substance with characteristics sweet smell and burning
taste
Boiling & Melting Point

i) The boiling & melting point of alcohols is higher than corresponding hydrocarbons and
haloalkanes because of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
(Intermolecular hydrogen bonding in alcohol molecules)
ii) Within alcohol family the boiling point increase with an increase in molecular mass.
iii) Increase number of branches within the molecule decreases the boiling point because
branched alcohol has less surface area than straight chain alcohol.
Solubility
Alcohols are generally water soluble because of the ability to form hydrogen bond with
water molecule.
(Intermolecular hydrogen bonding between ethanol and water molecules)
Solubility decreases with the increase number of carbon chain because the large alkyl
group cause an enlargement of non polar hydrocarbon part.
What is Pyroligneous acid?

It is a strongly acidic viscous liquid obtained by the destructive distillation of wood.
It contains methanol, acetone, acetic acid, methyl acetate and some other organic
compounds.
Traditionally methanol has been obtained by fractional distillation of pyroligneous
acid.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF METHANOL
Methanol is prepared on large scale by water gas.
Water gas when subjected to 200 atmosphere pressure and 400-450oC, in the presence
of catalyst (ZnO / Cr2O3), it gives the vapours of methanol which then liquefies on
condensation.
𝑍𝑛𝑂/𝐶𝑟2 𝑂3
𝐶𝑂 + 2𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF ETHANOL

Ethyl alcohol is prepared on commercial scale by the fermentation of
(i) Starch (ii) Molasses
Fermentation of Starch
Starch (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide found in many vegetables like barley, wheat,
potato, rice, etc
Fermentation of starch, involves the following steps.
Starch grains are first cooked with water to form a pulp. Then add some malt to this pulp
The enzyme diastase present in the malt hydrolyse starch in to maltose sugar.
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑡
2(𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂5 )𝑛 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑛𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11
Maltose sugar is then mixed with yeast at low temperature (18-20oC)
The maltase enzyme in yeast converts maltose into glucose.
𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝐶6 𝐻12𝑂6
The zymase enzyme of yeast convert glucose into ethanol
𝑧𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 → 2𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2
Fermentation of Molasses
Molasses is a dark coloured syrup left after isolation of cane sugar.
In the fermentation of molasses following essential steps are involved.
Molasses is first diluted with water & mixed with yeast under an aerobic conditions at a
temperature of 18-20oC.
The sucrase enzyme of yeast converts molasses into glucose and fructose.
𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 𝐶6 𝐻12𝑂6
(sucrose) (glucose) (fructose)
The zymase enzyme of yeast converts glucose and fructose into ethanol.
𝑧𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 → 2𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2
What is Fermentation
It is a biochemical process in which sugar is converted into ethanol and CO2 in the
presence of certain enzymes secreted by microorganism such as yeast.
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 → 2𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 2𝐶𝑂2
The process of fermentation is carried out at 20-30oC. Above this temperature yeast
can be killed and below this temperature yeast becomes inactive.
Since CO2 gas escape in the form of bubbles so the process is called fermentation meaning
bubbling.
What is Rectified Spirit?

Alcohol obtained by fermentation is very dilute. On distillation, it becomes 92-95%
pure . This is called rectified spirit.
What is Absolute Alcohol?

It is 99.9% pure alcohol and obtained by re-distillation of rectified spirit by adding
CaO.
What is Methylated Spirit?(Denaturing of alcohol)

Ethanol is denatured by adding small amount of methanol to avoid its use of drinking
as vine. This mixture is known as methylated spirit.
The composition of methylated spirit is given as:
• Ethanol=85%
• Water=11%
• Methanol=4%
REACTIONS OF METHANOL/ETHANOL
Esterification
Ethanol when reacts with acetic acid in the presence of conc. H2SO4, to give an ester,
this process is called esterification.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Alkene Formation
Ethanol when heated with conc. H2SO4 at 180oC, loses water molecule and forms
ethene.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 180𝑜 𝐶
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Ether Formation
Excess of ethanol when heated with conc. H2SO4 at relatively low temperature, it
gives ether.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐),130−140𝑜 𝐶
𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 ⇔ 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Reaction with PCl3, PCl5, SOCl2
𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙5 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑃𝑂𝐶𝑙3 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
3𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙3 → 3𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3
𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
Reaction with HCl

𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2
𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Reaction with Sodium

This reaction shows the acidic character of alcohol. However it is weaker acid then
water because its Ka value is 10-16 to 10-18 where as the Ka value of water is 10-14
1
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2
2
Oxidation Reaction
Alcohol oxidizes to aldehyde and ketone when treated with potassium dichromate in
acidic medium.
H H
| 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 |
R − C − O H + [O] → H − C = O + H 2O
| 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. )
H
(Methanol) (Formaldehyde)
H H
| 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 |
R− C−OH + [O] → R − C = O + H2O
| 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂 4 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. )
H
(Prim. alcohol) (Aldehyde)
R R
| 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 |
R − C − O H + [O] → R − C = O + H2O
| 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. )
H
(Sec. alcohol) (Ketone)

PHENOLS
Organic compounds in which one or more -OH groups are directly
attached to benzene are called phenols.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHENOL
Phenols are classified as monohydric, dihydric and trihydric depending upon to the
number of -OH groups attached to benzene ring.
(i) Monohydric Phenol
When only one -OH group is directly attached to benzene ring, this is called as
monohydric phenol.
(ii) Dihydric Phenol

When two -OH group is directly attached to benzene ring, this is called as dihydric
phenol.
(iii) Trihydric Phenol

When three -OH group is directly attached to benzene ring, this is called as trihydric
phenol.
METHOD OF PREPARATION
1. From Chlorobenzene (Down Process)
Chlorobenzene on heating with 10% NaOH, at 300oC and 200 atmospheric pressure it
form sodium phenoxide which on further heating with HCl gives phenol.

2. From Benzene Sulphonate
When benzene sulphonate is fused with solid NaOH, it gives sodium phenoxide which on
further heating with HCl gives phenol.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF PHENOL

Reaction with Sodium hydroxide
Phenol is fairly acidic in nature and reacts with strong base like sodium hydroxide
yielding a salt known as phenoxide.
Reaction with Zinc

When vapours of phenol are passed over red hot zinc, it gives benzene.
Hydrogenation
When hydrogen is passed through phenol at 150oC in the presence of nickel, it gives
cyclohexanol.
Halogenation (Bromination)
Phenol reacts with bromine water to give white ppt of 2, 4, 6-tribromophenol.
Reaction with dilute HNO3

Phenol when heated with dilute nitric acid at 25oC, it gives a mixture of ortho and
para nitrophenol.

Reaction with conc HNO3
Phenol when heated with conc, nitric acid gives 2, 4, 6-trinitrophenol (picric acid).
Sulphonation at 20oC
Phenol when react with H2SO4 at 20oC, it forms a mixture of ortho and para phenol
sulphonic acid in which ortho isomer is in greater proportion.
Sulphonation at 100oC
Phenol when react with H2SO4 at 100oC, it forms a mixture of ortho and para phenol
sulphonic acid in which para isomer is in greater proportion.
Acidic Character of Phenol

Phenol is acidic in nature because.
• It turns blue litmus solution to red
• It reacts with strongly electropositive metal like sodium to liberate hydrogen.
• It reacts with alkali to form salt and water

However, phenol is much more stronger acid then alcohol but less stronger than carboxylic
acid.
ETHER
Organic compounds which contains an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl
groups (R-O-R) are known as ether.
The general formula of ether is CnH2n+2O similar to monohydric alcohol but due to
their structure (R-O-R), they may be regarded as alkyl oxide or anhydride of alcohol.
(i) Symmetrical Ether

A symmetrical ether is that in which the two alkyl groups are same.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5
(di methyl ether) (di ethyl ether)
(ii) Unsymmetrical Ether

An unsymmetrical ether is that in which different alkyl groups are attached to oxygen.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑂 − 𝐶3 𝐻7 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3
(propyl methyl ether) (ethyl methyl ether)
(i) Williamson’s Synthesis
This is very common laboratory method of preparation of ether.
When an alkyl halide is heated with sodium alkoxide, an ether is formed.
2𝐶2 𝐻5𝑂𝐻 + 2𝑁𝑎 → 2𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝐵𝑟 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝑁𝑎𝐵𝑟
(ii) Dehydration of Alcohol
This is a method for the preparation of symmetrical ether.
When excess of alcohol is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, condensation of
two molecules of alcohol takes place with the elimination of water give ether.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐)
2𝑅 − 𝑂𝐻 ⇔ 𝑅 − 𝑂 − 𝑅 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(iii) Heating of alkyl halide with dry silver oxide
Ethyl chloride on heating with dry silver oxide, produces ether.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
2𝐶2 𝐻5 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐴𝑔𝑂2 → 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 2𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙
What is Oxonium Ion?

When oxygen is bonded with three atoms atoms or group, it bear a positive charge
and known as oxonium ion.
For example:
R − O+ − 𝑅
|
R
ALDEHYDE AND KETONE
Organic compounds which contains C=O group are known as aldehyde and ketone.
These compound have a general formula CnH2nO and collectively called as carbonyl
compounds.
O O
|| ||
R −C−H R −C−R
(Aldehyde) (Ketone)
FORMALDEHYDE (METHANAL)
1. By dehydrogenation of methyl alcohol
On large scale, methanal is obtained by passing a mixture of methanol (CH 3-OH) vapours
and air over heated catalyst. In this reaction methanol loses hydrogen to produce
methanal.
H
| 𝐶𝑢𝑂+𝑀𝑜𝑂 O
H − C − OH → || + H2
| 300o C H − C−H
H
2. By oxidation of methyl alcohol

Methyl alcohol is oxidized to formaldehyde by heating with a mixture of K 2Cr2O7 / conc.
H2SO4.
H
| O
K2 Cr2 𝑂7 /H2 SO4(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.)
H − C − OH + [O] → || + H2O
| H − C−H
H
3. By dry distillation of calcium formate
Calcium formate on dry distillation, gives vapours of formaldehyde.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF METHANAL

1. Oxidation of aldehyde group
Like all aldehydes, formaldehyde possess active H-atom attached to carbonyl group
which is easily oxidized when formaldehyde is treated with the mixture of K 2Cr2O7 /
conc. H2SO4 to form formic acid.

2. Addition at carbonyl carbon
The carbonyl bond (C=O) is polarized in all carbonyl compounds and the addition of
various reagent across the carbon to oxygen double bond of carbonyl group is
characterized by active hydrogen
General reaction of this type may be represented as:
Followings are the addition reaction of methanal with some reagents.

(a) Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)
The addition reaction is initiated by nucleophile attack of CN- at electrophilic C+.
(b) Addition of Hydroxalamine (NH2OH)

Formaldehyde adds hydroxalamine (NH2OH) to form aa stable product called
“Oxime”
(c) Addition of Phenylhydrazine (NH2-NH-C6H5)

Formaldehyde adds phenyl hydrazine in normal manner to form stable product
called phenyl hydrazone.

(d) Addition of Ethyl Alcohol (C2H5-OH)
Formaldehyde adds ethyl alcohol. In the first stage “hemiacetal” is formed
and then in the second stage “acetal” is formed.
3. Reaction with Fehling’s solution

This reaction is specific to aldehyde only.
When Fehling’s solution reacts with aldehyde, red ppt of Cu2O is obtained.
𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 2𝐶𝑢(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑢2 𝑂 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
(red ppt)
4. Reaction with Tollen’s Reagent
This reaction is specific to aldehyde because it contains carbonyl hydrogen. Tollen’s
reagent when reacts with an aldehyde, it form metallic silver, which is deposited on the
fine smooth surface forming silver mirror.
𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 2[𝐴𝑔(𝑁𝐻3 )2 ]𝑂𝐻 → 2𝐴𝑔 ↓ +𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝐻4 + 3𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐻2 𝑂
5. Cannizaro Reaction
This reaction is specific to formaldehyde only (because formaldehyde do not possess
alpha hydrogen).
Formaldehyde when treated with strong alkali, it undergoes self redox reaction nin which
one molecule is oxidized to formate and other molecule is reduced to methanol.
𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝑁𝑎+
(Methanol) (Sodium formate)
6. Reduction of methanal to methanol
When formaldehyde is reacted with sodium amalgam and water or sodium and alcohol, it
is reduced by nascent hydrogen to methanol.
𝑁𝑎 , 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻
𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝑂𝐻
7. Polymerization
Formaldehyde polymerises in the presence of dilute H2SO4, on heating to form a trimer
known as meta formaldehyde.

ACETONE (2-PROPANONE)
1. By oxidation of secondary propyl alcohol
Acetone is prepared by oxidation of secondary propyl alcohol with acidified potassium
dichromate solution. Due to oxidation, loss of two hydrogen atoms takes place.
OH
O
|
||
CH3 − C − CH3 + [O] → K2Cr2𝑂7/H2SO4(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.) + H2O
CH3 − C − CH3
| (Acetone)
H
2. By pyrolysis of Acetic Acid
When vapours of acetic acid are passed over manganese dioxide at 500oC, it yields
acetone.
𝑀𝑛𝑂2 , 500𝑜 𝐶
2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
3. By Dry distillation of calcium acetate
Industrially acetone is prepared by dry distillation of calcium acetate.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETONE

1. Reduction
Acetone reduces to secondary propyl alcohol no heating with hydrogen in presence of
catalyst palladium.
OH
O
Pd |
|| →
+ H2 CH3 − C − CH3
CH3 − C − CH3 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
(Acetone)
|
H
2. Oxidation
Acetone oxidizes in the presence of strong oxidizing agent such as mixture of potassium
dichromate and conc. H2SO4 and form acetic acid.
O
O
|| K2 Cr2 𝑂7 /H2 SO4(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.)
+ 4[O] → ||
CH3 − C − CH3
CH3 − C − OH + CO2 + H2 O
(Acetone)
3. Formation of Iodoform
Acetone on heating with iodine in presence of sodium carbonate forms yellow
precipitates of iodoform.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 + 3𝐼2 + 2𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐶𝐻𝐼3 + 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 3𝑁𝑎𝐼 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

CARBOXYLIC ACID
“Organic compounds which contains carboxyl (COOH) group are called carboxylic
acid.”
A carboxyl functional group is a combination of a carbonyl group and hydroxyl group.
O
||
−C − OH
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACID

Carboxylic acid are classified into mono carboxylic acid, di carboxylic acid and tri
carboxylic acid depending upon the number of -COOH group present in the molecule.
COOH
CH3 − COOH |
COOH
ACETIC ACID
The most common carboxylic acid is “Acetic acid”. It is colourless volatile liquid
having sharp vinegar smell and a sour taste. It is main constituent of vinegar. It freezes like
glassy mass hence is called glacial acetic acid.
1. From Pyroligneous acid
The brown aqueous distillate obtained during destructive distillation of wood was the
chief source of acetic acid. This liquid which is called pyroligneous acid contains acetic
acid, acetone and methyl alcohol. Acetic acid is obtained by the fractional distillation of
this mixture.
2. From Ethyne
Ethyne reacts with water in presence of mercuric sulphate and sulphuric acid at 75 oC to
produce unstable intermediate vinyl alcohol which on rearrangement forms acetaldehyde
(ethanal)
𝑑𝑖𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 𝐻𝑔𝑆𝑂4
𝐻𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 𝐻 − 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐻2 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐻(𝑂𝐻)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐻2 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐻(𝑂𝐻) → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂
The oxidation of acetaldehyde is carried out with K 2Cr2O7 and conc H2SO4 to give acetic
acid.
𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 ,𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + [𝑂] → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
3. From Ethyl alcohol
The oxidation of ethyl alcohol with K2Cr2O7/conc. H2SO4 gives acetaldehyde which is
further oxidized to acetic acid.

𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝑂𝐻 + [𝑂] → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 + [𝑂] → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
Physical Properties
(i) Physical State
• Acetic acid is a colourless volatile liquid having sharp vinegar smell and a sour
taste.
• Anhydrous acetic acid is crystalline hygroscopic solid, freezes like glassy mass
hence called as glacial acetic acid.
(ii) Boiling and Melting Point
Molecules of carboxylic acid is highly polar because of the presence of carbonyl
(C=O) as well as hydroxyl (-OH) group thus it has intermolecular hydrogen bonding
in dimeric form that is why carboxylic acid possess high melting point.
(iii) Solubility
Lower member of carboxylic acid are soluble in water because they form hydrogen
bonding with water molecule.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETIC ACID

1. Acetic acid as a monobasic weak acid
It ionizes in aqueous solution producing one proton (H +) per molecule. The ionization
constant of acetic acid is Ka=1.7x10-5 which means that it is very weak monobasic acid as
compared to mineral acids.
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(Sodium acetate)
2𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝑏𝑂 → (𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂)2 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐻2 𝑂
2. Esterification
When carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol in the presence of sulphuric acid to form an
ester. This process is known as esterification.
Acetic acid reacts with ethyl alcohol to form ethyl acetate in the presence of sulphuric
acid.
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻2 𝑂
(Ethyl acetate)
3. Formation of acid halide
Acetic acid reacts with thionyl chloride (SOCl2) or with phosphorus trihalide (PX3) or
with phosphorus pentahalide (PX5) to form acid halide such as acetyl chloride or acetyl
bromide.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
3𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝐶𝑙3 → 3𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂3
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝑃𝐵𝑟5 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐵𝑟 + 𝑃𝑂𝐵𝑟3 + 𝐻𝐵𝑟
The acid halides are important compounds to be used for the synthesis of other
compounds.

(a) Formation of Acetamide
Acid halide when reacts with ammonia (NH3) to give acetamide.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻 − 𝑁𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝑁𝐻2 + 𝐻𝐶𝑙
(b) Formation of Acetamide
Acid halide when reacts with sodium acetate to give acetic anhydride.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂− 𝑁𝑎+ + 𝐶𝑙 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝑂 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
(c) Formation of Ester

Acid halide when reacts with sodium ethoxide to give ethyl acetate.
𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂− 𝑁𝑎+ +− 𝐶𝑙 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
4. Decarboxylation
When sodium acetate is heated with caustic soda, a decarboxylation process occur to give
alkanes.
𝐶𝑎𝑂
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3
ESTER
“These are derivatives of carboxylic acid in which hydrogen of -COOH group is
replaced by an alkyl group.”
The general formula of esters is CnH2nO2 and type formula is RCOOR’ where R and R’ may
be same or different.
O
||
R − C − OR
Esters are pleasant smelling volatile liquids, naturally found in flowers and fruits etc. The
most common member of this class of organic compounds is Ethyl Acetate.
When acetic acid is treated with ethyl alcohol in the presence of conc. H 2SO4 it gives ethyl
acetate.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 − 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻2 𝑂
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
(i) Hydrolysis in acidic medium
Ethyl acetate reacts with water in the presence of dilute H 2SO4 to give acetic acid
and ethyl alcohol.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝐻 − 𝑂𝐻 ⇌ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻
(ii) Hydrolysis in basic medium
Ethyl acetate reacts with 10% aqueous NaOH solution to give sodium acetate and
ethyl alcohol.
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − 𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 ⇌ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶2 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻

USES OF ETHYL ACETATE
(i) It is used as plasticizer because its presence reduces the brittleness of plastic and
improve its elasticity
(ii) It is used for the preparation of artificial flavor and esseences.

M.C.Q’s
1. Which of the following does not possess oxygen containing functional groups?
(A) Alcohols (B) Ethers (C) Esters (D) Alkyl halides
2. Type formula of Esters is:
(A) R⎯CO⎯R (B) R⎯COO⎯R (C) R⎯COOH (D) R⎯O⎯R
3. C6H5OH is:
(A) An alcohol (B) A phenol (C) An aldehyde (D) An ester
4. If⎯OH group is linked to a primary carbon atom, such an alcohol is classified
as:
(A) p⎯alcohol, 1° (B) sec. alcohol, 2° (C) tert. Alcohol, 3° (D)None of these
5. R3C, OH is an example of:
(A) p⎯alcohol, 1° (B) sec. alcohol, 2° (C) tert. Alcohol, 3° (D)None of these
6. When the alcohols contain more than three hydroxyl groups, they are called:
(A) Monohydric alcohols (B) Dihydric alcohols
(C) Trihydric alcohols (D) Polyhydric alcohols
7. Which of the following alcohols is called “Wood spirit”;
(A) Methyl alcohol (B) Ethyl alcohol (C) Propyl alcohol (D) None of these
8. Ansolute alcohol has a purity of:
(A) 90% (B) 85% (C) 95% (D) 99.9%
9. Ethanol, when heated with cone, H2SO4 at 170°C, loses water to form:
(A) Ethyl hydrogen sulphate (B) Diethyl ether
(C) Ethene (D) None of these
10. What happens when ethyl alcohol is treated with sodium metal:
(A) Diethyl ether is formed (B) Sodium ethoxide is formed
(C) An ethane is formed (D) None of these
11. Characteristic group of primary alcohol is:
(A) >C = O (B) - CH2OH (C) >CHOH (D) COH
12. The IUPAC name of Alcohols is:
(A) Alkanal (B) Alkanol (C) Alkanone (D)None of these
13. Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols may be distinguished
(A) Lucus test (B) Lassaigess test
(C) Victor Meyer test (D) None of these
14. Compounds in which hydroxyl group is directly attached to the benzene nucleus
are called:
(A) Aliphatic alcohols (B) Phenols
(C) Aromatic hydrocarbons (D) None of these
15. Other name of phenol is:
(A) Carboxylic acid (B) Carbolic acid
(C) Carbonyl compound (D) Carbonic acid
16. Phenols are:
(A) Stronger acids than alcohol (B) Weaker acids than alcohol
(C) Stronger acids than acetic acid (D) None of these
17. Bakelite is obtained from phenol by treating with:
(A) Acetal (B) Formaldehyde
(C) Acetaldehyde (D) Chlorobenzene
18. When vapours of phenol are passed over red hot zinc dust, it is converted into:
(A) Toluene (B) Benzene
(C) Benzene sulphoric acid (D) None of these

19. Phenol can be prepared by heating chlorobenzene with 10% NaOH at high
temperature and pressure. This method is known as:
(A) Down’s process (B) Dow’s process
(C) Deacon’s process (D) None of these
20. Type formula of ether is:
(A) R⎯O⎯R (B) R⎯CO⎯R
(C) R⎯COO⎯R (D) R⎯CHO
21. A positively charged ion in which an oxygen atom is bounded to three other
atoms or groups of atoms is called:
(A) Carbonium ion (B) Carbonion (C) Oxinium ion (D)None of these
22. The monovalent RO⎯group is called:
(A) Alkyl group (B) Alkoxy group (C) Alkenyl group (D) All of these
23. Ethyl iodide on treatment with sodium methoxide gives:
(A) CH3⎯O⎯CH3 (B) C2H3⎯O⎯CH3
(C) C2H5⎯O⎯C2H5 (D) C2H6
24. Aldehydes and Ketones are combinely known as:
(A) Alkanals (B) Alkanones
(C) Carboxyl compounds (D) Carbonyl compounds
25. Aldehydes are formed by the oxidation of:
(A) p-alcohol (B) sec. alcohol (C) tert. alcohol (D) None of these
26. Ketones are produced by the oxidation of:
(A) p-alcohol (B) sec. alcohol (C) tert. alcohol (D) None of these
27. Which of the following gives positive Tollen’s test:
(A) Acetaldehyde (B) Diethyl ether (C) Acetone (D) Acetic acid
28. The formula of formaldehyde is:
(A) HCHO (B) CH3CHO (C) HCOOH (D) CH3⎯CO⎯CH3
29. In IUPA system aldehydes are called:
(A) Alkanes (B) Alkenols (C) Alkanols (D) Alkanals
30. Dry distillation of calcium acetate can form:
(A) Formaldehyde (B) Acetaldehyde (C) Acetone (D)None of these
31. Which of the following compounds does not contain ⎯OH group:
(A) Alcohol (B) Phenol (C) Aldehyde (D) Carboxilic acid
32. Formaline is a:
(A) 100% solution of HCHO (B) 60% solution of HCHO
(C) 40% solution of HCHO (D) 40% solution of CH3COOH
33. When acetaldehyde is heated with Fehling solution, it gives red ppt. of:
(A) CuO (B) Cu (C) Cu2O (D) Cu + CuO
34. Which of the following compounds undergoes Cannizzaro’s reaction:
(A) HCHO (B) CH3CHO (C) CH3⎯CH2⎯CHO (D)All of these
35. An aldehyde on oxidation gives:
(A) An alcohol (B) An acid (C) An ether (D) A ketone
36. Tollen’s reagent is:
(A) Ammonical Cu2Cl2 (B) Ammonical AgNO3
(C) Alkaline solution of CuSO4 (D) None of these
37. Compounds which contain carboxyl group (⎯COOH) are called:
(A) Ketones (B) Aldehydes (C) Carboxylic acid (D) Acetic acid
38. Which is the acid found in vinegar:
(A) Formic acid (B) Nitric acid (C) Acetic acid (D) Citric acid

39. Acetic acid reacts with phosphorous pentachloride to form:
(A) Methyl chloride (B) Acetyl chloride
(C) Propionyl chloride (D) None of these
40. Acetic acid reacts with ethyl alcohol in the presence of H2SO4 to form:
(A) Methyl acetate (B) Ethyl acetate (C) Methyl ethyl ketone (D) None of these
41. Which of the following does not have a carboxylic group:
(A) Benzoic acid (B) Acetone (C) Methanoicacid (D)Ethanoic acid
42. Formic acid owes its origin to:
(A) Milk (B) Butter (C) Red ant (D) None of these
43. Which one of the following is dicarboxylic acid:
(A) Acetic acid (B) Butryric acid (C) Oxalic acid (D)None of these
44. Acid present in lemon is:
(A) Acetic acid (B) Lactic acid (C) Citric acid (D) HCl
45. Organic compound used in making flavours and essences:
(A) Acetic acid (B) Benzene (C) Ethyl acetate (D) Acetone
46. The acid present in tomatoes is:
(A) Lactic acid (B) Citric acid (C) Oxalic acid (D) Tataric acid
47. Which of the following is used in baking powder:
(A) Citric acid (B) Tartaric acid (C) Oxalic acid (D) Latic acid
48. The alkyl derivates of carboxylic acids are called:
(A) Alkyl acids (B) Ethers (C) Esters (D)None of these
49. Which product is formed when ethyl alcohol is treated with acetic acid in the
presence of conc., H2SO4:
(A) ester (B) ether (C) alkylhalide (D) alcohol
ANSWERS KEY
01. D 11. B 21. C 31. C 41. B
02. B 12. B 22. B 32. C 42. C
03. B 13. A 23. B 33. C 43. C
04. A 14. B 24. D 34. A 44. C
05. C 15. B 25. A 35. B 45. C
06. D 16. A 26. B 36. B 46. D
07. A 17. B 27. A 37. C 47. B
08. D 18. B 28. A 38. C 48. C
09. C 19. B 29. D 39. B 49. C
10. B 20. A 30. C 40. B

10 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
It is a branch of science which deals with the chemical processes
occur in the living organisms,
Nutrition and Food
Nutrients are the substance in food that provide nourishment essential for growth and life.
The food is required by the body to achieve three purposes:
(a) Energy
(b) Growth and Maintenance of tissues
(c) Regulation of body processes
They are classified into six groups
(i) Carbohydrates
(ii) Lipids and Fats
(iii) Proteins
(iv) Vitamins
(v) Minerals
(vi) Water
Elements of Nutrition
For healthy performance, each day the diet must supply the body with:
(a) Adequate Calories (c) Mineral Salts
(b) Vitamins (d) Water
Calories
The energy and fuel values is measured in calories which is equal to the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of water by 1oC.
Almost all the physiological activities of the body are energy dependent and this
comes from the breakdown of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
CALORIES GAIN
Nutrients Calories / g
Carbohydrate 4
Protein 4
Lipid 9

Calories are consumed by normal routine work for example.
CONSUMPTION OF CALORIES
Nature of Work Calories / hour
Walking 140
Running 240
Sweeping/Cleaning 100
Dish Washing/Sewing 70
Labour work 270
Wood Sawing 450
Conc. Brain work Nil
Energy requirement for a person of normal size and weight working under moderate
condition may vary around 2500-3000 calories.
Minerals
Minerals are essential nutrients and play vital role in maintenance, building and
rebuilding of tissues.
These are abundantly found in fruits, vegetables, egg, milk and other daily dietary foods.
There are twenty three elements essential for the life, out of which 12 are metals and 11 are
nonmetals.
Metals: Ca, Na, K, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Co, Al, Ni, Mo, Se
Nonmetals: C, H, O, N, S, P, Cl, F, I, B, Si
Minerals play a vital role in acid base balance of the body and maintain the pH and
osmotic pressure.
For example egg, meat are acid forming food and fruits vegetables are basic forming
food. Their intake of mineral can control it.
Minerals are essential need of body for example.
• Calcium and phosphorus requires for bone and teeth.
• Iron requires for hemoglobin
• Iodine requires for thyroxine.
Water
Water is very important for life. About 70% of the body weight is water.
The water requirement of the body per day is about 2.5 to 3 liters. The sources of water intake
is drinking water, fluid and food stuff.
Water is regularly lost from the body through urine, skin and faeces.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrate is natural product and essential element of our nutrition. It was
previously called as “Sacchrides” meaning sugar.
Carbohydrate is main bimolecule, it consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
considered to be “Hydrate of carbon” with the general formula Cx(H2O)y excluding some
exception.
Carbohydrates are best define on the basis of functional group.
These are polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone or compounds which gives

polyhydroxy aldehyde and ketone on hydrolysis.
What are Sugars and Non Sugars?

Carbohydrate which are crystalline, water soluble and sweet taste are generally known
as sugars.
All monosaccharides and disaccharides are considered as sugar.
For example glucose, fructose, sucrose, etc
Carbohydrates of long polymer chain are water insoluble, amorphous and sweetless.
These are called non sugar or complex carbohydrate.
For example starch, glycogen, cellulose.
What are Reducing and non reducing sugar?

A reducing sugar is any sugar that is capable of acting as a reducing agent because it
has a free aldehyde group or a free ketone group.
(i) Glucose, Galactose and Maltose are reducing sugar
These molecules have free aldehydic group in an open chain structure or hemiacetal
linkage in ring structure.
Hemi-acetal bond is unstable and opened in aqueous solution to give free aldehydic
group which then reduced tollens reagent and Fehling’s solution but itself oxidizes to
carboxylic acid.
(ii) Fructose is also reducing sugar
Fructose consist of free ketonic group in open chain structure of unstable hemiketal
linkage. This hemiketal bond is easily broken in aqueous medium to give free ketonic
group.
This ketonic group undergoes tautomerization in basic medium to give keto enoll
mixture. The enol form is than changed into aldehyde. Hence if treated with Tollens
reagent it oxidizing into carboxylic acid.
(iii) Sucrose is non reducing sugar
Sucrose is a disaccharide and made up by α glucose and β fructose molecules.
The aldehydic terminal of glucose is joint with ketonic terminal of fructose through
glycosidic linkage.

This is a stable acetal linkage and cannot be opened in aqueous medium and hence
free aldehydic group is not available that’s why sucrose is a non reducing sugar.
Polysaccharides are also non reducing due to the same reason.
REDUCING SUGAR NON REDUCING SUGAR

These sugar contain free aldehydic or ketonic These sugar do not contain free aldehydic or
group. ketonic group.
They reduce Tollens reagent and Fehling’s They do not reduce Tollens reagent and
solution. Fehling’s solution.
All monosaccharides and all disaccharides All polysaccharides and one disaccharide
except sugar are reducing sugar. (sucrose) are non reducing sugar.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are generally classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides
and polysaccharides.
MONOSACCHARIDES
These are simplest carbohydrates because they cannot be further hydrolysed.
A monosaccharide molecule consist of 3-10 carbon atoms however the most common
monosaccharide is hexose which consist of 6 carbon atoms and represented by a common
formula C6H12O6.
Hexose sugar may contain either aldehydic or ketonic group hence generally called as
aldohexose or ketohexose.
Examples are glucose, fructose, galactose, etc
DISACCHARIDES
These carbohydrates consist of two monosaccharide units which are joint through glycosidic
linkage. The common formula of disaccharide is C12H22O11. They on hydrolysis by acid or
enzyme change into monosaccharides.
𝐶12 𝐻22 𝑂11 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶6 𝐻12𝑂6 + 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6
Examples of disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, lactose, etc
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
These are carbohydrates which on hydrolysis produce 2 to 10 monosaccharides units.
POLYSACCHARIDES
These are condensation polymers of many monosaccharides in which chain is hold through
glycosidic linkage. The general formula of polysaccharides is (C6H10O5)n where n is from 200
to 2500.
These are further classified into following two groups.
i) Animal Polysaccharides for example glycogen.
ii) Plant Polysaccharides for example starch.

Animal Polysaccharides
These carbohydrates are found in the muscles and liver of animals. The most common animal
polysaccharide is glycogen which is also called as animal starch.
Plant Polysaccharides
These are reserved carbohydrates of plant e.g. starch, cellulose, etc.
• Starch is a polymer of glucose and may be classified as amylose and amylopectin.
• In amylose, glucose unit linked through α-1,4-glycoside bond.
• In amylopectin, glucose units are linked through α-1,4 and α-1,6-glycosidic linkage.
• Cellulose is a polymer of glucose which are linked through β-1,4-glycosidic linkage.
GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE
A glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of covalent bond that joins a
carbohydrate molecule to another group.
Glycosidic linkage is generally found in those carbohydrates which made up of two or more
monosaccharides units (disaccharides and polysaccharides).
Biological Significance of Carbohydrate

(i) It is a cheap and efficient source of energy and furnishes about 60-80% of the total
calories intake
(ii) Ribose and deoxyribose which are found in the nucleus as RNA and DNA serves as
heredity carrier.
(iii) Glycogen is stored in liver, it hydrolyzed to glucose and provide necessary energy to
body during illness and fasting.
(iv) Cellulose is only be digested by animal because of the presence of certain specific
enzymes.
AMINO ACID
Amino acids are colorless water soluble crystalline solid with high melting point. They define
as:
Organic compound which contain an amino as well as carboxylic acid groups are called
amino acids.
𝑅𝛽 − 𝐶 𝛼 𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
|
𝑁𝐻2
Zwitter ion of Amino Acid

The molecule of amino acid consist of a COOH and NH2 group.

In aqueous solutions the carboxylic group being an acid loses a proton and the amino group
being a lewis base gains one proton. Hence a di-polar ion is formed this is known as zwitter
ion.
𝑅
|
𝐻3 𝑁 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂−
+
(Zwitter ion of amino acid)

Because of the formation of zwitter ion, amino acids are water soluble.
Classification of Amino Acid based on chemical nature

Depending upon the relative numbers of amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups, amino
acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral amino acids.
(i) Acidic Amino Acid
They contain one amino group and more than one carboxyl group in the molecule.
𝑁𝐻2
|
𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
(Aspartic acid)
(ii) Basic Amino Acid
They contain one carboxyl group and more than one amino group in the molecule.
𝑁𝐻2
|
𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 − (𝐶𝐻2 )3 − 𝑁𝐻2
(Lysine)
(iii) Neutral Amino Acid
They contain equal number of carboxyl group and amino group.
𝑁𝐻2
|
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
(Alanine)
Classification of Amino Acid based on structure

Amino acids are classified as α, β and γ amino acid depending upon the presence of
amino group at α, β and γ position respectively.
∝ β γ
H3 C − HC2 − CH − COOH H3 C − CH − CH2 − COOH H2 C − CH2 − CH2 − COOH
| | |
NH2 NH2 NH2
[ ∝ − 𝐀𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐨 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 ] [ β − 𝐀𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐨 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 ] [ γ − 𝐀𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐨 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 ]

Classification of Amino Acid based on nutrition importance
(i) Essential amino acid
These amino acid are not synthesized by the human body and can intake through diet.
(ii) Non essential amino acid
These amino acid can be synthesized by human body through a series of biochemical
reactions.
Essential Amino Acid Non Essential Amino Acid
Leucine Alanine
Isoleucine Glycine
Arganine Tyrosine
Valine Cysteine
Lysine Aspargine
Methionine Glutamine
Histidine Aspartic acid
Phenylalanine Glutanic acid
Threonine Proline
Tryptophan Serine
Role of Amino Acid in Human body

(i) All amino acids provide energy during oxidation in the tissues of body.
(ii) Certain amino acids are used to make hormones.
(iii) Some amino acid are synthesized back into body protein.
Peptide Linkage of Amino Acid

Its is an acid amide type bond exist among amino acid molecules.
This bond is established by the condensation of amino acid unit with the carboxylic
unit by elimination of water molecule.
This special type of bond is associated with protein molecule in which thousands of
amino acids hold through peptide linkage.
𝑅 𝑅
| |
𝐻2 𝑁 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑁𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
(Peptide Linkage)
GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE PEPTIDE LINKAGE
It is an acetal or ketal bond exist among hexose It is an amide bond exist among amino acid units
units in a disaccharide or polysaccharide of protein molecule.
molecule.
This bond is formed when aldehydic or ketonic This bond is formed when -COOH group of one
group of one sugar molecule join to hydroxyl amino acid linked to -NH2 of another amino acid.
group another sugar molecule.
This bond is broken by hydrolysis of amylase This bond is broken by the hydrolysis of pepsin
enzyme. and trypsin enzyme.

PROTEIN
Protein is an essential element of nutrition. It is biopolymer and abundantly found in
meat, milk, egg, pulses, beans, nuts, seeds, etc. Protein is derived from a latin word proteus
meaning primary importance.
Protein is a condensation polymer of 𝛂 amino acids in which chain hold through peptide
linkage.
Protein is a macro molecule. It’s molecular weight is 34000 to 50,000,000 dalton depending
upon the source and nature.
Structure
Protein is made up of many α amino acids through peptide bond. In which each amino
acid serves as building block.
𝑅 𝑅
| |
⋯ 𝐻𝑁 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂 ⋯ ⋯ 𝑁𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂 ⋯ 𝑛
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are classified into simple protein and conjugated protein.
(a) Simple Proteins
Protein which is made up of only α-amino acid are called simple protein.
They are further classified as Albumin, Globulin and Albuminoid on the basis of
difference in solubility and coagulability.
Albumin:
* It is a water soluble protein but upon heating it forms insoluble coagulate.
* It is present in egg white, blood, milk and plants.
* It function is to transport fatty acid in the body serum and to regulate the osmotic pressure.
Globulin:
* It is a water insoluble protein however soluble in 5% brine solution.
* It is present in egg, milk and seeds etc.
* It function is immune response.
(b) Conjugated Proteins

These proteins composed of amino acid with non protein substance.
This non protein substance is called as prosthetic group.
Conjugated protein are of following types.
Lipoprotein:
They consist of lipids along with simple protein.
Glycoprotein:
They consist of carbohydrate along with simple protein.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROTEINS
Proteins carry out very important functions in biological system. These are building blocks of
various tissues. Some important functions of protein are describe below:
(i) They provide energy in the form of calories. A man can gain 4 calories by taking 1
gram protein.
(ii) They maintain the building and rebuilding of tissues of the body.
(iii) Many hormones in our body are protein which regulate bio-chemical process for
example insulin, thyroxin.
(iv) Hemoglobin is a protein complex and involve in the oxygen transportation.
(v) Antibodies are protein which provide natural defence to the body.
(vi) All enzymes found in the cell are protein which catalyse a large number of biological
reactions.
Some important protein and their functions are described below:
Protein Function Example
Enzymes Biocatalyst Amylase, Protease, Lipase
Hormones Metabolic regulation Insulin, Thyroxin
Antibodies Immune system Globulin
development
Respiratory Protein Oxygen carrier Hemoglobin
ENZYMES
Enzymes are biochemical catalyst, they catalyze all biochemical process in the living
system.
Enzymes are derived from protein, they synthesis in the living cells and serves as
catalyst however their catalytic action is faster than an ordinary chemical catalyst.
For example decomposition of H2O2 is given as:
𝐻2 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2
For this reaction
* Energy of activation without any catalyst is 18KJ/mole.
* Energy of activation in the presence of iron is 13KJ/mole.
* Energy of activation in the presence of Pt is 12KJ/mole.
* Energy of activation in the presence of biocatalyst (enzyme) is 5KJ/mole.
What are Isoenzymes, proenzymes and cofactors

* Two or more enzymes which catalyze the same biochemical reaction are called isoenzymes.
* Certain enzymes are in the form of inactive protein and called as proenzymes.
Pepsinogen → Pepsin
* Certain enzymes consist of a prosthetic group which helps to activate their activity, this is
known as cofactor.

Nomenclature of Enzymes
According to trivial nomenclature system, enzymes are named after the substrate by
adding “ase” at the end.
For example sucrase for sucrose, lactase for lactose, lipase for lipid, protease etc.
This system does not describe accurately the nature of reaction to be catalyzed by that
enzyme.
The international union of biochemistry has introduced another system of
nomenclature of enzymes on the basis of type of reaction taking place by a specific enzyme.
For example if enzyme undergoes oxidation reaction it name will be oxidase.
ENZYME FUNCTION
These enzymes catalyze the reaction of group transfer from one
Transferase substance to another.
Acetyl COA + Carnitine → COA + Acetyl carnitine
They catalyze the hydrolytic reaction taking place in digestion of food.
amylase
Amylose → Glucose
Hydrolase Protease
Protein → Amino acid
Lipase
Lipid → Fatty acid
They catalyze the oxidation reduction reaction to double bond.
Oxido Reductase dehydrogenase
CH3 CH2 OH → CH3 CHO + H2
These enzymes catalyze the reaction of isomerization
Isomerase
L − alanine → D − alanine
These enzymes catalyze the addition reaction.
Lyase
Acetoacetate → Aceone + CO2
Factors which effect on enzyme activity
Following factors influenced the catalytic activity of enzyme.
(i) Temperature
Every enzyme show its maximun catalytic activity at an optimum temperature which
may be in between 37-50oC above and below optimum temperature enzyme becomes
in active.
(ii) pH
Every enzyme show its maximum activity at its own optimum pH. For example the
optimum pH of pepsin is 1.6 and trypsin is 8.2.
LIPIDS
Organic compounds which are oily to touch and soluble in Bloor’s reagent are called as
Lipids.
The term lipid was first used by German Biochemist “Bloor” in 1943. He said that a
group of organic compounds including fat, oil, wax, sterols. etc are neither soluble in water
nor completely in any organic solvent. However they can completely dissolved in a mixture
of diethyl ether and ethanol (2:1 ratio). He named this mixture of two solvent after his name
as “Bloor’s reagent” and set a criteria for the definition of lipids.

Classification of Lipids
Lipids are classified into simple and complex lipids on the basis of product formed by their
hydrolysis.
(i) Simple Lipids

These lipids on hydrolysis gives fatty acids and alcohol.
Example are fat, oil and wax.
Fat and Oil
Fat is a trimester of glycerol with saturated fatty acids while oil is a trimester glycerol
with unsaturated fatty acid.
CH2 − COO − R
|
CH − COO − R
|
CH2 − COO − R
(Structure of Fat or Oil)
Generally molecule of fat and oil is made up of both saturated and unsaturated fatty
acid but
* If the proportion of saturated fatty acid is higher, this is said to be fat.
* If the proportion of unsaturated fatty acid is higher this is said to be oil.
CH2 − OOC − C17 H33 CH2 − OOC − C17 H33

| |
CH − OOC − C15 H31 CH − OOC − C17 H31
| |
CH2 − OOC − C15 H31 CH2 − OOC − C15 H31
(Fat) (Oil)
Unsaturated fatty acid are also called as essential fatty acid. These are important
nutrient because they prevents the deposition of cholesterol on the wall of arteries and veins
and also help in blood clotting function. Their deficiency cause loss of weight and eczema.
SATURATED FATTY ACID UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

Name Formula Name Formula
Palmitic acid C15 𝐻31 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 Oleic acid 𝐶17 𝐻33𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
Stearic acid 𝐶17 𝐻35 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 Linoleic acid 𝐶17 𝐶31 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
(ii) Complex Lipids

These lipids are ester of glycerol with two fatty acid and one another group.
Example of complex lipids are
(i) Phospho lipids → It contains phosphate group
(ii) Glyco lipids → It contains carbohydrate
(iii) Lipo protein → It contains protein

Chemical properties of Fat and Oil
(i) Saponification
Fat and oil when boil with concentrated solution of alkali, a hydrolysis process
occur to give salt of fatty acid commonly known as “Soap”. This process is known
as saponification
(ii) Rancidification
Fat and oil when exposed to warm and moist air for long time, they become off
taste and offensive odour, this process is known as Rancidification.
* The bad taste is due to the hydrolysis of ester into fatty acid.
* The bad odour is due to the oxidation of double bond of fatty acid to form
volatile aldehyde.
Quality Control of Fat and Oil

The quality of fat and oil in food stuff can be measured by using following
tecchniques.
(i) Saponification value
(ii) Iodine value
(iii) Acid value
FAT OIL
It contains higher portion of glycerides of It contains higher portion glycerides of
saturated fatty acid. unsaturated fatty acid.
It is solid at room temperature. It is liquid at room temperature.
These are mostly obtained from animals. These are generally obtained from plants.
VITAMINS
Organic compounds that are needed in small amount to regulate metabolism and
growth are called vitamins.
The word vitamins is derived from (vital + amine) since these are essential food component
and play vital function to regulate general growth. Vitamins are mainly classified into
following two groups.
(i) Fat soluble vitamins (ii) Water soluble vitamins
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMIN

Vitamins which are soluble in fats or fat solvents are called fat soluble vitamins.
The vitamins which are fat soluble are A, D, E and K.

VITAMIN-A
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin A is Retinol having molecular formula (C20H29OH).
Source:
* It is present in milk, eggs, fish, liver animals fats however most abundantly found in cod
liver oil.
* It is absent in vegetable oil e.g. olive oil, sunflower oil, etc.
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin A causes
* Night blindness
* Xerophthalmia
VITAMIN-D
Chemical Name:
Vitamin D are sterols and consists of a series of ten
compounds designated as D1, D2, D3,…, however
vitamin D2 is most active member and chemically
named as Calciferol/
It is formed from provitamin by U.V-rays.
Source:
* The main source of vitamin D2 are fish, oil, liver, etc.
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin D causes
* Rickets
VITAMIN-E
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin E is
Tocopherol.
Source:
* Green vegetables, Oils, Wheat
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin E causes
* Muscle weakness
* Decline of respiration

VITAMIN-K
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin K is Menadione having molecular
formula (C10H5O2).
Source:
* Green vegetables, fish oil etc
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin K causes
* Excessive Bleeding
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN

Vitamins which are soluble in water are called water soluble vitamins.
The vitamins which are water soluble are B (Complex) and C.
VITAMIN B COMPLEX
It is a group of structurally different water soluble vitamins and named as B1, B2, B3.
However nutritionally important are B1, B2, B5 and B6.
VITAMIN-B1
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin B1 is
Thiamine.
Source:
* It is present in almost all type of food but
most abundantly found in nuts, eggs, fruits, etc.
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes
* Beri-Beri
* Loss of weight
* Indigestion
VITAMIN-B2
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin B2 is Riboflavin.
Source:
* It is abundantly found in milk due to which it is also
called lectoflavin. Other sources of vitamin B2 are egg, fish,
chicken, flour, etc.

Deficiency:
* Inflammation of mouth and tongue.
* Eye anemia.
VITAMIN-B3
Chemical Name:
Vitamin B3 exists in two form named as Nicotinic acid and
Nicotinamide (Niacin)
Source:
* It is present in liver, meat, peanuts, etc.
Deficiency:
* Diarrhea
* Skin lesion
* Mental Disturbance
VITAMIN-B6
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin B6 is pyridoxine.
Source:
* It is found in milk, eggs, wheat, meat, cereals, etc.
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin B6 causes skin disorder such as cracking of skin, lips corner of mouth.
VITAMIN-C
Chemical Name:
The chemical name of Vitamin C is Ascorbic Acid have a
molecular formula C6H8O6.
Source:
* It is abundantly found in fresh fruits.
For example orange, lemon, grapes, strawberries, banana, etc
Deficiency:
Deficiency of vitamin C causes
* Scurvy (Bleeding of Gums)

M.C.Q’s
1. The branch of Chemistry, which deals with the chemical processes going on in
the living organisms, is called:
(A) Biochemistry (B) Environmental Chemistry
(C) Organic Chemistry (D) Analytical Chemistry
2. The group of chemical reagents that takes part in life sustaining processes is
called:
(A) Food (B) Vitamins (C) Medicines (D)None of the above
3. A material cannot be termed as food unless it contains:
(A) many nutrients (B) two nutrients
(C) at least one nutrient (D) None
4. A complete food is that which contain.
(A) One nutrient (B) Two nutrients
(C) No nutrient (D) All the important nutrients
5. The break down of complex food molecules to simpler one by the action of
various enzymes is called:
(A) Fermentation (B) Assimilation (C) Digestion (D)None of these
6. Polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones or substances that give these
substances on hydrolysis are called as:
(A) Proteins (B) Carbohydrate (C) Lipids (D) Nucleic acid
7. The major classes of Carbohydrates are:
(A) Two (B) Three (C) Four (D) Five
8. Carbohydrates which cannot be further hydrolyses are called:
(A) Polysaccharides (B) Oligosaccharides
(C) Monosaccharides (D) None of the above
9. Carbohydrates which cannot be further hydrolyses are called:
(A) Polysaccharides (B) Oligosaccharides
(C) Disaccharides (D) Trisaccharides
10. Carbohydrates that on hydrolysis produce more than 10 monosaccharide units
are class:
(A) Oligosaccharides (B) Polysaccharides
(C) Trisaccharides (D) None of these
11. Carbohydrates contain:
(A) ⎯CHO group (B) >C=O group (C) ⎯OH group (D) All
12. Milk sugar is called:
(A) Maltose (B) Glucose (C) Lactose (D) Sucrose
13. Glucose cannot be classified as:
(A) Carbohydrates (B) Hexose (C) Aldose (D) Oligosaccharides
14. Tea reagent used in detecting sugar in urine is:
(A) Alkaline KMnO4 (B) Benediet solution
(C) Baeyer’s (D) Tollen’s reagent
15. Starch is represented by formula:
(A) C12H22O11 (B) C6H10O5 (C) (C6H10O5)n (D) (C6H12O6)n
16. On hydrolysis of starch we get finally:
(A) Glucose (B) Fructose
(C) Both glucose and fructose and Fructose (D) Sucrose
17. The compound found abundantly in nature:
(A) Glucose (B) Fructose (C) Sucrose (D) Cellulose

18. Carbohydrates may be regarded as:
(A) Aromatic compounds (B) Alicyclic Complex
(C) Polyfunctional compounds (D) None of these
19. Glucose is an example of:
(A) Aldose hexose (B) Ketose hexose
(C) Disaccharides (D) Polysaccharides
20. Which of the following is not an essential constituents of Carbohydrates:
(A) C (B) H (C) O (D) N
21. Which of the Carbohydrate is used in silvering of mirror:
(A) Glucose (B) Sucrose (C) Fructose (D) Starch
22. Which of the following carbohydrates is a disaccharide:
(A) Raffinose (B) Glucose (C) Maltose (D) Fructose
23. The essential constituent of a diet is:
(A) Glucose (B) Fructose (C) Starch (D) Carbohydrate
24. Which is non-reducting sugar:
(A) Sucrose (B) Maltose (C) Lactose (D) All
25. The carbohydrates that reduce Tollen’s reagent or Febling solution are called:
(A) Non-reducing sugar (B) Reducing sugar
(C) Simple sugar (D) None of these
26. Organic compounds containing amino (⎯NH2) and carboxylic (⎯COOH)
groups are called.
(A) Carbohydrates (B) Amino acids (C) Lipids (D) None of these
27. The main structural feature of protein is:
(A) Peptide linkage (B) Ether linkage
(C) Ester linkage (D) None of these
28. Proteins when hydrolysis yields:
(A) Hydroxyacids (B) Amino acids
(C) Carboxylic acids (D) None
29. Proteins contain:
(A) C, H and O (B) N only (C) C and H only (D) C, H, O and N
30. The structure of proteins was first elucidated by
(A) Emil Fischer (B) Kekule (C) Hofmann (D) Cannizzaro
31. Which of the following has maximum proteins:
(A) Egg (B) Wheat (C) Ground nut (D) Cow milk
32. Which of the following gives maximum energy in metabolic process:
(A) Fats (B) Proteins (C) Carbohydrates (D) Vitamin
33. The name Vitamin was first suggested
(A) Hopkins (B) Funk (C) Emil Fischer (D) Wohler
34. The absence or shortage of vitamin in diet is called:
(A) Hypervitaminosis (B) Avitaminosis
(C) Antivitaminosis (D) None of these
35. Which of the following statement is not correct about Vitamin.
(A) Vitamins are called accessory food factors
(B) They have no food value.
(C) Their deficiency or absence in diet causes a specific disease
(D) Animals can synthesize these vitamins
36. Citrus fruits are important source of Vitamin
(A) B (B) C (C) D (D) K
37. Which of t he following is vitamin B1.
(A) Thiamin (B) Riboflavin (C) Tocopherol (D)Ascorbic acid

38. Which of the following vitamins can be synthesize in our body.
(A) B (B) C (C) D (D) K
39. Deficiency of Vitamin B leads to a disease:
(A) Scurvy (B) Beri-Beri (C) Night blindness (D)
Ricket
40. Deficiency of Vitamin D results in.
(A) Scurvy (B) Beri-Beri (C) Rickets (D) Sterlity
41. Vitamin A deficiency leads to a disease known as:
(A) Beri-Beri (B) Scurvy (C) Night blindness (D) All
42. Deficiency of Vitamin C causes:
(A) Rickets (B) Scurvy (C) Beri-Beri (D)None of these
43. Such substances, which catalyse the chemical reaction in living system, are
called:
(A) Proteins (B) Hormones (C) Enzymes (D) Lipids
44. A biological catalyst is essentially:
(A) An amino acid (B) An enzyme
(C) A carboxylic acid (D) A protein
45. Which of the following is proteolytic enzyme:
(A) Diastase (B) Zymase (C) Pepsin (D) Insulin
46. An increase of level of cholesterol in the blood serum of human beings causes:
(A) Low blood pressure (B) High blood pressure
(C) Abnormal development (D) None of these
47. Amino acids are basic construction units of:
(A) Carbohydrates (B) Fats (C) Proteins (D)None of these
48. Zwitterion in amino acids is a:
(A) Non polar ion (B) Monopolar ion
(C) Dipolar ion (D) Tripolar ion
49. The main structural feature of proteins is:
(A) The ether linkage (B) Ester linkage
(C) Peptide linkage (D) None of the above
50. The process of hydrolysis of oils and fats for the manufacturer of soap is called:
(A) Neutralization (B) Saponification
(C) Hardening of oils (D) None of the above
ANSWERS KEY
01. A 11. D 21. A 31. C 41. C
02. A 12. C 22. C 32. A 42. B
03. C 13. D 23. D 33. B 43. C
04. D 14. B 24. A 34. B 44. B
05. C 15. C 25. B 35. D 45. C
06. B 16. C 26. B 36. B 46. B
07. B 17. D 27. B 37. A 47. C
08. C 18. C 28. B 38. C 48. C
09. B 19. A 29. D 39. B 49. C
10. B 20. C 30. A 40. C 50. B

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN
11 PAKISTAN
FERTILIZERS
“A natural or synthetic substance which increases the
fertility of soil is called as fertilizer”
fertilizers has the following significance in agriculture.
• They make up the deficiency of essential elements like Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
potassium.
• They maintains the pH of soil near neutrality or silight alkalimetry. i.e. from 7-8. The
soil having pH above 10 or below 3 is sterile.
Kinds of Fertilizers
Fertilizers are mainly classified into following two groups.
(a) Organic Fertilizers:
These fertilizers are obtained from animals and vegetables
For example manures, peats etc.
(b) Inorganic Fertilizers:
These fertilizers are synthetically made by different chemicals. These are water
soluble inorganic salts and also known as mineral fertilizers.
These are further classified into following three types.
(i) Nitrogen based fertilizers
These fertilizers contain Nitrogen as essential element.
These are required at the time of plantation. Their presence stimulate the growth of
roots, stem and leaves.
Most common nitrogen fertilizers are Urea, Ammonium nitrate and Ammonium
sulphate.
NH3 + HNO3 → NH4 NO3
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
2NH3 + CO2 → (NH2)2CO + H2O
(ii) Nitrogen based fertilizers
These fertilizers contain potassium as essential element.
These fertilizers attribute to the healthy production of crops regarding their shape, size
and colour.
Example: Potassium nitrate (KNO3) which is also called “salt peter”
Potassium sulphate (K2SO4)
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3)

(iii) Phosphorus based fertilizers
These fertilizers contain phosphorus as essential element.
These fertilizers stimulate photosynthesis fruit formation, enzymatic activity and osmotic
pressure regulation.
Their deficiency cause purple colouring of leaves, smaller size of fruits and flower.
The two most common phosphorus fertilizers are super phosphate and triple phosphate.
Super Phosphate
It is prepared by the reaction of phosphate rock with sulphuric acid.
It contains 18 – 20% assimilable P2O5.

Triple Phosphate
It is prepared by the reaction of phosphate rock with phosphoric acid.
It contains 48% of assimilable P2O5 which is about three time of super phosphate.
Scope of fertilizers in Pakistan

Pakistan being an agriculture country, the demand of fertilizers increases every year.
There are many fertilizers industries situated in Pakistan where thousands metric ton
fertilizers have been manufactured every year.
(i) TSF Plant (Hazara)
(ii) Pak American Fertilizer Ltd. (Daud Khail)
(iii) Dawood urea plant. (Lahore)
(iv) Fauji Fertilizers (Sadiqabad)
(v) Natural gas fertilizer (Multan)
PAINTS
“Paint is a mixture of Pigments,
blinder and volatile solvent”
When paint is applied to a surface, the volatile solvent evaporates and the blinder
slowly oxidizes to form a dry pigmented film.
Composition of Paint
(i) Pigments
They give attractive colours as well as protection against weather for example.
* TiO2 makes white colour
* PbCrO4 makes yellow colour
* Fe2O3 makes brown colour
(ii) Blinder (film former)
This component of pain forms a continuous film when applied on a surface.

(iii) Volatile Solvent (Diluent)
It decreases the viscosity of paint and makes it easier to form a smooth and
continuous film when applied on surface.
Kinds of Paint
(i) Emulsion or Latex
It is quick drying paint.
In this paint “Solvent is water” and “Blinder is rubber” liker polymer (polyvinyl
acetate, polystyrene Teflon, or Perspex).
(ii) Oil Paint
It is a slow drying paint.
In this paint “Solvent is turpentine oil” and “Blinder is linseed oil” which is an ester
of highly unsaturated acid.
VARNISH
“It is a mixture of resins, volatile solvent
and binder and is often called as pigment less paint”
When varnish is applied to a surface, the volatile organic solvent evaporated and a
transparent glossy film is formed. The function of varnish is to allows the original surface to
show but with a lustrous and glossy finish.
Composition of Varnish
Linseed oil is commonly used as drying oil. It is an ester of highly unsaturated acid. It
absorb oxygen when exposed to air and form solid film.
Resin is used to make glossy appearance.
Ether is used as organic solvent which evaporates quickly.
Paint and Varnish Industries in Pakistan

The name of some paint industries in Pakistan are given below.
(i) Berger Robialac (Karachi)
(ii) ICI Dulux (Lahore)
(iii) Buxly paint (Karachi)
GLASS
“Glass is an artificial silicate made by fusing
sand, lime and alkali carbonates”
Structure
It is a rigid, non crystalline material in which molecules are arranged randomly like in
liquid that is why it has no sharp melting point and called as super cooled liquid.

Preparation of Ordinary Soda Glass
Soda glass is prepared by heating a mixture of Sand (SiO 2), soda (Na2CO3) and lime (CaCO3)
at 14000C.
Types of Glass
There are various kind of glasses based on their composition. Some are described below.
Soft Glass (Ordinary Glass)

This glass is formed by heating sand, lime and sodium carbonate.
It is cheaper and hence use in making bottles, bulbs and window glass.
Hard Glass (Refractory Potassium Glass)

This glass is formed by fusing sand, lime and potassium carbonate.
This glass is not effected by acid and heat therefore it is used in making bottles for chemicals.
Pyrex Glass (Borosilicate Glass)

This glass is formed by fusing sand, soda, lime, Boron oxide and some other chemicals.
Pyrex glass has very low coefficient of expansion (expand greatly when heated) and can with
stand sudden change of temperature that is why this glass is used in making laboratory
apparatus.
Colouring of Glass
Glass is made coloured by adding certain transition metal oxide for example.
* CuO gives light blue colour.
* CaO gives dark blue colour.
* Cr2O3 gives green colour.
* SeO2 gives red colour.
Designing of Glass (Etching)

Glass is made designed by “Hydrofluoric acid” and this process is known as “Etching”
Position of Glass Industries in Pakistan

There are more than 25 industries in Pakistan which have been making more than 8000 tons
glass annually.
Name of some important glass industries are given below.
(i) Indus Glass work at Hyderabad.
(ii) Toyonasik glass factory near Lahore.
(iii) Khawaja Glass works in NWFP.

DETERGENTS
“It is a cleansing substance that acts similar to soap
but made from petrochemicals rather than fat and oil”
Detergent are powerful surfactant. They reduces the surface tension of water and
increasing its wetting ability. They are widely used cleansing agent and considered to be a
replacement of soap because the raw material of detergent is petroleum residue which is
cheaper source than fat and oil.
Structure of Detergent
Each molecule of detergent consists of two parts.
(i) Hydrophobic part (water repelling part)
It is non polar long carbon chain. It tends to attached with non-polar compounds like
grease, oil etc.
(ii) Hydrophilic part (water attracting part)
It is a small ionic group for e.g. SO3-1, OSO3-2, OH-1, NR4+1.
It tends to attract water molecule.
Cleaning action of Detergent

Both detergent and soap have similar mechanism of cleansing action that is both act
as emulsifier between water and dirt however detergent is preferably use in cloth washing as
it acts as strong surfactant.
When fabric with oily or greasy stain is dipped into detergent water, the hydrophobic
part of the detergent is bonded to the stain because both are non-polar. The hydrophilic part
of detergent bonded to the water because both are polar. Now a slight agitation removes the
stain from the fabric.
Working of Soap and Detergent in hard water

Soap when mixed in hard water, it forms insoluble salt with Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions of
hard water which appears as oily or sticky scum that is why soap does not work properly in
hard water. Detergent on the other hand form soluble salt of Ca+2 and Mg+2 in hard water
therefore it works more efficiently. The process in which soap does not make lather and
detergent will form lather.
Demerit of Detergent
(i) Detergents are non-biodegradable because they consists of highly branched
carbon chain derived from petrochemicals. Hence they cannot be destroyed by
Bacteria and cause environmental pollution.
(ii) Detergents are made up of toxic chemicals hence their ingestion can cause
“poisoning”.

Merit of Detergent
(i) They can work in hard water and do not form scum.
(ii) Thy can work in acidic water and
(iii) They are strong surfactant and reduces the surface tension of water.
Scope in Pakistan
A large number of Detergent Industries has been working in Pakistan where detergent
of specific ionic groups are manufactured with different trade names e.g. Surf, Wheel, Axel
etc.
Difference between Detergent and Soap

Although Detergents and soap have almost similar feature in their structure as well as
similar mechanism of their cleaning action, however they have following main difference.
DETERGENT SOAP
It is produced chemically by petrochemicals It made from natural product such as fat &
oil.
It is a water soluble salt of certain chemicals It is water soluble salt of fatty acid.
like sulphonic acid etc.
It is non-biodegradable i.e. cannot be broken It is biodegradable i.e. it can be destroyed by
by microorganism. bacteria.
The hydrophilic part of detergent is The hydrophilic part of soap is COO-
SO3-1, OSO3-2, OH-1, NR4+1
Detergent works effectively in hard water Soap does not work effectively in Hard water
because it forms soluble salts with Ca+2 and because it forms insoluble salt with Ca+2 and
Mg+2 ions of hard water. Mg+2 ions.
PLASTICS
“A synthetic polymer that can be moulded into
shape on heating is known as plastic”
Following components may be added in plastic to make it specific.
(i) Plasticizer
These substance reduces the brittleness and improve the elasticity of plastic. These are
chemically ester and serves as lubricant between the chains of polymer for example
Dioctylphthalate.
(ii) Fillers
These substances increasing the strength of plastic e.g. wood saw, flour saw etc.
(iii) Pigments
These are used to make the plastic with desired colours.

Classification of Plastic
Plastics are classified into: (i) Thermoplastic (ii) Thermosetting plastic
(i) Thermo Softening Plastic
* This type of plastic is soften on heating and harden on cooling.
* It can be remoulded or reprocessed because heating and cooling does not
effect on its properties.
For example: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polyvinyl acetate (PVA), Polyethene,
Nylon etc.
(ii) Thermo Setting Plastic
* These plastic do not effect by heating or cooling.
* These plastic once thermosetted cannot be remoulded or reprocessed.
For example: Bakelite, Melamine, Polyester, urea formaldehyde.
Some Common Plastics

Polyethylene
This is most common plastic. It is an addition polymer of ethene.
It is commonly used in making bottles, toys, shopping bags and food packing material.
Polypropylene
It is an addition polymer of propene.
It is superior to polythene due to its heat and breakage resistant ability.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
It is an addition polymer of vinyl chloride.
It is used in making electric cables, sanitary pipes, suit case, spare parts, toys etc.
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA)
It is an addition polymer vinyl acetate.
It is used in textiles, leather, paper and in the manufacturing of chewing gums.
Bakelite
It is a condensation polymer of phenol and formaldehyde.
It is used to make buttons, switch boards, Radio, camera, Electric board etc.

Perspex
It is a polymer of an ester known as methyl methacrylate.
It is a transparent plastic and a substitute of glass. Therefore used in aircraft window street
light automobile lights.
SYNTHETIC FIBERS
These are man-made fibers and usually prepared by condensation polymerization.
Synthetic fibers are widely used in making fabric due to their following specific properties.
(i) Light weight (ii) Ease of Iron (iii) Softness (iv) Heat retention
Some very common synthetic fibers are nylon, Terylene, Rayon, Dacron etc.
NYLON 6, 6
“It is a condensation polymer of hexa methylene diamine and
adipic acid in which chain is hold through amide linkage”
It was first introduced to public at New York world’s fair in 1939.
Preparation
Equal amount of adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine when heated in an aquous medium
at 2000C, it gives hexamethylene di-ammine adipate commonly known as Nylon-6, 6.
𝑛 𝑁𝐻2 − (𝐶𝐻2 )6 − 𝑁𝐻2 + 𝑛 𝐻𝑂𝑂𝐶 − (𝐶𝐻2 )4 − 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
↓
[−𝑁𝐻(𝐶𝐻2 )6 𝑁𝐻 − 𝐶𝑂(𝐶𝐻2 )4 𝐶𝑂−]𝑛
Because each monomer (diacid and diamine) consists of six carbone ach, it is called as Nylon
6, 6.
Uses
Nylon 6, 6 is tensile, elastic, resistant to graze and cut. Therefore it is used in making
stocking fabric, carpets, ropes fish net, tires, etc.
TERYLENE
“Terylene or polyester is a condensation polymer of terephthalic acid
and ethylene glycol in which chain hold through ester linkage”

Preparation
It is manufactured by heating ethylene glycol with terephthalic acid at 3000C in the
presence of metal oxides.
It is mainly used in clothing. The combination of polyester and cotton (60:40 ratio)
yields a fabric that dries quickly without wrinkling and retains the coolness and comfort of
100% cotton.
RAYON
Rayon is an economical “man-made fiber” and considered to be an alternative of
nature silk which is obtained from silkworm.
“Rayon is a synthetic fiber which is
manufactured from cellulose”
it was first synthesized by a French Biochemist Chardonnet (1885) using cellulose of
wood pulp as basic raw material.
Preparation of viscous Rayon

Cellulose is first digested with caustic soda and then treated with CS2 to form sodium
cellulose xanthate which is commonly known as viscous Rayon.
Viscous Rayon is then pass through spinneret to give fine threads.
Scope in Pakistan
Due to wide use of synthetic fibers in Pakistan, a number of industries have been
established where all kinds of synthetic fibers are produce in bulk to fulfill the demand.

M.C.Q’s
1. Fertilizers that are derived from plants and animals are called:
(A) Artificial Fertilizers (B) Natural Fertilizers
(C) Synthetic Fertilizers (D) None of the above
2. Artificial or Mineral fertilizers generally contain:
(A) N, P or K (B) C, H or O
(C) C, H or N (D) None of the these
3. Fertilizers maintain the pH of soil:
(A) From pH 7 to 8 (B) Above pH 10
(C) Below pH 3 (D) None of the these
4. Urea, Ammonia nitrate and ammonium sulphate are examples of:
(A) Nitrogenous Fertilizers (B) Potassic Fertilizers
(C) Phosphatic Fertilizers (D) None of these
5. A nitrogenous fertilizer, which is obtained by the action of nitrogen on calcium
carbide, is:
(A) Urea (B) Nitrolin
(C) Ammonium Sulphate (D) Ammonium Nitrate
6. Urea is an excellent nitrogenous fertilizer which contain nitrogen about:
(A) 36% (B) 47% (C) 80% (D) 60%
7. The most commonly and widely used nitrogenous fertilizer in Pakistan is:
(A) Nitrolin (B) Urea
(C) Ammonium Sulphate (D) Ammonium Nitrate
8. The element whose presence is very helpful in rapid growth of pants and
provides protection against diseases and insects:
(A) Nitrogen (B) Phosphorous
(C) Oitassuyn (D) None of these
9. The phosphatic fertilizer obtained by mixing phosphorite with sulphuric acid in
special chamber is called:
(A) Super Phosphate (B) Triple Phosphate
(C) Di ammonium Phosphate (D) None of these
10. Formula of Triple phosphate is:
(A) Ca3(PO4)2 (B) Ca (H2PO4)2
(C) 3 Ca (H2PO4)2 (D) None of these
11. The best phosphatic fertilizer containing high % of assimilable P2O3 is:
(A) Super Phosphate (B) Triple Phosphate
(C) Phosporite (D) None of these
12. Which is the better cleaning agent:
(A) Soap (B) Detergent
(C) None of these (D) Both of these
13. Which can be used in hard water effectively without any wastage in the form of
seum:
(A) Soap (B) Detergent
(C) None of these (D) Both of these

14. A transparent amorphous substance obtained by the fusion of various metallic
silicates is called:
(A) Plastic (B) Rayon
(C) Glass (D) None of these
15. A glass which is a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate is called:
(A) Soda glass (B) Pyrex glass (C) Lime glass (D) Jena glass
16. The glass apparatus used in chemistry laboratory is made up of:
(A) Soft glass (B) Lime glass (C) Flint glass (D) Pyrex glass
17. Blue colour glass are made by adding:
(A) Fe + + (B) Fe + + + (C) Co (D) Ni
18. The fibers obtained from cotton, jute, silk wool are called:
(A) Artificial fibers (B) Synthetic fibers
(C) Natural fibers (D) Semi-synthetic fibers
19. Which is naturally occurring polymer:
(A) Polythene (B) PVC (C) Proteins (D) Propylene
20. Which is not a natural polymer:
(A) Silk (B) Wool (C) Leather (D) Nylon
21. Which of the following is not a polymer:
(A) Rubber (B) Cellulose (C) Fructose (D) Protein
22. The monomer of PVC is:
(A) Succinic acid (B) Vinyl chloride (C) Propylene (D) Glycol
23. Teflon is a polymer of:
(A) Tetra fluoro ethylene (B) Tetra fluoro propylene
(C) Tetra fluoro butylenes (D) None of the these
24. The natural polymer among the following is:
(A) Polyethylene (B) PVC (C) Teflon (D) Cellulose
ANSWERS KEY
01. B 06. B 11. B 16. D 21. C
02. A 07. B 12. B 17. C 22. B
03. A 08. B 13. B 18. C 23. A
04. A 09. A 14. C 19. C 24. D
05. B 10. C 15. A 20. D

PAST
PAPERS
(25) YEARS

1 PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
1. 2019
i) Octet rule is fulfilled by all noble gases except:
* Ne *Ar * He * Xe
ii) The element with atomic number 33 belongs to:
* s-block * p-block * d-block * f-block
Q2 (i) (a) State the following laws:
* Doberenier’s law of triad * Newland’s law of octave
Q3 (c) Write types of elements in the periodic table based on electronic configuration.
2. 2018
vii) Elements of group IB are called;
* Normal elements *Rare earth metals * Coinage metals * Alkali metals
i) All noble gases fulfill the octet rule except;
* Kr * Ne * He * Ar
ii) The element belonging to group VA and 3rd period has the atomic number;
*7 *13 *15 *23
2-i) Define Period and Group. Give the valence shell configurations of Alkali metals,
Carbon family, Halogens and Noble gases.
3.a)Define Modern periodic law and discuss the different blocks in the modern periodic
table.
3. 2017
Q1.(ii) Coinage metals are elements of 1B group and these include:
* Cu, Ag, Au * Zn, Cd, Hg * Fe, Co, Ni * Cu, Zn, Ni
Q2iv) Write the electronic configuration and identify the period, group and block of the
elements bearing the following atomic numbers: 17,24,29,49
Q4(c) State Mendeleev’s Periodic Law. Why this law is modified?
4. 2016
Q1: iv) The electronic configuration of the outer shell of an element is 4s2,3d10, 4p1. It
belongs to;
* IA group and 3rd period * IIA group and 4th period
* IIIA group and 3rd period * IIIA group and 4th period
vii) Elements of group IB are called;
* Alkali metals * Rare earth metals
* Alkaline earth metals * Coinage metals
Q.3c) What are the types of elements based on electronic configuration in the periodic
table?
5. 2015
Q1: xii) The atomic number of an element belonging to group VA and 3rd periods is:
*7 * 13 *15 *23
Q2: i) Give the characteristic valence shell configuration of the following:
* Zero group elements * Representative elements
* Outer transition element * Inner transition element

6. 2014:
Q1: i) The first-seven groups of the periodic table are divided into sub-groups ‘A’
consisting of:
* Transition elements * Representative elements * Metallic elements
* Complex elements
Q2: i) What are the demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic classification? How was it
modified?
Q2: vi) a) Write the electronic configuration of Zn (Z = 30), group, period and block.
7. 2013:
Q: Give valence shell electronic configuration of following groups:
* IIA and IB * IVA and VIB
Q: Define the following with examples:
* Dobereiner’s Triads * Newland’s law of Octave
Q: Reason: The elements of a group in the periodic table have the same valence shell
electronic configuration.
8. 2012
Q2. i) State the Modern Periodic Law. Explain how it removed the defects of Mendeleev's
system of classification.
ii) a) Write the Valence shell configuration of the following groups. * IA & IB * VA & VB
9. 2011
Q2 (i) a) Write the electronic configuration, group, period and block of elements with
atomic number 24 and 29.
b) Define: Periodicity of elements
Q3 a) Give the advantages and defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table. Explain how modern
periodic table is divided into blocks. Also write general electronic configuration of
each block.
10. 2010
Q2 viii(b) Write the electronic configuration of Zn (Atomic Number = 30) and write its
group, period and block.
11. 2009:
Q1(b) Discus the long form of periodic table on the basis of electronic configuration.
Q1(c) Write down the block, period and group of the following elements, also write their
i) Ar(18) ii) P(15) iii) Br(35)
12. 2008:
Q1 (a); Give the valence shell configuration of the following:
(i) Representative elements (ii) Inner transition elements
Q1 (d); Why was Mendeleev’s law modified? Give at least two reasons.
13. 2007:
Q1 (a); Distinguish b/w Mandeleev’s Periodic law and Modern Periodic law.
Q1 (b); Discuss the long form of the periodic table on the basis of electronic
configuration.
Q1 (c); Differentiate b/w p-block active elements and p-block non-active elements.

14. 2006:
Q1 (a); How many elements are present in ‘S’ block? Give their names and their
outermost electronic configuration. (also in chapter 3)
Q4 (a); Define the modern periodic law. What are short and long periods? How many
periods are there in the periodic table.
15. 2005:
Q1 (a); Define the following:
(i) Dobereiner’s Triads (ii) Newland’s Law of Octaves
Q1 (b); State the modern periodic law, and explain how it removed the defects of
Mendeleev’s system of classification
Q1 (c); Give the valence shell configuration of the following groups:
(i) II-A & II-B (ii) IV-A & IV-B
Q4 (b); Give scientific reason for the following:
Every period starts from ns1 and ends at ns2, np6.
16. 2004:
Q1 (a); State the modern periodic law and discuss the types of elements on the basis of
Q1 (b); Identify the groups and periods of the elements having atomic numbers 11, 15 and 36.
17. 2003 P.M:

Q1 (a); State the modern periodic law. What are short and long period in the modern
table? Give a brief account of them
Q1 (b); Identify each elements as s, p, d or f block:
(i) Cu (Z = 29) (ii) K (Z = 19) (iii) Ne (Z = 10) (iv) Ce (Z = 58)
2003 P.E:
Q1 (a); State of following:
(i) Dobereiner’s law of triads (ii) Newland’s law of octaves (iii) Mendeleev’s periodic law
Q1 (b); Why was the Mendeleev’s periodic law modified? Give its modified form.
Q1 (c); Give groups, period and block of the atomic number:
(i) 8 (ii) 12 (iii) 17 (iv) 25
18. 2002 P.M:

Q1 (a); State the modern periodic law give the types of elements based on electronic
configuration.
Q1 (b); Write down the block, the period and the group of the elements Br (Z = 35) and
Rb (Z = 37).
2002 P.E:
Q1 (a); Discuss the types of element based on electronic configuration.
Q1 (c); Give groups, period and block of the atomic numbers: (i) 13 (ii) 19
Q1 (d); Fill in the blanks:
(i) The outer electronic configuration of halogen family us ns2, np5.
(ii) Medeleev state that the properties of elements are the periodic functions of
their atomic masses.
19. 2001:
Q1 (a); Define Periodicity. What are short and long periods in the modern periodic table?
Give a brief account of them.(5)
Q1 (d); Give the electronic configuration and identify the block and group of the elements
having atomic numbers 12 and 35.

20. 2000:
Q1 (a); Describe the merits and De merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
Q1 (b); What are different type of elements based on electronic configuration.
21. 1999:
Q1 (a); Justify the following statements with examples:
(ii) The elements of a group in the period table have the same valence shell configuration.
(iii)A period starts with s1 configuration and end at s2 p6 configuration.
22. 1998:
Q1 (a); Define a modern periodic law. State the composition of the table on the basis of
configuration.
Q1 (b); Give the electronic configuration and identify block and group of 11, 16, 20 and 36.
23. 1997:
Q1 (a); State the merits and demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
Q1 (b); Give the electronic configuration and group of the elements bearing the following
atomic number: 12, 16, 24, 36
Q1 (d); Fill in the blanks:
i. 7th (Seventh) period is incomplete.
ii. Elements which follow acitinium are called Actinides.
24. 1996:
Q1 (a); Explain Groups and periods of the periodic table.
25. 1995:
Q2 (a); Define the following:
(i) Periodicity (ii) Causes of Periodicity (iii) p-Block Elements
Q2 (b);
Describe four defects of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
26. 1994:
Q1 (a); The electronic configuration of the outer shells of three elements are given below.
Identify the group and the period of each element in the Periodic Table.
(i) 2s2, 2p5 (ii) 3s2, 3p6 (iii) 3s2, 3p6, 4s2
27. 1993:
Q1 (a); Define different blocks of elements, groups and periods.
28. 1992:
Q1 (b);
State the periodic Law.
Q1 (b); Write the electronic configuration and identify the block and periods in the
periodic table of the elements with the following atomic numbers: - 7, 11, 24

2 HYDROGEN
1. 2019
iii) Hydrides of VA group are:
* basic * acidic * amphoteric * neutral
iv) The nucleus of Tritium consists of:
* 1 proton only * 1 proton & 1 neutron * 1 proton & 2 neutron
* 1 proton & 3 neutron
Q2 (iii) Write two method for the separation of hydrogen from water gas. Give the
reactions of atomic hydrogen with the following:
* Phosphorous * Cupric oxide
Q4 (b) What is meant by binary compound of hydrogen? Give their classification and
discuss the preparation and properties of salt-like hydrides.
2. 2018
iii) The number of neutrons in protium is;
* Zero *1 *2 *3
viii) Metallic hydrides are also known as;
* Interstitial hydrides * Borderline hydrides * Ionic hydrides
* Covalent hydrides
ii) What are Isotopes? Explain the different isotopes of hydrogen.
Q3 c) Give the similarities and dissimilarities of Hydrogen with the elements of
groups IA and VIIA.
3. 2017

Q1. (xvi) CH 4 ⎯700
⎯⎯ C
→ 2H 2 + A . In the given reaction, ‘A’ is:
Absenceof oxygen
* CO2 *C * CO * H2O
Q1. (iii) Having half-filled valence shell, Hydrogen resembles the:
* Elements of VA group * Elements of IVA group
* Elements of VIA group * Elements of VIIA group
Q2. vi) Give four industrial methods for the preparation of Hydrogen gas (Except
electrolysis of water)
Q3. b) What is meant by binary compounds of Hydrogen, give their classification and
give preparation and chemical properties of covalent hydrides.
4. 2016
Q1
i) Hydrides of group IV A are;
* Acidic * Basic * Neutral * Amphoteric
Q2 iv) a) Define the term isotope. Explain the various isotopes of Hydrogen.
b) Mention the simplest ions of hydrogen and show their reactions with water.
Q2 v) Describe two methods for the preparation of Water gas and give two methods for
the separation of pure Hydrogen from it.
5. 2015
Q1 iii) The binary compounds of hydrogen with transition metals are called:
* Ionic hydrides *Covalent hydrides * Metallic hydrides * Polymeric hydrides
Q1 x) The ratio of electron, proton and neutron in Protium is:
* (1 : 1 : 0) * (1 : 1 : 1) * (1 : 2 : 1) * (1 : 1 : 2)
Q1 xii) N2 gas liquefies at this temperature:
* − 273 0 C * − 200 0 C * − 196 0 C * − 118 0 C
Q2: ii) Give Scientific reasons for the following
* Hydrogen exhibits+1 and -1 oxidation states in its compounds.
Q2: vi) What are Hydrides? How are the classified? Write the preparations and properties
of Ionic hydrides
Q3 xiv) Write equations for the preparation of the following:
* Water gas from Methane.
6. 2014:
ii) Interstitial hydrides are also named as:
* Metallic hydrides * Covalent hydrides * Borderline hydrides * Ionic hydrides
v) The ratio of electron, proton and neutron in Protium is:
* (1 : 1 : 0) * (1 : 1 : 1) * (1 : 2 : 1) * (1 : 1 : 2)
viii) An example of electron deficient hydrides is:
* BH3 * NaBH4 * NaH * CH4
Q2: ii) Give scientific reasons for any four:
* Alkaline earth metal ions are more strongly hydrated than alkali metal ions.
Q2: vi) b) What is Water gas? Give one method of its preparation.
Q4:a) Explain why Hydrogen is misfit in group IA and VIIA of the periodic table.
c) Write notes on any two of the following:
* Atomic hydrogen
7. 2013:
a) Differentiate between the natural isotopes of hydrogen.
b) interstitial hydrides are not true chemical compounds comment.
8. 2012
Q2 (iii) Ionic Hydrides are called true Hydrides.
Q3 (a) What are binary compounds of Hydrogen? Classify them. Explain covalent and
polymeric hydrides.
9. 2011
Q2(ii) Define and classify binary compounds of Hydrogen. Explain Ionic Hydrides, giving
two preparations and two reactions.
v) Atomic hydrogen is more reactive than molecular hydrogen.
10. 2010
Q2/I (a) Explain that the position of hydrogen is misfit in Group IA of the Periodic Table.
Q2/ i(b) What is water gas? Give one method of its preparation.
Q2/iv Give Reasons:
* Why is Heavy water heavy?
* Nascent hydrogen is more reactive than molecular hydrogen.
Q3/ b Write down any five industrial preparation of hydrogen gas.

11. 2009:
Q1 (a) Explain any two of the following:
(i) Isotopes of Hydrogen
(ii) Polymeric and Metallic Hydrides
(iii) Preparation of Atomic Hydrogen
12. 2008:
Q1 (b) Discuss the position of Hydrogen in the periodic table.
Q1 (d) What is meant by the Binary Compounds of Hydrogen? Give chemical reactions
of Ionic Or Covalent hydrides.
Q2 (c) What will be the action of heat on CH4? Give reaction only.
13. 2007:
Q1 (c) Differentiate b/w (i) Atomic Hydrogen and Nascent Hydrogen (ii) Isotopes of
Hydrogen (2+2)
Q1 (d) Discuss briefly the binary compounds of Hydrogen OR the position of Hydrogen
in periodic table
14. 2006:
Q4 (b) Give three methods of industrial preparation of hydrogen. Hydrogen is misfit in
Group IA of the Period Table. Give at least four points to justify the statement.
Q4 (c) Complete the following equation:

(i) WO3 + H2
(ii) H2O + C
15. 2005:
Q1 (d) What are binary compounds of hydrogen? How are they classified? Give
preparation and properties of Complex hydrides
Q1 (e) Draw and give the main characteristics of isotopes of hydrogen. Explain why D 2O
is heavier than H2O
Q4 (b) Give scientific reason for the following:
(i) Nascent hydrogen is more reactive than molecular hydrogen.
16. 2004:
Q1 (c) What is water gas? Give one method for the separation of hydrogen from water gas.
Q1 (d) Give the preparation and properties of Ionic Hydrides.
Q1 (c) What are complex hydrides? Give examples. Give the reaction of any one of them
with water.
Q1 (d) What is atomic hydrogen? Give equations for the reaction of atomic hydrogen
with the following. (i) P (ii) O2 (iii) AgCl (iv) CuO
17. 2003 P.E:

Q1 (d) Give reason:
(i) Nascent hydrogen is more reactive than molecular hydrogen.
Q2 (a) What is meant by the binary compounds of hydrogen? Give their classification and
the preparation of any six covalent hydrides with equations.
Q2 (b) Why are alkali and alkaline earth metal hydrides called true hydrides?
Q2 (c) What is meant by heavy water? Describe the various isotopies of hydrogen.

18. 2002 P.M:
Q1 (c) Name the natural isotopes of an element.
(i) Which has fewer number of neutrons than protons.
(ii) Which has the double number of neutrons than protons.
Q1 (d) What is atomic hydrogen? Give its preparation, properties and uses.
2002 P.E:
Q1 (b) What are binary compounds of hydrogen? Write the preparation and properties of
complex Hydrides
19. 2001:
Q1 (b) Hydrogen is misfit in group IA of the periodic table. Give at least four points to
justify the statement.
Q1 (c) What is water gas? Give two methods to separate hydrogen from it in pure state.
20. 2000:
Q1 (c) What is meant by Binary Compounds of hydrogen? State the methods of
preparation and write the properties of salt like hydrides.
21. 1999:
Q1 (b) Give reason:
(ii) Nascent hydrogen is more reactive than hydrogen gas.
22. 1998:
Q1 (c) Complete the following reactions:
(i) CO + NaOH
(ii) CaH2 + H2O
Q2 (a) Give the industrial preparation of hydrogen gas. (any four methods)
Q2 (b) What are hydrides? Give the names of their major groups. Explain the preparation
of any two of them
Q2 (c) Choose the correct answer from the options given below in brackets.
(i) On passing steam over red-hot coal we get _________. (water gas, Ethane, Carbon
monoxide)
23. 1997:
Q1 (a) Give reason:
(i) Nascent hydrogen is more reactive than ordinary molecular hydrogen.
Q2(d) Choose the correct answer from the given options:
(i) Heavy Hydrogen is also called: (Protium, Deuterium, Hydronium)
24. 1996:
Q1 (b) Ionic hydrides are true hydrides. Comment, giving their general characteristics.
Q1(c) Discuss the position of hydrogen in group VII-A of the Periodic Table.
Q1(e) Choose the correct answer from the brackets:
(i) The compound formed between an element A of group III-A and an element B of
group VI-A has the formula _________. ( AB, A3B2, A2B3)
Q2(d) (iii) The atomic weights of isotopes are different because of the difference in the
number of protons. (True / False)

25. 1995:
Q1 (a); Define:
(iii) Interstitial hydride
Q2 (c) Explain various types of isotopes of hydrogen.
Q3 (c) Write short note on covalent hydrides.
26. 1994:
Q1 (b) In what respects does hydrogen resemble with the elements of Group IA and VII-
A of the periodic table and why?
27. 1993:
Q1 (b) Describe two methods of the preparation of water gas.
Q1 (c) Draw three different isotopes of hydrogen.
Q1 (d) Differentiate between nascent hydrogen and atomic hydrogen.
28. 1992:
Q1 (c) Explain why exact position of hydrogen is undecided in the periodic table.

3 s-Block Elements
1. 2019
iv) The metal form superoxide:
* Li * Be *K * Mg
Q2(iii) Refer to the list of the given table:
Compound A B C D
Specific Name Carnallite Water glass
* Write the formula of A
* Write equation for the preparation of B.
Q2(iv) Give reason of the following:
* Alkali metals form cations easily.
Q2(v) Give complete and balanced equation:
* Saturated solution of soda ash treated with carbon dioxide
Q4(a) Describe the manufacturing of caustic soda by castner Kellner process. (Diagram is
not needed). Write the advantages and disadvantages of the process.
(c) Write note of the following:
* Bleaching Powder
2. 2018
iv) This has the minimum hydration energy;
* Na+ * Rb+ * K+ *Cs+
iii) Refer to the list of the given compounds.
Compound A B C D
Specific Name Epsom Salt Plaster of Paris Bleaching Baking Soda
powder
• Write the formulae of A and D.
• The equation for the preparation of B
• Give only one common use of B
• Give the equation for the reaction of C with HCl
iv) Give scientific reasons for any four of the following.
* Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents.
* Alkaline earth metals are more strongly hydrated than alkali metals.
viii) Give complete and balanced equations for any four of the following.
* Action of NaOH on Carbon monoxide.
Q3 b) How is Soda ash manufactured by Ammonia solvay process?
3. 2017
Q1. (xii) Sodium burns with excess of Oxygen to form its:
* Peroxide * Superoxide * Monoxide * Dioxide
Q1. (iv) Plaster of paris is obtained by heating:
* Gypsum * Epsom * Limestone * Dolomite
Q2. vii) Why are the anode and cathode compartments separated in the extraction of
sodium, describe the extraction of sodium by Down’s process.
Q3. (a) OR How is caustic soda manufactured by the Electrolysis of brine using moving
Mercuryas cathode, Draw also the diagram of this method.
ii) Give scientific reasons for the following

* Alkali metals cannot be used in voltaic cell.
* Alkaline earth metals are harder than Alkali metals.
v) Give complete and balanced equations for the following reactions:
* Soda Ash is heated with silica
viii) Refer the list of given compounds
Compound A B
Specific Name Gypsum Bleaching Powder
Write:
* Formula of ‘B’.
* The equation for the preparation of B.
* Give equation for the reaction of heating ‘A’ at 100℃.
Q4 (b) Give complete and balance equation (Any five)
* i) CaOCl2 + CO2 +H2O→
4. 2016:
Q1: vi) Sodium amalgam is an alloy of;
* Sodium and Lead * Sodium and Mercury
* Sodium and Iron * Sodium and Silver
Q2 iii) Give scientific reasons for the following:
* Zinc hydroxide is soluble in excess of Sodium hydroxide solution.
* Alkali and alkaline earth metals form only + 1 and +2 ions respectively.
Q.3 b) Complete and balance the following equations.
* Mg + HNO3 →
Q.4 a) Give the industrial preparation of Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) by Ammonia-
solvay process.
5. 2015:
Q1: vii) The formula of Dolomite is:
* KCL.MgCl2 * MgSO4 .7 H 2 O. * MgCO3 .CaCO3 * MgCO3
Q2 ii) Give scientific reasons:
*Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents
Q2 iii) Complete the following reactions and give I.U.P.A.C. names of the products:
* Zn(OH ) 2 + NaOH →
Q2 v) Give chemical equations for the following:
* Reaction of Sodium carbonate with Silica.
* Reaction of Caustic soda with Ammonium sulphate.
* Reaction Off bleaching powder with atmospheric Carbon dioxide and moisture.
Q4 b) Describe the extraction of Sodium from molten Sodium chloride.
6. 2014:
Q3: a) How is Soda ash manufactured by Ammonia Solvay process?
c) Complete the following equations:
* CaOCl2 + CO2 + H 2O →
7. 2013
Q: Explain the extraction of Sodium metal by the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Q: How is soda Ash manufactured by ammonia solvay process.
Q: Reason: Alkali metals cannot be used in voltaic cell.

8. 2012
Q2 (iii) *Lithium and Beryllium markedly differ from other members of their respective
groups.
* Plaster of Paris is used in making plaster coats and moulds.
Q4 (b) Complete the following equations:
Cl + NaOH ⎯Cold ⎯⎯→
CaSO4 .2H 2 O ⎯100⎯⎯ → 2
o
C
dilute
Q5. a) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
9. 2011
Q2 i) Define: * Electron Population
iii) How is caustic soda prepared by Castner Kellner’s Cell? Give advantages and
disadvantages of the process.
(v) Alkaline earth metal ions are more strongly hydrated than alkali metal ions. (give reason)
(vi) Give equation of reaction: * Reaction of Na2 CO3 with Silica
* Reaction between Sodium and Oxygen
(vii) Give the preparation of : Bleaching Powder
10. 2010
Q2/iii(a) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
* Plaster of Paris * Baking soda
Q3 (a) How is sodium carbonate prepared by Ammonia-Solvay process? Draw the flow
diagram.
11. 2009:
Q2 (a) How is sodium manufactured by Down’s Process?
Q2 (c) Write down the chemical formulae of the following:
iii) Epsom iv) Gypsum v) Washing Soda
Q2 (d) Complete and balance the following reactions:
2CaSO4 • 2H 2O ⎯100⎯⎯ → ___________________________
o
C
Q3 (b) iv) Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents. (give scientific reason)
Q3 (d) Write a brief account and uses of the bleaching powder
12. 2008:
Q2 (c) What will be the action of heat on MgCO3? Give chemical equation only.
Q2 (d) Answer the following in the manufacture of Soda Ash by Ammonia Slovay
Process:
(i) Name three raw materials
(ii) Give the details of the various steps.
(iii) How is ammonia recovered from the solution of ammonium chloride?
(iv) Draw the flow sheet.
13. 2007:
Q2 (a) Discuss the trends of the following down the group in p-block elements:
(i)Atomic radii (ii) Ionization potential (iii) Electro negativity
Q2 (b) How is sodium manufactured by Down’s process?
Q2 (c) Give scientific reasons for any TWO of the following:
(i) Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents.
(ii) Alkaline earth metals are more strongly hydrated than the alkali metals.
(iii) Zinc Hydroxide is soluble in the excess of Sodium Hydroxide.

14. 2006:
Q1 (a) How many elements are present in ‘S’ block? Give their names and their
outermost electronic configuration.
Q1 (b) Give the method for the extraction of alkali metals with reference to the extraction
of sodium metal. Draw the diagram of the cell used in this extraction.
Q1 (c) How is soda ash prepared by Ammonia-Solvay process? Describe in detail. Give
the main three uses of this compound.
Q1 (c) Complete the following equation:
(ii) Zn + NaOH
15. 2005:
Q4 (a) How is caustic soda obtained by Castner Kellner’s Process? Give the advantages
and disadvantages of the process.
(ii) Li+/ Li couple has high negative electrode potential.
Q4 (c) Write short on
(i) Down’s Process
16. 2004:
Q2 (a) How is soda ash is manufactured by ammonia solavy process?
Q1 (d) Give the balanced equation for the following reaction:
(ii) Sodium hydroxide is added to ammonium chloride.
Q2 (a) Write short on
(i) Bleaching Powder
Q3 (c) Give reasons of the following:
The metallic character increase down the group.
(i) Sodium ion is smaller than sodium atom.
17. 2003 P.M:

Q2 (a) How is sodium hydroxide manufactured by Castner-Kellner’s process? Give the
uses of caustic soda in industry.
Q2 (b) Give reason of the following equations:
(i) Na+ ions are smaller than the sodium atoms.
(ii) Be++ ions are more easily hydrated than Li+ ions.
(iii) Alkali and alkaline earth metals easily form cations.
(iv) Mg is harder than sodium
Q2 (d) Complete the following equations:
(i) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
(ii) Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
(iii) NaOH + FeCl3
18. 2003 P.E:

Q1 (d) Give scientific reasons for the following:
(iii) Zn(OH)2 is soluble in excess of NaOH solution.
(iv) Alkali metals cannot be used in voltaic cells.
(v) Alkaline earth metals are harder than alkali metals.
Q2 (d) Why are anode and cathode compartments separated in the extraction of sodium?
Give the extraction of sodium by Down’s process.

19. 2002 P.M:
Q2 (a) Describe the preparation of sodium metal by Down’s process.
Q2 (b) Complete and balance the following equations.
(ii) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
(iii) Na2CO3 + SiO2
(iv) NaOH + FeCl3
Q2 (c) Compare the properties of alkali and alkaline earth metals with respect to the
following:
(i) Hydration energy (ii) Ionization Potential (iii) Melting Point & Boiling Point
20. 2002 P.E:

Q1 (c) Explain the following:
(i) S-block elements are powerful reducing agents.
(ii) Alkali metals have the largest covalent radii.
(iii) Lithium forms covalent compound while sodium forms ionic compounds.
(iv) Zn(OH)2 is soluble in excess of NaOH solution.
Q2 (d) Write the reaction:
(ii) When sodium hydroxide reacts with FeCl3
Q3 (a) How is caustic soda manufactured by Castner Kellner’s process? Give the
advantage and disadvantages of the process.
Q3 (b) Write short on
(ii) Bleaching Powder
21. 2001:
Q2 (a) How is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) manufactured by Ammonia Solvay process?
Q2 (b) Why do lithium and beryllium differ to a great extent from other members of their
respective groups?
Q2 (c) Give a brief account of Bleaching Powder?
22. 2000:
Q2 (a) How is caustic soda obtained by Castner-Kellner’s process? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of the process.
Q2 (b) What happens when NaOH reacts with:
(i) Ferric Chloride (ii) Chlorine gas (iii) Ammonium Chloride
Q2 (c) Alkali and Alkaline earth metals form +1 and +2 ions respectively. Explain.
Q2 (d) Explain the following:
(i) Na+ ions are smaller than sodium atom.
(ii) Ionization potential decreases from Li to Cs.
(iii) Alkali metals can not be used in Voltaic cells.
(iv) Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents.
23. 1999:
Q2 (b) Describe the extraction of sodium from Down’s cell.
Q1 (b) Give scientific reasons of the following:
(i) The salt of alkaline earth metals are more hydrated than alkali metals salts.
(ii) Zn(OH)2 is soluble in excess of NaOH solution.
Q2 (c) What are the valencies of Mand MinM2 SO 4 , M2 (SO 4 ) 3 ?
Q2 (d) Complete the following reaction:
(ii) Zn + NaOH
Q4 (a) Describe the preparation of chlorine gas by Castner-Kellner’s cell.

24. 1998:
CO + NaOH
Q1 (d) Give reason.
(i) Melting and boiling points of IA group elements are very low.
25. 1997:
Q1 (c) Complete the following reaction:
(i) Zn + NaOH
Q2 (a) How is Chlorine obtained by Castner-Kellner Cell?
Q2 (b) Give the industrial preparation of sodium carbonate.
Q2 (c) Give the reasons for the following:
(ii) Elements of group IA and IIA readily lose their valence electrons.
Q3 (c) Write True or False for the following statement:
(i) The heat of hydration of Li+ ion is equal to that of Cs+ ion.
26. 1996:
Q2 (d) Write True or False for the following statement:
(i) Na2CO3 decomposes on heating. (True / False)
(iii) The heat of hydration of Li+ ion is greater than of Cs+ ion.
27. 1995:
Q1 (b); Give reasons of the following:
(iii) Na+ ion is smaller than sodium atom.
Q1 (c) Define the following terms:
(ii) Epsom Salt
Q2 (d) Write an account on any one of the following:
(i) Sodium Carbonate (ii) Caustic Soda
Q3 (c) Write short notes on:
(ii) Bleaching Powder
28. 1994:
Q1 (c) Why are the elements of group IA are called alkali metals? Discuss their physical
properties
Q1 (d) What are formed when alkali metals react with oxygen? Give examples.
29. 1993:
Q2 (a) How is caustic soda prepared by the electrolysis of sodium chloride? Give two
chemical properties of caustic soda.
Q2 (b) Complete the following:
(i) NaOH + NH4Cl
Q3 (d) Explain giving scientific reasons:
(i) Alkaline earth metals are harder than the alkali metals.
(ii) Plaster of paris is used in making coats and moulds
(iii) Li+ ions are more rapidly hydrated than K+ ions.
(iv) Zinc hydroxide is soluble in excess of sodium hydroxide solution.
30. 1992:
Q4 (a) Describe an electrolytic method for the preparation of sodium hydroxide.

4 p-Block Elements
1. 2019
vi) Antidote of H2S poisoning is very dilute:
* Nitrogen * Oxygen * Chlorine * Helium
o
viii) The product of heating Boric acid to 140 C is:
* Orthoboric acid * Pyroboric acid * metaboric acid * Boric Oxide
Q2(iv) Give scientific reason:
* Boric acid is weak monobasic acid. * Plastic Sulphur is elastic.
* Graphite conducts electricity parallel to the plane.
Q2(v) Give complete and balanced equation.
* Action of superheated water on boron nitride
* Reduction of sulphuric acid with hydrogen sulphide
* Reaction of Sulphur dioxide with chlorine gas
Q2(viii) Write about the manufacturing of Chlorine gas by Nelson Cell.
Q3(a) Describe the extraction of 99.99% pure aluminium from Bauxite ore containing
excess of ferric oxide.
(b) Complete and balance the equation:
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 /𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
* 𝐶𝑢 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → * 𝐻𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 →
Q4(a) Describe Ostwald’s method for the manufacturing of Nitric acid by the oxidation of
ammonia.
(c) Write note on: * Borax
2. 2018
v) Both crystalline forms of sulphur exist at this transition temperature;
* 94.5 0C * 95.5 0C * 96.5 0C * 98.5 0C
vi) The mixture of Aluminium nitrate and Aluminium powder is called;
* Duralumin * Ammonal * Carnallite * Alum
* Diamond is non-conductor of electricity.
v) Give the refining of Aluminium by Hoop’s electrolytic method (no diagram needed.)
* Action of Concentrated HNO3 on Sulphur
* Colemanite is treated with Sodium carbonate solution.
* Action of Hydrogen sulphide on Ferric chloride.
* Diamond is non-conductor of electricity.
v) Give the refining of Aluminium by Hoop’s electrolytic method (no diagram needed.)
* Action of Concentrated HNO3 on Sulphur
* Colemanite is treated with Sodium carbonate solution.
* Action of Hydrogen sulphide on Ferric chloride.
4.a) Give the industrial preparation of Oil of vitriol by contact process with diagram.
b) Give complete and balanced equations of any five of the following.
* C6H12O6 + H2SO4 → * Mg + HNO3 → * Fe2O2 + Al →
c) Write notes on any two of the following;
* Aqua Regia

3. 2017
Q1. (xiv) Royal water is a mixture in the ratio of 1:3 by volume of:
* HCl , H2SO4 * HNO3 , HCl * H2SO4 , HNO3 * HCl , HF
Q1. (i) Chemical composition of colemanite is:
* Ca2B6O11 . 5 H2O * CaB4O7 . 4 H2O * Na2B4O7 . 4 H2O
* CaNaB5O7 . 8H2O
Q1. (v) The mixture of Aluminium powder and Aluminium nitrate is known as:
* Aluminium bronze * Duralumin * Ammonal * Alum
3 (a) The flow chart represent stages in the manufacturing of HNO 3 by Ostwald’s
process.
NH3 +Air Water H2O
Converter Boiler Oxidation Chamber Absorption HNO3 HNO3

“B” “C” Tower “D” 68% 98%
“A”
• Give the chemical reactions in stages A,C,D, with conditions.
• Describe the conditions to get 95% oxidation of NH3 into NO and how 98%
HNO3 is obtained
ii) Give scientific reasons for the following:
o Boric acid is soft and silky
v) Give complete and balanced equations for the following reactions:
o Boric acid is reacted with sodium carbonate
o Litharge is heated with excess of air
o Aluminium is reacted with sodium hydroxide
viii) Refer the list of given compounds
Compound D
Specific Name Potash Alum
Write:
• Give only one common use of ‘D’.
Q4 a) Write the different oxides ore of Aluminium. How Aluminium is obtained from
bauxite ore containing Silica as impurity (Draw diagram of cell) (Refining of Al is not
required).
ii) Al + Fe2O3→
iv) P + HNO3→
v) Sb2Cl3 + HCl →
98% 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
vi) Zn + H2SO4→
4. 2016:
Q1 iii) Ruby is an oxide of;
* Zinc * Aluminium * Copper * Iron
v) H2S is;
* an oxidizing agent * a reducing agent
* a sulphonating agent * a bleaching agent
viii) Rhombic sulphur and Monoclinic sulphur are in equilibrium at this temperature;
* 95.5 0C * 96.6 0C * 105 0C * 113 0C

Q2 ii) What is Aqua Regia? How does Gold dissolve in it? Give the reactions.
Q2 iii) Give scientific reasons for the following:
• Atomic size of Sulphur is bigger than that of Oxygen.
• Plastic Sulphur is elastic.
Q2 vi) Write equations for the following reactions:
* Conc. Sulphuric acid with Oxalic acid * Nitric acid with Sulphur
* Fe+3 with H2S
Q2 vii) a) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
* Suhaga * Alunite * Murda sang
Q.3 b) Complete and balance the following equations.
* Mg + HNO3 →
Q.4 c) Write notes on the following.
* Borax
Q.4 b) Give the manufacture of Sulphuric acid by contact process.
5. 2015:
Q1 v) Kipp’s apparatus is used to prepare:
* SO2 * H2S * HCl * Cl2
Q1 xi) Aluminum Bronze contains:
* 10% of Al and 90 of Cu * 20% of Al and 80% of Cu
* 30% of Al and 70% of Cu * 50% of Al and 50% of Cu
Q2 ii) Give scientific reasons:
* SO3 is dissolved in H 2 SO4 but not in water.
Q2 iv a) Give the geometrical structure of H 2 SO4 and H 2 S .
b) How is H 2 S gas prepared in the laboratory?
Q2 v) Reaction of Aluminium with conc. H 2 SO4 .
Q2 viii) Write the names and formulae of oxyacids of Boron and give the effects of
change in temperature on them.
Q3. a) What is meant by Metallurgy. Describe the extraction of 99.99% pure Aluminium
from Bauxite ore containing SiO 2 and Fe2 O3 as impurities.
b) Write note on Lead Pigments
Q3 c) Complete the following equations:
* Zn + H 2 SO4 ⎯⎯ ⎯→
90% * P + HNO3 → * P + HNO3 →
Q4a) Describe the manufacture of Nitric acid by Ostwald’s process. Draw the flow
diagram. Write balanced equation for reaction of dilute and very dilute Nitric acid with
Zn.
c) How is chlorine manufactured by Nelson cell? Draw its diagram. Give equation for the
Auto-oxidation reduction of chlorine.
6. 2014:
x) The bond angle and bond distance between the atoms in rhombic sulphur are:
* 2.12 Ao & 105o * 2.12 Ao & 107o * 2.3 Ao & 105o
o o
* 2.22 A & 108
xii) Density of 98% HNO3 is:
* 1.51 g/l * 1.4 g/l * 1.83 g/l * 1.42 g/l
xiii) The chemical formula Al2 O3 .3H 2 O stand for:
* Diaspore * Corundum * Bauxite * GIbbisite

* Graphites conducts electricity, whereas diamond does not.
* B2O3 is acidic while Al2O3 is amphoteric
Q2: iii) Describe the manufacture of Chlorine gas by Castner-Kellner Cell.
Q2: iv) Give equations for the following reactions:
* Chrome yellow with Caustic Soda
Q2: v) b) How is Bauxite ore purified by Baeyer’s OR Serpeck’s process?
viii) a) Draw the structure of HNO3 in vapour and solid phases.
b) What is Aqua Regia? How does Gold dissolve in it? Give the reaction.
Q3: c) Complete the following equations:
* P + HNO3 → * Zn + HNO3 ⎯v⎯ ⎯→
. dilute
* H 2 S + H 2 SO4 →
Q4: b) Describe the manufacture of Sulphuric Acid by Contact process. Draw the flow
diagram.
c) Write notes on any Two of the following:
* Borax
7. 2013
Q: Give equations for the following:
* Reaction of Ferric oxide with aluminum
* Reaction of Litharge with sodium chloride
* Reaction of Benzene with sulphuric acid
* Reaction of Sodium dichloride with potassium chloride
Q: What is Allotropy? Describe amorphous form of Sulphur. Give reasons for its softness
and elasticity.
Q: What is Metallurgy? Explain the extraction of 99.99% pure Aluminium from Bauxite
ore containing silica as impurity.
Q: Give the oxidizing reactions of H2SO4 with metals & non-metals.

Q: Explain the manufacture of stable oxyacid of Nitrogen by Ostwald’s method. Write
balanced equations for the reaction of HNO3 with Cu and C.
Q: Write short note on : *Lead pigments * Boric acid
Q: What is corrosion? Write its causes. Give different methods for the prevention of
metals from corrosion.
Q: Reason: In d block elements, 4s orbital’s are filled prior to 3d orbitals but 4s electrons
are lost first in ionization.
8. 2012
Q2 (ii) b) What is Aqua Regia? How does gold dissolve in it? Give equations for the
reaction.
(iv) * Zinc is treated with 90% conc H2SO4.
* Aluminum reacts with aqueous Sodium Hydroxide
vi) Describe the preparation of Chlorine gas by Castner Kellner cell or Nelson cell.
Q3 b) Describe the manufactures of Sulphuric acid by contact process. Draw the flow
diagram.
c) Define Alum and write chemical formulae of three alums.

9. 2011
Q2(vii) a) Give the equations for the preparation of the following: * Boric acid
Q3(b) Give the structure and preparation of HNO3 with flow diagram by Ostwald’s process.
Write balanced equations for the reaction of concentrated and dilute HNO3 with Cu.
Q4. a) Give with diagram the extraction of pure Aluminum from aluminum oxide. What are
Ammonal and Aluminium bronze? Mention their uses.
b) Write notes on any two of the following:
* Lead pigments * Allotropic forms of Carbon
10. 2010:
Q2(ii) Write the names and formulae of any four ores of aluminium. Give the refining of
aluminium by Hoop’s Electrolytic method.
Q2(iii)a Write the chemical formulae of the following:
* Potash Alum * Oleum
Q2(iv) Give reasons:
* The ionization potential increases with the increases in atomic number in
the Period but decreases in a Group from up to down.
* The viscosity and boiling point of H2SO4 are high.
Q2(v) a) Give the composition and uses of two alloys of aluminium.
b) Compare four properties each of diamond and graphite.
Q2(vii) Complete the following reactions.
* Na2 B4O7 + 7H2O → * 4Zn + 10HNO3 (dil) →
* HCOOH + H2SO4 (conc) → * K2Cr2O7 + 2H2SO4 →
Q3(c) Write the chemistry of boric acid.
Q4(a) Describe the manufacture of sulphuric acid by Contact process. Write the
conditions for getting a good yield of SO3. Draw the diagram.
Q4(c) What is aqua regia? How does it dissolve gold? Explain with equations.
11. 2009:
Q2(b) Discuss the group trends in ‘p’ block elements with respect to:
i) Ionization Potential ii) Electronegativity iii) Hydration Energy
iv) Melting Point
Q2(c) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
i) Blue Vitriol ii) Oil of Vitriol vi) Phitkari
Q2(d) Complete and balance the following reactions:
H 3 BO3 ⎯100 ⎯⎯ →
o
C
___________________________
i.
Al 2 O3 • nH 2 O + 3C + N 2 ⎯ ⎯→ _______________________
ii.
iii. 2 Al + 2 NaOH + 2H 2 O ⎯ ⎯→ _________________________
Q3(a) How is HNO3 acid manufactured by Ostwald’s method? Draw the diagram?
Q3(b) Give reasons for any Three of the following:
i) Sulphuric acid is a sulphonating agent
ii)Nitric acid is an oxidizing agent
iii)Graphite is a weak conductor of electricity
Q3(c) Write short note on: (ii) Lead Pimgent (iv) Borax
12. 2008:
Q2(a) Define Allotropy and describe the structure of diamond.
Q2(b) What is Aqua Regia? How does gold dissolve in it? Give the reactions.

Q2 (c) what will be the action of heat on H2B4O7? Give chemical equation only.
Q3 (a) (i) Name four ores of Aluminum.
(ii) How is bauxite ore purified by Serpek’s process?
(iii) Mention the refining of aluminum by Hoop’s method.
Q3 (b) Draw the structure of HNO3 in vapor phase and solid phase with bond lengths and
bond angles.
Q3 (c) Write down the auto-oxidation reduction of chlorine.
Q3 (d) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
(i) Bleaching powder (ii) Gypsum (iii) Tincal
(iv) Lead sesquioxide (v) Carnalite (vi) Potassium iodate
Q4(b) Give scientific reasons for the following:
(i) Atomic radii increase down the group in the p-block elements.
(ii) The metallic character of elements increases down the group.
Q4(c) How is nitric acid is prepared commercially by Ostwald’s process?
13. 2007:
Q3(a) How is pure aluminum (Al) obtained from its bauxite ore by Hall’s method?
Q3(b) Complete and balance any three of the following reactions:
(i) Zn + HNO3(dil) →
(ii) H3BO3 + NaOH →
(iii)SO2 + Cl2 →
(iv) Al + H2SO4 →
(v) CuSO4 + NH3 → (ch#5)
Q3(c) Explain the following:
(i) Diamond is the hardest known substance.
(ii) Graphite is the good conductor of electricity.
(iii) The atomic size of Sulphur is bigger than that of oxygen.
Q3(d) What happens when?
(i) Carbon monoxide is treated with chlorine.
(ii) Litharge is heated with concentrated H2SO4.
(iii) Auto-oxidation and Reduction of Cl2 take place.
(iv) Aluminum is treated with sodium hydroxide.
Q4(a) How is nitric acid manufactured by Ostwald’s process? Draw the diagram.
Q4(b) Explain that H2SO4 acts as the following:
(i) Acid (ii) Oxidizing agent (iii) Dehydrating agent.
14. 2006:
Q2 (a) What is Thermite process? Give the details of obtaining aluminum metal from
alumina.
Q2 (b) What are pigments? Describe lead pigments in detail.
Q2 (c) Give reasons for the following:
(i) Hydrogen sulphide is a gas where as water is a liquid.
(ii) Ammonia is a stronger base than phosphine.
(iii) Aluminum hydroxide acts both as a base and an acid.
(iv) Graphite is a more stable allotropic form of carbon than diamond.
(v) Diamond is lustrous where as carbon is dull-colored.
Q4 (c) Complete the following equations:
(iii) Cu + HNO3 (dil.)
(iv) FeCl3 + [H] Zn / HCl

15. 2005:
Q2 (a) Explain in detail the manufacture of the oil of vitriol by contact process.
Q2 (b) Explain and write the balanced equations of the following reactions:
(i) Action of conc. H2SO4 on sucrose.
(ii) Action of hot and conc. HNO3 on silicon.
(iii) Action of dilute HNO3 on copper
(iv) Action of Aqua Regia on gold.
Q2 (c) Explain the reducing action of hydrogen sulphide gas with the help of two
chemical equations
Q2 (d) What is plastic sulphur? Why does it show the behavior of elasticity?
Q3 (d) Give the composition and uses of the alloys of aluminum.
(v) Electron population of aluminum is less than that of boron.
Q4 (c) Write short note on
(i) Boric Acid
Q4 (d) Fill in the blanks with correct answer:
(ii) The refractive index of diamond is __________
(iii) Graphite conducts electricity due to delocalized __________
(iv) The angle between H-S-H in H2S molecule is ___________
(v) The transition temperature of rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur is
(vi) The mixture of aluminum powder and aluminum nitrate is known as __________
16. 2004:
Q2 (b) Give the balanced equation for the following reactions:
(i) Chlorine is treated with concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide.
(ii) Litharge is heated with excess of oxygen.
(iv) Chlorine reacts with sulphur dioxide.
Q2 (d) Write short note on
(ii) Alum
Q3 (d) Describe the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald’s Process.
Q3 (b) Complete and balance any four of the following equations:
(i) Zn + H2SO4 (90% conc.)
(ii) S + H2SO4 (conc.)
(iii) C6H12O6 + H2SO4 (conc.)
(iv) Zn + HNO3 (dilute)
Q3 (d) Write down the Auto-Oxidation Reduction of chlorine.

Q4 (a) Give the extraction of aluminum from bauxite ore containing ferric oxide as
impurity
Q4 (b)(ii) The structure of hydrogen sulphide is_________. (linear, trigonal,
tetrahedral)
17. 2003 P.M:

Q3 (a) How is sulphuric acid is manufactured by contact process?
(i) C12H22O11 + H2SO4 (conc.)
(ii) Al + H2SO4 (dil.)
(iii) Fe2O3 + Al
(iv) Cu + HNO3 (dil.)
(v) Zn + H2SO4 (dil.)

Q3 (c) Write short notes on any two of the following:
(i) Diamond (ii) Borax (iii) Thermite process
2003 P.E:
Q1 (d) Give scientific reasons for the following:
(ii) B.P. and viscosity of H2SO4 are high.
Q3 (a) Give the preparation of nitric acid by Ostwald’s process.
Q3 (b) Complete the following reactions:
(i) Cu + HNO3 (conc.)
(ii) Al + H2SO4 (dil.)
(iii) H3BO3 + NaOH
(iv) SO2 + Cl2
(v) FeCl3 + H2S
Q3 (c) Define Allotrophy? Describe the structure of diamond and graphite.
Q3 (d) How is gold dissolved in aqua regia? Show with chemical equations.
18. 2002 P.M:

(i) Al4C3 + H2O
(v) BN + H2O
Q3 (b) How is sulphuric acid obtained by contact process?
Q3 (c) Write down the equations when (conc.) HNO3 reacts with the following:
(i) Coper (ii) Conc. HCl (iii) Benzene in presence of conc. H2SO4
Q3 (e) Write down the structural formulae of H2SO4 and H2S.
Q4 (a) Write short notes on any one:
(ii) Diamond
(iii) Borax
Q4 (c) Give the extraction of aluminum from bauxite ore.
Q4 (d) Write down the auto-oxidation-reduction of chlorine.
2002 P.E:
Q2 (a) What is metallurgy? Write the different ores of aluminum and give its extraction
from bauxite ore.
Q2 (b) (i) Describe the structure of graphite.
(ii) How H2S gas is prepared in laboratory
(ii) C12H22O11 + H2SO4 (conc.)
(iii) Mg + HNO3 (dil.)
Q2 (d) Write the reaction
(i) When carbon monoxide is treated with Cl2
Q3 (b) Write short note on:
(i) Boric Acid
Q3 (d) Describe the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald’s process.
Q4 (b) Give reason for the following:
(iv) Sulphuric acid is dehydrating agent.
19. 2001:
Q2 (d) Give the balanced equations only to show how NaOH reacts with
(i) Boric Acid (ii) Finely divided bauxite (iii) Lead chromate (iv) Chlorine gas
Q3 (a) How is chlorine is obtained from Nelson’s Cell?

Q3 (b) Explain the following:
(i) Graphite is a weak conductor
(ii) Boron generally forms covalent compounds.
Q3 (c) What is Aqua Regia? How does gold dissolves in it? Give the reaction.
Q3 (d) By the help of two chemical equations for each show that:
(i) H2SO4 is a good dehydrating agent.
(ii) HNO3 is a good oxidizing agent.
Q4 (b) Which of the following statements are correct?
(ii) Phosphoric acid is a weak acid.
(iii) Sodium metal inert.
(iv) Diamond is the hardest substance known.
(v) Borax is acidic
(vi) Bromine is a volatile liquid.
Q4 (d) Write short note on any one;
(i) Alum (iii) Allotropic forms of Carbon
20. 2000:
Q3 (a) Give the extraction of Aluminum from Bauxite ore containing silica as impurity.
Q3 (b) How H2SO4 acts:
(i) As Acid (ii) As Oxidizing Agent (iii) As Dehydrating agent
Q3 (c) What happened when.
(i) Carbon mono-oxide is treated with chlorine.
(ii) Litharge is heated with excess of air.
(iii) Hydrogen sulphide is treated with bromine.
(iv) Nitric acid is treated with sodium hydroxide.
(v) Sulphur dioxide is treated with chlorine.
Q4 (a) How is nitric acid obtained by Ostwald’s Method?
21. 1999:
Q2 (b) How is H2S gas prepared in the laboratory?
Q2 (d) Complete the following reactions:
(i) FeCl3 + H2S
(ii) C + H2SO4
Q3 (a) Explain Allotropy. Why does graphite conduct electricity whereas diamond does not?
Q3 (b) Draw geometrical shapes of H2S and H2SO4 molecules.
Q3 (c) Describe the manufacture of sulphric acid by means of the contact process.
22. 1998:
(ii) Ag + HNO3
(iii) C + H2SO4
Q1 (d) Give reasons for the following:
(ii) H2SO4 ha higher boiling point and viscosity.
Q2 (c) Choose the correct answer from the options given below in brackets.
(iii) The correct formula of pyrosulphuric acid is __________. (H2SO4, H2S2O7, H3S2O5)
(iv) Aqua regia is a mixture of one part of _________ by volume and three parts of
________ by volume. (H2SO4, H3PO4, HNO3’ HCl)
Q2 (c) Write True or False for the following statements:
(i) Diamond is the hardest known substance in the world
(ii) The properties of boron oxide are acidic.

(iii) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
Q3 (a) Describe the extraction of Aluminum from bauxite ore containing ferric oxide as
impurity.
Q3 (b) Give the reaction of the following compounds with Aluminum metal.
(i) Sulhpuric acid (Concentrated)
(ii) Nitrogen gas at elevated temperature.
(iii) Potassium hydroxide.
Q3 (c) What happened when?
(i) H2O + Cl2
Q4 (a) Describe the preparation of nitric acid (HNO3) on a large scale from ammonia.
Q4 (c) Give the reactions of concentrated nitric acid (HNO 3) with the following:
(i) A metal (one example)
(ii) A non-metal (one example)
23. 1997:
Q1 (c) Complete the following reaction:
(i) Al + H2SO4 (ii) FeCl3 + H2S
Q2 (c) Give reasons for the following:
(iii) Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent.
Q2 (d) Choose the correct answer from the given options:
(ii) When boric acid (H3BO3) is heated to 140oC, it forms (Boric acid, Pyroboric acid,
Metaboric acid)
(ii) The molecules of H2S is non-linear.
Q4 (b) Describe the manufacture of Sulpuric acid by contact process.
24. 1996:
Q1 (e) Choose the correct answer from the bracket.
(i) The oxide formed by Al is _________. (Acidic / Amphoteric / Basic)
Q2 (a) Describe Ostwald’s process for the manufacture of Nitric acid.
(i) P + HNO3
(ii) HCl(conc.) + HNO3 (conc.)
(iii) Al + NaOH + H2O
(iv) FeCl3 + H2S
Q2 (c) Why does aluminum metal not react with conc. Nitric acid?
(iv) Diamond does not conduct electricity while graphite does.
Q4 (a) Name two metals obtained by electrolytic process.
Q4 (b) Describe the extraction of pure Aluminum from purified Bauxite.
Q4 (c) Explain the auto oxidation reduction of chlorine. Give the importance of chlorine.
25. 1995:
Q1 (b) Give reasons for the following:
(ii) Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent.
(iv) Sulphuric acid has higher boiling point and viscosity.
Q3 (a) Describe the manufacture of Sulphuric acid by contact process.
(ii) S + HNO3

26. 1994:
Q2 (a) Describe the extraction of aluminum from bauxite containing an excess of ferric
oxide.
Q2 (b) Give the reactions of aluminum with dilute acids and strong alkalis. What nature
of aluminumdo these properties indicate?
Q2 (c) Write the names and the formulae of three acids of boron.
Q3 (a) Describe the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald’s process.
Q3 (b) Discuss the reactions of nitric acid with metals.
Q3 (c) Give the reactions of nitric acid with;
(i) Carbon (ii) Sulphur (iii) Phosphorus
Q4 (i) Give the reactions for the following;
(ii) Hydrogen sulphide is a strong reducing agent.
(iii) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
27. 1993:
Q2 (b) Complete the following equations.
(i) H3BO3 + Na2CO3
(ii) Al(OH)3 (heat)
Q2 (d) Draw the structure of
(i) Diamond (ii) Graphite
Q3 (a) How is chlorine prepared by Nelson Cell?
Q3 (b) Explain auto oxidation reduction reaction of chlorine with water.
Q3 (c) What happens when?
(i) Conc. Sulhpuric acid is reacted with oxalic acid.
(ii) Conc. Nitric acid is reacted with hydrogen sulphide.
28. 1992:
Q2 (a) How is aluminum extracted from pure alumina?
Q2 (b) Give the balanced equations for the following reactions and explain the
importance of any one of them.
(i) Aluminum reacts with aqueous sodium hydroxide.
(ii) Aluminum reacts with ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
(iii) Boric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide.
Q2 (c) How is the structure of graphite different form that of diamond?
Q3 (a) How is nitric acid prepared by Ostwald’s Process?
Q3 (b) Complete the following equations;
(ii) Zn + HNO3 (dil.)
(iii) FeCl3 + H2S
(iv) PbO + O2 (at about 450 oC)

5 d-Block Elements
1. 2019:
vii) Galvanized iron means coated with:
* Zn * Cu * Al * Sn
Q2 (iii) Refer to the list of the given table:
Compound A B C D
Specific Name Lunar Caustic
* Give any one use of D.
Q2 (iv) Give scientific reason:
* Transition metals form non-stoichiometric compounds.
Q2 (v) Give complete and balanced equation:
* Blue vitriol heated to 230oC.
Q2 (vi) Write I.U.P.A.C names of the following complexes:
* [Co(en)3](NO3)3 * [Cu(NH3)4]+2 * [AuCl4]- * Na3[Fe(CN)5NO]
Q2 (viii) Describe the refining of Copper by electrolysis of blister copper.
Q3 (b) Complete and balance the equation:
* 𝐾2 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 𝐶𝑙2 → * 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 𝐾𝑂𝐻 → * 𝐶𝑢𝐹𝑒𝑆2 + 𝑂2 →
Q4(c) Write notes on the following:
* Photography * Silvering of Mirror
2. 2018:
* H2O and NH3 act as ligands but H3O+ and NH+4 do not.
* Blue crystals of Copper sulphate turn white on heating.
* Alkali metals are powerful reducing agents.
* Alkaline earth metals are more strongly hydrated than alkali metals.
vi) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following complexes.
* [Pt(NH3)2 Cl4] * NH4 [Cr(SCN)4(NH3)2] * [Cu(CN)4]-2
* [CO(H2N – CH2 – CH2 – NH2)3] (NO3)3
vii) Discuss any Two of the following properties of Transition metals.
* Magnetic properties * Colour * Formation of complexes
vii) OR What is Corrosion? Write its causes. Give different methods for the
prevention of metals from Corrosion.
Q3 (b) OR Describe the methallurgy of blister Copper from concentrated pyrite ore.
b) Give complete and balanced equations of any five of the following.
* K2 CrO4 + H2SO4 → * CuSO4 + Kl →
* FeO. Cr2O3K2CO3 + O2 →
c) Write notes on any two of the following;
* Tin plating * Silvering of Mirrors
3. 2017:
Q1. (xv) The temperature at which two allotropic form of an element exists in
equilibrium state is:
* Transition Temperature * Equilibrium Temperature
* Normal Temperature * Unstable Temperature

Q2. i) How is copper Matter obtained from its concentrated Sulphide Ore?
Q2.ii) Give scientific reasons for the following:
• Anhydrous CuSO4 is white while hydrated CuSO4 is blue.
Q3. c) Describe any two of the following properties of ‘d’ block element:
* Magnetic properties
* Catalytic properties
* Formation of colour’
* Variable oxidation state
iii) K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + KCl →
4. 2016:
Q1. ix) Stainless steel is an alloy of;
* Fe, Cr and Ni * Al, Cu and Ni * Al, Cr and Zn * Fe, Cu and Al
Q2. i) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following;
* [Co(NH3)3 Cl3] * [Cr(en)3]Cl3
* Na3 [Cu(OH)2 (NO3)2] * Na2 [ Fe(CN)3 NO]
Q2 vi) Write equations for the following reactions:
* Blue stone treated with KI
Q2 vii) a) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
* Chromite ore
Q2 vii) b) Draw the structure of the following:
* Chelating agent * Chelate
Q.2 viii) With the help of Crystal field theory, explain the colour of Transition metal
complex ions.
Q.3 a) Describe the extraction of 99.9% Copper from roasted pyrite ore.
b) Complete and balance the following equations.
* K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 → * Kl + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 → * K2MnO4 + Cl2→
Q.4 c) Write notes on the following.
* Tin plating
5. 2015:
Q1viii) EDTA is this type of ligand:
* Bidentate *Tetradentate * Pentadentate * Hexadentate
Q1 xiv) Hypo is used as:
* Fixer * Developer * Reducer * Binder
Q2: ii) Give scientific reasons:
* Transition elements show variable oxidation state.
Q2 iii) Complete the following reactions and give I.U.P.A.C. names of the products:
* AgOH + NH 4 OH →
Q2 vii) How is Blister copper obtained from matte?
Q3 b) Write note on the following:
* Corrosion and its preventions * Lunar Caustic
Q3 C) Complete the following equations:
* K 2 Cr2 O7 + FeSO4 + H 2 SO4 → * AgBr + Na2 S 2 O3 →
6. 2014:
vi) EDTA is:
* Bidentate ligand * Monodentate Ligand * Chelate
* Multidentate Ligand

+
* NH3 and H2O act as ligands but NH 4+ and H 3 O do not
* Most of the transition elements and their compounds are paramagnetic.
Q2: iv) Give equations for the following reactions:
* Electrolytic oxidation of Potassium manganate by water
* Potassium dichromate with conc. H2SO4.
* Chromium oxide with KOH and Bromine water.
Q2: v) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
* Fe(NO2 )6  * Cr(en)2 Cl2 Cl
−3
Q2 vii) a) How does Crystal Field Theory explain the colour of complex ions?
Q3: b) Describe the extraction of pure Copper from roaster pyrite ore.
Q3: c) Complete the following equations:
* AgBr + Na2 S 2 O3
Q4: c) Write notes on any two of the following:
* Blue vitriol
7. 2013
Q: Write I.U.P.A.C names if the following:
* NH 4 Cr (SCN )4 (NH 3 )2  * Na3 Fe(CN )5 NO
Q: Complete the following questions:
FeO.Cr2O3 + K 2CO3 + O2 →
* * K2 MnO4 + Cl2 →
* CuSO4 + Kl → * Zn + H 2 SO4 →
*
MgCO3 + H 2SO4 →
Q: Write short note on “Photography”
Q: Reason: Ligands are generally called Lewis bases.
8. 2012
Q2 (iii) Why is the electronic configuration of Chromium (Cr) 4s1, 3d5 instead of 4s2,
3d4 while that of Copper (Cu) is 4s1, 3d10 instead of 4s2, 3d9?
(iv) Action of Heat on KMnO4 * Lunar caustic is heated 450oC.
v) a) Write a note on any one: Tin plating
b) Write I.U.P.A.C/ names of the following: Cr(en)2 Cl2 Cl * Fe(NO2 )6 
−3
vii) Complete the following equations and give I.U.P.A.C. names of the
complexes formed:
⎯⎯→ * CuSO4 + NH 3 ⎯excess
AgNO3 + NH 3 ⎯excess ⎯⎯→ *
viii) a) What is Blue vitriol? Give two equations for its preparation.
b) What are outer and inner transistor elements and how many series of each
of them are present in the periodic table? Also write the names of the inner
transistors series
Q4 a) How is pure Copper obtained from roasted pyrite ore?
Ca2 B6 O11 + Na2 CO3 →
b) Complete the following equations:
Zn + HNO3 ⎯Cold
⎯⎯→
dilute

9. 2011
Q2 iv) a) Discuss any two of the following properties of transition metals:
* Magnetic Properties * Formation of Coloured Compounds
* Formation of Complexes
v) Give reasons:
* Most of the transition elements and their compounds are paramagnetic.
* H 2 O and NH 3 act as ligands but H 3 O + and NH + do not.
4
vi) Give equations for the following:
* Action of heat on Blue vitriol * Reaction between K 2 Cr2 O7 and KOH.
viii) Name the complexes by I.U.P.A.C. system:
* Ni(CO) 4  * NH 4 Cr ( NCS ) 4 ( NH 3 ) 2 
* Cr ( NH 3 ) 6  * Fe(CN ) 6 
+3 −3
Q4 b) Write short note on: Corrosion and its prevention
10. 2010:
Q2 (iii) (b) Writ down the I.U.PA.C. names of the following:
* K 3 Fe(CN)6  * CO( NH 2 − CH 2 − CH 2 − NH 2 ) 3 C 3
Q2 (vi) Define Ligands. Give the classification of ligands based upon the number of
coordinating atoms with examples.
Q2 (viii) write a note on any One of the following.
* Photography * Silvering of a Mirror
Q4 (b) How is copper obtained from Matt? Explain the method of its refining by
electrolysis. Draw the diagrams.
11. 2009:
Q3(c) Write short note on the following: (i) Silvering of Mirror (ii) Corrosion
Q4 a) Define a mineral and an ore. How is copper extracted from its sulphide ore?
b) Describe the following properties of transitional elements:
i) Variable Oxidation States ii) Colour of Complexes
c) Give I.U.P.A.C. names of the following complexes:
i) Na3 CO(NO2 )6  ii) Ni(CO)4 iii) K 3 Cr (H 2 O )Cl5  iv) K 4 Fe(CN )6 
d) How is lunar caustic prepared? Give its uses.
12. 2008:
Q4 (a) Give IUPAC names of the following complexes:
i) [Co(en)2]2+ ii) [Ni(CO)4] iii) [Zn(NH3)4]SO4 iv) Na3[Co(NO2)6]
Q4 (b) Why are melting and boiling points of transition elements are high? (give
scientific reason)
13. 2007:
Q2 (d) How does C.F.T explain fully the color of the complex ions?
Q4 (c) Name the following compounds by IUPAC system:
i) K3[Fe(CN)6] ii) [Co(e.n)3](NO3)3 iii) [Cr(NH3)6]Cl3 iv) [Ni(CO)4]
Q4 (d) Write down electrolytic refining of blister copper.

14. 2006:
Q3(a) Describe in detail the general characteristics of ‘d’ block elements with special
consideration of electronic configuration.
Q3(b) Give the I.U.P.A.C. names of the following complexes:
(i) K2[Cu(CN)4] (ii) Ni(CO)4 (iii) [Cr(e.n)3]Cl3
Q3 (c) What is Matte? Give the extraction of copper from matte. Draw the diagram of
Bessemer Converter.
Q3(d) Draw the geometrical shapes of the following complexes:
(i) 1[Pt(NH3)2Cl2] (ii) [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (iii) [CO(NH3)4Cl2]-2
15. 2005:
Q3 (a) Starting from Roasted Pyrite Ore of copper, describe how pure copper is obtained
Q3 (b) Give the balanced equations and explain:
(i) Action of heat on blue vitriol (ii) Action of heat on KMnO4
Q3 (c) Write the I.U.P.A.C. names of any three of the following:
(i) [Co(H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2)2Br2]Br (ii) Pt[(Cl)6]-2
(iii) NH4[Cr(SCN)4(NH3)2]
(iv) [Fe(CO)5]
Q4 (b) Give scientific reason:
(iii) Transition elements are capable of forming complexes.
Q4 (c) Write short note on:
(iii) Silvering of mirror
16. 2004:
Q3 (b) Complete and balance the following equation:
(v) CrO4-2 + H+
Q3 (c) Give Reason of the following:
(iii) Water and ammonia molecules act as ligands but H3O+ and NH4+ ions do no.
Q4 (c) Name the following systems by I.U.A.P.C system:
(i) Ni(CO)4 (ii) [Zn(OH)4]-2 (iii) [Cr(NH3)4Cl2]Cl
(iv) [Cr(e.n)3](NO3)3
Q4 (d) Write a short note on any one of the following:
(i) Corrosion and Prevention (ii) Lunar Caustic (iii) Tin Plating
17. 2003 P.M:

Q4 (a) How is blister copper obtained from its sulphide ore?
Q4 (b) Give I.U.PA.C names of the following:
(i) Na3[Fe(CN)5NO] (ii) [Cu(NH3)4](NO3)2 (iii) [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl
(iv) [Co(H2N-CH2-CH2-NH2)3]Cl3
Q4 (c) Explain any two of the following:
(i) H2O and NH3 act as ligands by H3O+ and NH4+ do not.
(ii) Transition metals ion are colored.
Q4 (d) Write notes on any one of the following:
(i) Slivering of mirror (ii) Blue Vitriol
2003 P.E:
Q4 (a) what are outer and inner transition elements and how many series of each of them
in periodic table?

Q4 (b) Describe the following properties of d-block elements:
(i) Complex formation (ii) Catalytic properties (iii) Magnetic properties
(iv) Interstitial compounds
Q4 (c) What is corrosion? Write its causes. Give different methods for its prevention
Q4 (d) Give I.U.PA.C names of the following:
(i) Na3[Fe(CN)6] (ii) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3] (iii) [Cu(NH3)4]SO4
18. 2002 P.M:

Q3 (a) How is blister copper refined?
Q3 (d) Name of the following complexes by I.U.PA.C
(i) Na4[Fe(CN)6] (ii) [Cu(NH3)4Cl2] (iii) [Cr(H2O)Cl2]Cl (iv)
[Ni(CO)4]
Q4 (a) Write short note on Tin plating.
2002 P.E:
Q2 (a) What is metallurgy? Write different ores of aluminum and give its extraction from
bauxite Ore.
Q4 (a) Give I.U.PA.C names of the following:
(i) K3[Co(NO2)6] (ii) [Cr(NH3)3Cl3] (iii) Na3[Fe(CN)6] (iv) [Cr(e.n)3]Cl3
Q4 (b) Give reasons for the following: (any two)
(i) Transition elements form colored compounds.
(ii) NH3 acts as a ligand but NH4+ does not.
(iii) d-block elements and their compounds are generally good catalysts.
Q4 (c) Write a short note on any one of the following:
(i) Corrosion (ii) Photography
Q4 (d) Give the process of refining of blister copper.
Q4 (e) How is blue vitriol prepared?
19. 2001:
(i) Transition elements are good catalysts.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF SOME COMPOUNDS
(Ch # 1 to 5)
2014:
vii) b) Write the formulae for the following:
* Alunite * Hypo * Magnesite * Fluorspar
2013:
Write the chemical formulae of the following:
* Tincal * Lead sesquioxide * Stibnite * Camallite
2012:
Q4 c) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
* Gypsum * Suhaga * Sandhur * Lunar caustic
* Litharge * Bleaching powder
2006:
Q4 (d) Write the chemical formulae of the following:
(i) Plaster of Paris (ii) Hypo (iii) Epsom Salt (iv) Lunar Caustic
2005:
Q3 (e) Give the chemical formulae of the following:
(i) Plaster of Paris (ii) Bleaching Powder (iii) Borax (iv) Epsom
2004:
Q3 (c) Give the chemical formulae of the following:
(i) Blue Vitriol (ii) Epsom Salt (iii) Oleum (iv) Red Lead
(v) Water gas (vi) Plaster of Paris
2003 P.M:
Q3 (c) Write down the chemical formulae of the following:
(i) Soda Ash (ii) Gypsm (iii) Epsom (iv) Potash alum
2002 P.M:
Q4 (b) Write the Chemical formula of any three of the following:
(i) Neutral Ligand (ii) Bidentate Ligand (iii) Blue Stone (iv) Hypo
2002 P.E:
(i) Oleum (ii) Red Lead Pigment (iii) Chrome red pigment
(iv) Gypsum

2000:
(i) Red lead pigment (ii) Hypo
1999:
Q1 (c) Write the Chemical formulae of the following:
(i) Bleaching powder (ii) Gypsum (iii) Borax
(iv) Oleum (v) Lunar Caustic (vi) Chrome Yellow
1993:
Q2 (c) Write the Chemical formula of the following:
(i) Bleaching powder (ii) Baking powder (iii) Hypo (iv) Epson salt
1992:
Q3 (c) Give the chemical formulae of;
(i) Chrome yellow (ii) Alum (iii) Epsom Salt

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC
6 CHEMISTRY
1. 2019
ix) This one is condensation polymer:
* PVC * PVA * Polyethylene * Terylene
x) The number of isomers of pentane is:
*3 *5 *7 *9
xi) Propanone and propanal are:
* Metamers * Chain isomers * Functional group isomers
* Position isomers
Q2 (ix) Define the following:
* Metamerism * Homologous Series
Q2(x) Write the classification of Organic compounds with examples.
2. 2018
ix) Cycloalkanes have the general formula;
* CnH2n+2 * CnH2n * CnH2n-2 * CnH2n+1
x) The functional group is RSH is;
* Aldehyde * Carboxylic acid * Ether * Thioalcohol
ix) Define Isomerism. Give its types with examples.
x) Define the following.
* Cracking * Polymerization * Catenation
3. 2017
Q1. (x) Octane number is related to:
* Gasoline * Kerosene * Diesel oil * Lubricating oil
Q1. (vi) The commercial name of Phenol Formaldehyde Polymer is:
* Celluloid * Teflon * P.V.C * Bakelite
Q2.ix) Define the following:
* Functional Group * Catenation
4. 2016:
Q1. i) This is used to increase the Octane number and efficiency of petrol:
* Ni * Pt * V2O5 * (C2H5)4Pb
x) Propanal and Propanone are;
* Chain isomers * Position isomers * Metamers
* Functional group isomers
xiii) This is the general formula of ketones;
* (RCHI) * (RCOR) * (RCOOH) * (R-O-R)
Q.2 ix) Define the following terms:
* Homologous Series * Cracking * Isomerism
5. 2015:
Q1 i) The functional group in RSH is:
* Alcohol * Carboxlylic acid * Fructose * Maltose

Q1 vi) Blood cancer is caused by:
* Methane * Ethane * Butane * Benzene
Q1 xvii) Glucose and fructose are:
* Position Isomers * Chain Isomer * Functional group * Metamers
Q2 ix) Define the following with example:
* Octane number * Catenation * Functional group * Metamerism
Q2 xv) Write the classification of organic compounds with example.
Q5 b) Define Polymerization. How many types of Polymerization are there? Give the
preparation of the following:
* PVC * Bakelite
6. 2014:
iv) The boiling point range 40o – 200oC is for this fraction of petrolrum.
* Wax * Gasoline * Heavy Oil * Jet Fuel
vii) Another name of Methane is:
* Mustard gas * Oil gas * Coal gas * Marsh gas
Q2: ix) a) Draw and explain the orbital Structure of Ethyne.
x) Define the following:
* Homologous series * Cracking * Refining of Petroleum
* Carbohydrate
7. 2013
Q: Describe the natural sources of organic compound.
Q: Define the following, giving examples: * Isomers * Polymers
8. 2012
ix) Define: * Polymerization * Catenation * Metamerism
9. 2011
Q2 x) Define Isomerism, Give its types with examples.
viii) a) Define functional group. Name the functional groups in the following
compounds.
* C2 H 5 COCI * CH 3CONH 2
10. 2010
Q2 (ix a) Define following with examples:
* Polymerization * Homologous Series
11. 2009
Q5 (a) Define the following: i) Homologous Series ii) Isomerism
12. 2008:
None
13. 2007:
Q5 (a) Define any three of the following: (i) Catenation (ii) Functional Group
(iii) Cracking (iv) Homologous series
Q5 (d) Arrange the following pairs as homologues, Isomers and polymers:
(i) C2H5OH , C2H6O (ii) 2-butene, 2-pentene
(iii) (CH2=CH2)n , (CH2=CH-Br)n

14. 2006:
Q7 (a) What are Hydrocarbons? Give the names and the formulae of any four
hydrocarbons.
Q8 (a) Give the definition of Isomerism. What are the different types of isomerism?
Q8 (b) What are Homologous Series? Write down the formulae and names of the first
five members of a homologous series.
Q8 (c) What is meant by the refining of petroleum? Name the different fractions of
refining of petroleum.
Q8 (d) Write short notes on:
(i) Sources of Organic Compounds (ii) Cracking
(iii) Polymerization
15. 2005:
Q5 (a) Define the following:
(i) Functional Group Isomerism (ii) Cracking
Q7 (d) Fill in the blank with the correct answer:
(i) Bakelite is a polymer of phenol and methanal.
16. 2004:
(i) Polymerization (ii) Homologous Series (iii) Isomerism
(iv) Functional Group
17. 2003 P.M:

Q6 (c) Give a brief account of isomerism.
2003 P.E:
Q1 (d) Define the following terms:
(i) Catenation (ii) Cracking (iii) Isomerism
18. 2002 P.M:

Q5 (a) Briefly describe the natural source of organic compounds.
2002 P.E: None
19. 2001:
Q5 (e) Write short notes on any one of the following:
(i) Homologous series (iii) Isomerism
20. 2000:
Q8 (c) Write short note on any one of the following:
(i) Isomerism (ii) Cracking (iii) Functional Groups
21. 1999:
NONE
22. 1998:
Q6 (d) Fill in the blanks with correct answers.
(i) Plastics are polymers of Alkene.
(ii) From crude oil, additional quantity of petrol is obtained by Cracking process.

Q7 (c) Write True or Flase.
(iii) Bakelite is a polymer of phenol and alkyl halide. FALSE
Q8 (d) Write short note on: (3+3)
(i) Polymerization (ii) Isomerism
23. 1997:
NONE
24. 1996:
Q5 (d) Fill in the blank
(i) Bakelite is a polymer of _________ and formaldehyde. (Ethanol, Methanol,
Phenol)
(ii) The plastic which can be heated only once are known as _________ Plastics.
(Perspex, Thermoplastic, Thermosetting)
Q6(d) Which of the following pairs are polymers, isomers and homologues?
(i) CH 2 = CH 2 , (− CH 2 − CH 2 −) Polymer
(ii) CH 3 − CH 2 OH , CH 3OCH 3 Isomers
(iii) CH 3 .CH 2 .CH 3 , CH 3 − CH 2 − C2 H 5 Homologues
(iv) CH 3 − CH 2 OH , CH 3 − CH 2 − CH 2 − OH Homologues
25. 1995:
Q4 (d) Explain;
(i) Polymerization (iii) Cracking
26. 1994:
Q5 (a) The molecular formula of a hydrocarbon is C5H12. Write the names & the structure
of its possible isomers.
Q5 (b) What is a homologous series? Give its characteristics properties.
27. 1993:
(i) Functional group
28. 1992:
NONE

7 CHEMISTRY OF HYDROCARBONS
1. 2019
xii) This is not a nucleophile:
* OH- * NH3 * CN- * BF3
Q2(xi) Define Free radical. Give stepwise mechanism for the chlorination of Methane.
Q2(xii) Draw the orbital structure of Ethylene and give equations for the formation of the
following:
* Mustard gas * Glycol
Q2(xiii) Why does benzene give electrophilic substitution reactions? Give stepwise
mechanism of nitration and chlorination of benzene.
Q2(xiv) Write equation for the preparation of the following:
* Red solid from acetylene
Q5(a) Explain the molecular orbital treatment of benzene.
Q6(b) Complete the reaction:
* 𝐻𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 𝐻𝐵𝑟 →
2. 2018
ix) Cycloalkanes have the general formula;
* CnH2n+2 * CnH2n * CnH2n-2 * CnH2n+1
xi) Another name of methane is;
* Mustard gas * Oil gas * Coal gas * Marsh gas
xi) Draw and explain the orbital structure of Acetylene. Give two methods of the its
preparation.
xii) Give the mechanism of these electrophilic substitution reactions of Benzene.
* Friedel – Craft acylation * Sulphonation
xv) Give the preparation of the following.
* Ethanal from Acetylene
xvi) Give a simple chemical test to distinguish between the following;
* Alkane and Alkene * Ethene and Ethyne
viii)Give complete and balanced equations for any four of the following.
* Action of NaOH on Carbon monoxide.
5.a)What is orientation is Benzene? Explain orientation in mono-substituted Benzene.
Give the names of ortho-para and meta directing groups.
OR
Give Kekule’s structure of Benzene. Write the objections against it. How were these
objections removed?
* CH  CH →
* CH3COONa + NaOH →
* + O3 →
3. 2017
H 2 / Ni H 2 / Ni
Q1. (vii) In the following hydrogenation reactio CH  CH → CH 2 = CH 2 → CH 3 − CH 3
Heat Heat
is change in hybridization state of carbon atoms is:

* sp 3 → sp 2 → sp * sp → sp 2 → sp 3 * sp 2 → sp 3 → sp * sp 3 → sp → sp 2

Q2. x) The structure of two organic compounds ‘A’ and ;B’ are shown below:
* Draw the hybrid orbital structure of ‘A’ showing bonds

* Write equation for the preparation of ‘B’ from CH3I
* Write equation for the reaction of A with S2Cl2
Q2. xv) Write equation and give the mechanism of Alkylation and Acylation in benzene.
Q2. xvi) Distinguish by simple chemical test only two of the following:
* Ethyne and Ethene
* Ethane and Ethene
* Alkyl halide and Alkane
Q2. xiv) How does Ethyl iodide react with the following reagent?
* KOH (Alcoholic) * Na
Q5(a) Explain the structure of Benzene by molecular orbital treatment and discuss the
stability of Benzene molecule.
Q5 (b) Give the structural formula of the following compounds (any five) chp 9
i) Pyrogallol
ii) P-Cresol
iii) Caproic acid
iv) β - methyl butyraldehyde
v) phenyl hydrazine
vi) Diethyl Acetylene
Q6 (c) complete the following reactions:
(i) CH2=CH-CH3 + HBr →
𝐻𝑔𝑆𝑂4 /𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
(ii) H-C≡ C –H + H2O →
4. 2016
Q.2 x) Draw and explain the orbital structure of Acetylene.
xi) Give chemical test to distinguish between the following:
* Paraffin and Olefin * n-Hexane and Benzene * 1-Butyne and 3-Butyne
xiii) What happens when?
* Ethylene reacts with cold aqueous KMnO4 solution.
* Ethyl chloride reacts with Sodium metal.
Q.5 a) Give the equations of the following:
* Reaction of Sodium benzoate with Soda lime.

Q.5 b) Give the preparation of the following.
* 2-Bromo propane from 1-Bromo propane
* Phenol from Benzene
* Benzoic acid from Benzene.
Q.5c) Describe Kekule structure of Benzene. Write the objection against it. How was
this objection removed by Kekule?
5. 2015:
Q1 xv) This group is meta directing:
* -R * -OR * -COOR * -X
Q2 x) Draw and explain the orbital structure of Ethene.
Q2 xi) Write the Nitration reaction in Benzene along with its mechanism.
* Ethene from Ethyl bromide.
Q2 xvi) Write the stepwise reactions for the following preparations.
* m-Nitro benzoic acid from Benzene. * Glyoxal from Benzene.
Q5.a) Explain the molecular orbital treatment of Benzene. Also draw the resonance
structure of Benzene.
Q5 c) What happen when:
* Methyl iodide is treated with Sodium metal.
* Excess Ethanol is treated with yeast.
6. 2014:
Q2: xi a) Give the mechanism of chlorination of Methane in the presence of sunlight
Q2: xv) How is Benzene prepared commercially from petroleum?
Q5: a) Describe Kekule Structure of Benzene. Write the objection against it. How
was this objection removed by Kekule?
Q4: c) Give equations for the following reactions:
* Toluene with KMnO4. * Acetylene with cold KMNO4
Q6: b) Why does Benzene give Electrophilic Substitution Reactions Explain the
mechanism of Friedel-Craft’s Acylation.
7. 2013
Q: Acetylene shows acidic properties. Give two reactions to justify this statement.
Q: Which alkane is obtained by the reaction of metallic sodium with the
following compounds?
* 2 - Bromo-propane * 2 - Bromo - 2 – methyl propane
Q: Write equations for the reactions of Alcoholic KOH with:
* 2 - Bromo-Propane * 2 - Bromo - 2 – methyl propane
Q: Give two reactions in which Benzene ring is not retained.
Q: Explain the molecular orbital treatment of Benzene. Also draw the resonance structure
of Benzene.
Q: Draw the molecular structure of Ethane and discuss its orbital structure.
Q: Prepare: m-nitro benzoic acid from Benzene
Q: Distinguish Test b/w: Hexane and Benzene
8. 2012
Q2 (x) Convert * Benzene to Nitro-Benzene
(xi) a) Give the reaction of Benzene with Chlorine:
* in presence of Lewis acid catalyst * in presence of sunlight
(xiii) a) Draw and explain the orbital structure of Ethyne
b) Distinguish test b/w: * Ethene & Ethyne

(xiv) Differentiate between the following:
* Saturated & Unsaturated hydrocarbon
* Aliphatic Hydrocarbon and Aromatic Hydrocarbon
(xvi) a) How does Chlorine react with Methane in the present of sunlight?
Q5 b) What happens when: *Ethyne is reacted with Iodine in presence of Ethanol
c) What is orientation in Benzene? Explain orientation in monosubstituted benzene.
Name three each of ortho, para and meta directing groups.
Q6 a) Explain electrophilic substitution in Benzene with reference to:
i) Friedel-Craft's acylation and ii) Sulphonation reactions
9. 2011:
Q2 (ix) a) Draw and explain the orbital structure of Ethene.
b) Distinguish by simple chemical tests: * Alkene and Alkyne
xi) Give the equations for the preparation of:
*Ethene from Ethyl alcohol * Benzene from Toluene
* Oxalic acid from Ethyne *Acetaldehyde from Acetylene
xiii) b) Give electronic structure of: * Acetone * Silver acetylide
(xv) b) State Markownikoffs rule. Write the equation for the reaction between
Vinyl bromide and Hydrogen bromide.
Q6 a) Explain the structure of Benzene by molecular orbital treatment along with
orbital structures. Benzene acts as a saturated and unsaturated compound. Justify
this statement by equation.
10. 2010:
Q2 (ix b) Draw the orbital structure of an Ethyne molecule. Briefly explain the nature of
hybridization in carbon and their bonds.
Q2 (x) Give the equation for the preparation of the following:
* Ethane from methyl iodide * Benzene from phenol
* Ethene from ethyl alcohol * Ethyne from calcium carbide
Q2(xi) a) Write the nitration reaction in benzene along with its mechanism.
(b) Explain the acidity of ethyne with the help of two chemical reactions.
Q5 (a) Give the Kekule’s structure of benzene of and write the objection against it.
How was this objection removed by Kekule?
Q5 (c) Prepare phenol by Down’s process.
Q6 (a) Complete the following reactions
* HC  CH +4 O ⎯⎯ ⎯→
KMnO 4
* NaOH + CH3COONa ⎯CaO ⎯→
⎯
11. 2009:
Q6 (a) iv) Phenols are aromatic compounds containing __________ group directly
attached to the carbon atom of benzene.
(v) 1,2,3-propanetriol is also called _________.
Q6 (b) Define the following with examples and give two chemical tests to identify
them:
(i) Saturated Compounds (ii) Unsaturated Compounds
Q8 (a) Starting from benzene, how will you prepare the following?
(i) p-nitrobenzoic acid (ii) Benzoic acid (iii) m-Nitrotoluene
(ii) Acetophenone
2C2 H 5 + 2 Na → _____________________
CH 3 MgBr + H 2 O → __________________

Q8(c) Draw the structures of benzene as suggested by:
i) Kekule ii) Armstrong iii) Bayer
12. 2008:
Q5 (a) What objection is raised on Kekule’s structure of benzene and how is it defended?
Q5 (c) What is electrophilic substitution reaction? Give an example of halogenations of
benzene with full mechanism in the presence of a catalyst.
Q6 (b) Write the equation for the preparation of the following:
(i) Ethane from Methyl Iodide in presence of Sodium metal.
(ii) Ethene from Vicinal Di chloroethane
(iii) Mustard gas from Ethene.
(i) 3 HC  CH (red-hot tube / organo nickel catalyst) →
(ii) Cl-CH2-CH2-Cl + KOH (C2H5OH) →
(iii) H2C = CH2 + Br2 (CCl4) →
(iv) Phenol + HNO3 →
13. 2007:
Q5 (b) Draw the orbital picture of ethyne.
Q5 (c) Distinguish the following compounds by single chemical test:
(i) Ethene and Ethyne
(ii) Aliphatic hydrocarbon and Aromatic Hydrocarbon
Q6 (a) Complete the following reactions:
(i) C2H5OH + H2SO4 →
(ii) H2C = CH2 + H2O + H2SO4 →
(iii) HC  CH + H2O + H2SO4 / HgSO4 →
Q6 (b) How would you explain the electrophilic substitution reaction of mono-
substituted benzene with the help of suitable examples.
Q6 (c) Starting with toluene, how would you prepare p-nitrobenzoic acid and m-
nitrobenzoic acid?
Q6 (d) What do you understand by the term Aromaticity? How will you explain the
stability of Benzene?
Q6 (e) Fill in the blanks with correct answer:
(i) Benzene is isolated by ___________.
(ii) The combustion of ethyne is a/an ___________
Q7 (c) (ii) Compelete and named the reaction: CH4 + Cl2 + sunlight →
14. 2006:
Q7 (b) Draw the orbital diagrams of ethane and ethyne. What is the hybridization of
carbon in these compounds?
Q7 (c) Give simple tests for the distinction between the following:
(i) Alkene and Alkane (ii) Alkene and Alkyne
(iii) Alkane and Alkyl halides
(iv) Aromatic hydrocarbon and Aliphatic hydrocarbon
15. 2005:
Q5 (b) Draw and label the hybrid orbital structure of ethane molecule.
Q5 (c) Write only the equations of the following:
(i) Action of Na metal on Isopropyl chloride in presence of anhydrous ether.
(ii) Action of conc. HNO3 on benzoic acid in presence of conc. H2SO4 at 50o to 80o C

(iii) Sodium ethanoate is heated with soda lime.
(iv) Vapors of acetic acid are heated to 500 o C in presence of MnO2.
Q6 (a) How is benzene commercially prepared from n-Heptane?
Q6 (b) Explain the structure of benzene by molecular orbital treatment and describe
the stability of the benzene ring.
Q6 (c) Why does benzene ring, enter into Electrophilic substitution reaction? Explain
the Mechanism of Fridel Craft alkylation of benzene.
Q6 (d) What product or products are formed when the following compounds are
nitrated?
(i) Bromo benzene (ii) Nitro benzene
Q7 (c) Differentiate the following:
(iii) Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Q8 (e) Complete and balance the following equations:
(i) HC  CH + O
KMnO4
→
HOT
(ii) + Cl2 hv
16. 2004:
Q5 (b) Draw and discuss the orbital structure of ethane.
Q5 (c) Give the equations for the preparation of the following hydrocarbons:
(i) Methane from Grignard Reagent.
(ii) Ethane from Methyl Iodide
(iii) Ethene from Ethyl Alcohol
(iv) Ethyne from Calcium Carbide
(v) Benzene from Acetylene
Q5 (d) Give the mechanism of the chlorination of methane in presence of sunlight.
Q6 (a) Why does benzene give Electrophilic substitution reaction? Explain the
mechanism of halogenation reaction in benzene.
Q6 (b) Give on equation only in each of the following cases to show that the.
(i) Benzene behaves as a saturated hydrocarbon
(ii) Benzene behaves as a unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Q6 (c) Show the conversion of the following by means of equations:
(i) Phenol to benzene
(ii) Benzene to acetophenone
(iii) Benzene to toluene
(i) H 2 C − CH 2 + Zn
Cl – Cl
(ii) HC  CH + AgNO3 NH3
(iii) + HONO2 (conc.) Heat
Q7 (d) Define and explain the following with examples:

(i) Ortho-Para directors (ii) Meta directors

17. 2003 P.M:
Q5 (a) Discuss and draw the orbit structure of methane.
Q5 (b) Give two methods for the preparation of each of methane, ethene and ethyne.
Q5 (c) Write down the equations of the reaction when:
(i) Methyl iodide reacts with the sodium metal.
(ii) Ethene reacts with bromine
(iii) Ethene reacts with dil. alkaline solution of KMnO4
(iv) Propane reacts with HBr.
(v) Ethyne reacts with water in presence of HgSO4 and H2SO4
(vi) Ethyne is heated with AgNO3 in presence of ammonia.
Q6 (a) How is benzene converted into (i) Nitrobenzene and (ii) Acetophenone? Give
stepwise Mechanism of the reactions involved
Q6 (b) Discuss briefly orientation in benzene.
Q6 (b) Complete the following reactions:
(i) + HNO3 (conc.) H2SO4 (conc.)
(ii) + HNO3 (conc.) H2SO4 (conc.)
(iii) + Cl2 AlCl3
2003 P.E:
Q5 (c) Draw the orbital structure of Ethene and Ethyne and describe the type of
hybridization ineach of them.
Q5 (d) Differentiate between aliphatic and aromatic compounds. Give a simple chemical
test to identify them.
Q6 (a) How will you prepare the following? (Give equations only):
(i) Methane from Grignard Reagent (ii) Ethane by Wurtz Reaction
(iii) Ethene from Ethyl chloride (iv) Ethyne from dibromoethane
Q6 (b) What happens when? (Give equations only)
(i) Acetylene is passed through a red hot tube in presence of a catalyst.
(ii) Ehtene is treated with sulphur monochloride.
(iii) Ethene is reacted with dilute alkaline KMnO4 solution.
(iv) Water is added to ethyne under specific conditions.
Q6 (c) What is Markownikoff’s Rule? Describe with an example.
Q6 (d) What objection was raised on the Kekule’s structure of benzene and how was
it defended?

Q7 (c) Give the reaction of benzene with chlorine.
(i) In presence of Lewis acid catalyst (ii) In presence of sunlight.
18. 2002 P.M:

Q5 (c) How are white solid and red solid obtained from acetylene? Give chemical
equations.
Q5 (d) Draw and explain the orbital structure of ethane.
Q6 (a) Describe the molecular orbital treatment of Benzene.
Q6 (b) Give the mechanism of Acylation reaction of Benzene.
Q6 (d) Differentiate between Ortho-Para and Meta directors and give the examples of
preparation of Benzene derivatives.
2002 P.E:
Q5 (a) What is the orbital structure of ethyne?
Q5 (b) Give the reactions for the preparation of the following hydrocarbons:
(i) Ethane by Grignard Reagent.
(ii) n-butane by Wurtz’s reaction
(iii) Ethene by the dehydration of alcohol (only one).
(iv) Benzene from toluene.
Q5 (c) How does Cl2 react with methane in presence of sunlight? Give the mechanism
Q5 (d) Write the reactions only of any Four of the following:
(i) Preparation of 1, 1-dibromo ethane.
(ii) Preparation of bakelite from phenol.
(iii) Preparation of glycol from ethene.
(iv) Preparation of mustard gas.
(v) Preparation of polyethene.
Q6 (a) Discuss the structure of Benzene as given by Kekule.
Q6 (b) Give the resonating structure of benzene proposed by kekule, Armstrong and
Bayer.
Q6 (c) Why does Benzene give electrophilic substitution reactoions? Explain the
following reaction with their mechanisms:
(i) Halogenations. (ii) Alkylation.
Q6 (d) Give a brief account of orientation in benzene.
19. 2001:
Q5 (a) How will you prepare? (Give only the equations)
(i) Ethane from iodomethane.
(ii) Ethane from iodoethane
(iii) Ethyne from 1, 2-dibromoethane.
Q5 (b) How does ethene react with the following:
(i) Cl2 water
(ii) Alkaline KMnO4
(iii) Sulphur monochloride
Q5 (c) Give the mechanism of chlorination in methane in the presence of sunlight.
Q5 (d) Acetylene shows acids properite. Give two reactions to justify it.
Q6 (a) Define:
(i) Aromaticity (ii) Orientation
Q6 (b) How will you prepare a sample of benzene from petroleum?
Q6 (c) Give the mechanism of Alkylation in benzene.
Q6 (d) Give two equations only in each cases to show that:

(i) Benzene behaves as unsaturated hydrocarbon
(ii) Benzene acts as a saturated hydrocarbon.
Q6 (e) Bring about the following conversions:
(i) Benzene to m-nitrotoluene. (ii) Benzene to benzoic acid.
20. 2000:
Q5 (a) Discuss the mechanism of Electrophilic substitution reactions in Benzene.
Q5 (b) Discuss the orbital structure of benzene.
Q5 (c) From Benzene, how will you obtain the following compounds. Also write its
mechanism.
(i) Acetophenone (ii) Isopropyl Benzene (iii) p-Nitro Benzoic Acid
(iv) Bromo Benzene
Q5 (d) Define and explain with example:
(i) Ortho-para directors (ii) Meta directors
Q6 (a) Describe three different methods of preparation of Ethyne.
Q6 (b) Describe and explain the orbital structure of Ethyne.
Q6 (d) Describe simple chemical test that would distinguish between.
(i) An Alkene and Alkane (ii) An Alkene and Alkyne
Q6 (e) What happens when ethyne reacts with,
(i) Silver Nitrate (ii) Water in the presence of HgSO4 and H2SO4
21. 1999:
Q5 (a) Define and write general formula of the following:
(i) Alkane (ii) Alkene (iii) Alkyne
Q5 (c) Complete the following reactions in a single step:
(i) HC  CH + AgNO3 NH3 Solution
(ii) C2H6 + Cl2 Sunlight
(iii) C2H4 + Br2 Water
(iv) C2H4 + H2O + [O] Alkaline KMnO4 solution
Q5 (d) Draw orbital structure of any one of the following.
(i) Ethene (ii) Ethyne
Q6 (a) Benzene acts as a saturated as well as an unsaturated compound. Support your
answer by two chemical reactions for each type of behavior.
Q6 (b) Starting from benzene, how would you prepare the following:
(i) Ortho and Para Nitro Toulene (ii) ) Meta Nitro Toulene
Q6 (c) Draw the resonance structure of benzene.
Q6 (d) How will you distinguish an Aliphatic compound from an Aromatic compound by
a simple laboratory test?
22. 1998:
Q6 (a) Discuss the molecular orbital treatment of Benzene.
Q6 (b) How can benzene be prepared from Aliphatic and Aromatic hydrocarbons? Give
one example of each.
Q6 (c) Staring from benzene how can the following substances be prepared?
(i) Benzoic Acid (ii) Phenol (iii) Acetophenone
Q7 (b) Draw the orbital structure of ethene.
Q7 (c) Write True & False.
(ii) Wurtz reaction can be used to prepare Methane. FALSE
Q8 (c) Which alkane is obtained by the reaction of metallic sodium with the following
compounds?

Write the names and the structures of the compounds.
(i) 2-Bromo propane
(ii) 2-Bromo, 2-methyl propane
Q8 (a) Complete the following reaction.
(i) CH3COONa + NaOH
23. 1997:
Q5 (a) Define Sigma and Pi bonds. Identify each of them in Ethene and Ethyne, giving
their structure.
Q5 (b) How would you obtain Ethane from Grignard Reagent and Ethene from an Alkyl
halide
Q5 (c) Choose the correct answer from the given options.
(i) C4H8 is a saturated hydrocarbon because it is: (Cyclic, Open Chain, Polymer)
(ii) n-Octane is __________ at room temperature. (Gas, Liquid, Semi-Solid)
(iii) Compounds having benzene ring are called aromatic. (True or False)
Q5 (d) Complete the following reactions.
(i) 2C2H6 + 7O2
(ii) CH 2 = CH 2 + H2O + [O] KMnO4
(iii) CH  CH + HBr
Q7 (a) Give an account of isolation of benzene from three important sources.
Q7 (b) Starting from benzene how will you prepare the following.
(i) Acetophenone (ii) Benzene Sulphonic Acid (iii) Hexa Chloro Cyclohexane
24. 1996:
Q5 (a) Define the phenomenon which explains the tetra valency of carbon. Describe the
orbital structure of ethyne to show that it contains one sigma and two pi bonds.
Q5 (b) How is ethyne obtained from the following.
(i) Calcium Carbide (ii) Tetrahaloalkane
Q5 (c) Give a simple test to distinguish between the following.
(i) Aliphatic and Aromatic Compounds
(ii) Ethene and Ethyne
(iii) Ethane and Ethyl Chloride
Q7 (a) How does benzene behave differently from alkanes? Describe the molecular
orbital treatment of Benzene.
Q7 (b) Write short note on;
(i) Orientation in Benzene
Q8 (c) Complete the following equations:
(i) CH 2 = CH 2 + H2O H2SO4
(ii) CH 2 = CH 2 + H2O + 3[O] HgSO4
Q8 (d) How will you convert benzene into m-Nitro Benzoic Acid?
25. 1995:
Q4 (a) Describe briefly the orbit structure of ethane.
Q4 (b) Give two methods for the preparation of ethane.
Q4 (c) Describe a simple chemical test to distinguish between ethane and ethyne.
Q5 (a) Describe the mechanism of the following electrophilic substitution reactions of
benzene.
(i) Nitration (ii) Alkylation

Q5 (b) How will you obtain;
(i) Ethanol from Ethene (ii) Meta-Nitro Benzoic Acid from Benzene
26. 1994:
Q5 (c) Explain Sp3 hybridization with the help of a methane molecule.
Q6 (c) Explain the molecular orbital treatment of the structure of benzene.
Q7 (a) Starting from toluene how will you obtain:
(i) m-Nitro-Benonic Acid (ii) o and p Nitro-Benzoic Acid
Q7 (b) How will you obtain the following compounds.
(i) Ethane from Iodomethane. (ii) Ethene from Ethanol
(iii) Ethyne from Calcium Carbide (iv) Toluene from Benzene
(iv) Ethanal from Ethyne
27. 1993:
Q5 (a) Give two methods for the preparation of acetylene.
Q5 (b) How can acetylene be converted into the following.
(i) Acetaldehyde (Ethanol) (ii) Oxalic Acid (iii) Copper Acetylide
Q5 (c) Which alkane is obtained by the reaction of metallic sodium with the following
compounds?
Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following.
(i) 2-bromo propane (ii) 2-bromo, 2-methyl propane
Q5 (d) Explain the orbital structure of ethene.
Q6 (d) What would be the major monochloro product formed when each of the following
compounds reacts with chlorine in presence of ferric chloride?
(i) Ethyl Benzene ( C6 H 5 .CH 2 .CH 3 )
(ii) Trifluro methyl benzene ( C6 H 5 .CF3 )
(iii) Methyl benzoate ( C6 H 5 .COO.CH 3 )
Q7 (a) Discuss the effect of substituent group (G) already present on benzene ring on the
entry of the second substituent. What do you understand by activating and
deactivating groups?
Q7 (b) What is an electrophilic substitution reaction? Describe.
Q7 (c) Give acylation and alkylation reactions of benzene.
Q7 (d) Write short note on the stability of benzene ring.
28. 1992:
Q5 (a) Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Q5 (b) What types of reactions are characteristics of them?
Q5 (c) Give equations, where possible, of the action of ethane, ethane and ethyne of:
(i) Alkanline KMnO4 (ii) Bromine Water (iii) Ammonical AgNO3
(iv) H2SO4 10% HgSO4
Q6 (a) In what respect does benzene differ from aliphatic hydrocarbons?
Q6 (b) Give the structure of benzene by molecular orbital treatment.
Q6 (c) Describe the following eletrophilic substitution reactions with benzene: (with
mechanism)
(i) Bromination (ii) Alkylation

8 ALKYL HALIDES
1. 2019
Q2(xv) What is organometallic compounds? How is it prepared? Starting from CH3MgI,
prepare the following:
* Ethane * Ethanoic acid * Ter-butyl alcohol
Q6(a) What are Nucleophilic substitution reactions? Explain the reaction mechanism of
SN2 and SN1 with examples.
2. 2018
xii) The most stable carbonium ion is;
* R3C+ * R2CH+ * RCH+2 * CH+3
xiii) What is Grignard Reagent? Give its reactions with the following;
* CH3 – NH2 * HCHO * CO2 * CH3 – CO – CH3
Q5 c) What is  -Elimination reaction? Write the mechanism of E1 and E2 reactions.
3. 2017
Q1. (viii) The first step is similar in these mechanism:
* E1 and E2 * SN1 and E2 * E1 and SN2 * SN1 and E1
Q2. xiv) How does Ethyl iodide react with the following reagent?
* Sodium Ethoxide
* Mg
Q6 (a) What are nucleophilic substitution reaction? Outline the stepwise reaction
mechanism for the following
i) SN2 reaction between Bromo methane and NaoH.
ii) SN1 reaction between 2-Chloro-2-methyl propane and NaCN
4. 2016:
* Reaction of Ethanal with Grignard reagent.
Q.5 b) Give the preparation of the following:
* Isopropyl alcohol from 1-Propanol.
Q.6 a) What is Elimination reaction? Explain the mechanism of E1 and E2 and reactions.
* Reaction of Chloroethane with Sodium ethoxide.
5. 2015:
Q2 xiii) What are organometallic compounds? Prepare the following from any one
organometallic compound.
* Ethane * Ethyl alcohol * Vinegar
xvi) Why do 1 Alkyl halides give SN mechanism while 3o Alkyl halides give SN1
o 2
mechanism?
Q6 a) What is Nucleophile? Explain the reaction mechanism of SN 1 and SN2 reactions
with example.

6. 2014:
Q2 xii) Give equations for the following reactions:
* Ethanol with Grignard Reagent
Q5: b) What are Elimination Reactions? Write Bimolecular Elimination Reaction with its
mechanism.
Q5: c) Give equations for the following reactions:
* 2-Prpanone with Methyl Magnesium chloride.
7. 2013
Q: Outline the step-wise reaction mechanism of the following:
* SN2 reaction between Bromo methane and NaOH.
* SN1 reaction between 2-chloro-2-methly propane and NaCN.
Q: Prepare the following compounds from CH3Br:
* Methanol * Methyl ethanoate * Methoxy ethane
* Amino methane * Methyl mercaptan (Methyl thioacohol)
8. 2012:
Q2 (xvi) b) What are Alkyl halides? Classify them with one example of each.
Q6 b) Outline the stepwise reaction mechanism of the following:
* SN1 reaction between NaCN and 2-Chloro-2-methylpropane
9. 2011:
xii) How is Grignard’s reagent prepared? How can the following be prepared from
Grignard’s reagent?
* Acetic acid * Ethyl alcohol * Propane
10. 2010:
Q2 (xii a) What is the mean by an Elimination Reaction? Explain the mechanism of
Uni-molecular elimination reaction (E1).
Q2 (xvi) Write the chemical equation to show what products will be formed when
CH3MgCl reacts with:
i) CO2 ii) acetone iii) Methyl chloride iv) Water
Q6(a) Complete the reaction: 2CH 3 − CH 2 − Cl + Ag 2 O ⎯⎯→
heat
Q6(c) Explain the mechanism of SN1 reaction and SN2 reaction with examples.
11. 2009:
Q5 (d) What is a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction? Give an example.
Q6 (c) What are alkyl halides? How are they classified?
Q8 (b) complete the following reactions:
C2 H 5OH + SOCl 2 → _______________________
3CH 3 − CH 2 − OH + PCl5 → _________________
12. 2008:
Q5 (b) What are organo-metallic compounds? How will you prepare the following from
the Grignard reagent
Write the mechanism: (i) Ethane (ii) Tertiary butyl alcohol
Q6 (c) Outline stepwise mechanism of SN1 reaction between 2-chloro-2-methyl propane
and NaCN

Q6 (d) Give reason of the following:
(i) 20 Alkyl halides give SN1 mechanism in presence of polar solvent.
(ii) E2 reaction is of 2nd order.
(iii) Alkyl halide behaves as a nucleophile in Grignard’s reagent.
Q8 (c) Which reagent should be used to change methyl iodide into following?
(write chemical equations)
(i) H3C – O – C2H5 (ii) H3C – COO – CH3 (iii) H3C – SH
13. 2007:
Q7 (a) What are Alkyl Halides? Give their classification.
Q7 (b) How would you prepare Grignard’s reagent from Alkyl Halide? How is
Grignard’s reagent is used to Prepare the following: (i) ethane (ii) acetic acid
Q7 (d) Give the mechanism of SN1 (or) bimolecular elimination reaction.
14. 2006:
Q7 (d) What are Alkyl Halides? Give two methods of their preparation and write down
the mechanism of the preparation of chloromethane.
15. 2005:
Q5 (d) Define SN Reaction. Give the mechanism of reaction between bromo ethane and
aqueous KOH. Explain why 3o alkyl halide enters into SN1 mechanism.
Q7 (a) What are Organometallic compounds? How will you prepare the following from
methyl magnesium bromide?
(i) Vinegar (ii) Isopropyl Alcohol (iii) Ethane
16. 2004:
Q5 (d) What is Elimination Reaction? Write down the mechanism of E1 and E2 reactions.
17. 2003 P.M:

Q7 (a) What are nucleophiles? Explain with examples.
Q7 (b) Outline the stepwise reaction mechanisms of the following:
(i) SN2 reaction between bromomethane and NaOH.
(ii) SN1 action between 2-chloro-2-methylpropane and NaCN.
2003 P.E:
Q7 (a) What are Alkyl halides? Give their classification with examples.
Q8 (c) Write down the mechanisms of Elimination Reactions E1 & E2.
Q8 (d) How is carboxylic acid prepared from Grignard Reagent? Write an equation with
mechanism.
18. 2002 P.M:

Q5 (e) Write down the reaction between the following:
(i) Grignard Reagent and H2O
Q7 (a) Write down the mechanism of E1 and E2 reactions.
Q7 (b) Explain why primary alkyl halides react by SN2 mechanism while tertiary alkyl
halides by SN1 mechanism.
2002 P.E:
Q7 (a) Give the mechanism of SN1 reaction.
Q7 (b) Prepare the following compounds by alkyl halides:

(i) Ethanoic acid (ii) Tertiary butyl alcohol
19. 2001:
Q5 (e) Write short note on: (ii) Elimination
Q7 (a) Starting from methyl magnesium iodide, how will you obtain the following? (Give
only the equations)
(i) Primary Alcohol (ii) Secondary Alcohol
20. 2000:
Q7 (c) Describe the preparation of Grignard’s Reagent and give its five synthetic
applications.
21. 1999:
Q7 (a) What are Alkyl halides? Classify them with one example of each.
Q7 (b) Explain the mechanism of SN1 reaction.
22. 1998:
Q6 (d) Fill in the blank with correct answer:
(iii) Tertiary alkyl halides react with SN1 reaction mechanism.
Q7 (a) Define and discuss  elimination with its reaction mechanism.
(ii) CH3MgBr + C2H5OH
23. 1997:
Q6 (a) Explain why primary Alkyl Halides (1o) give SN2 reactions and Tertiary Alhyl
Halides (3 o) give SN1 reactions
24. 1996:
Q6 (a) Differentiate Primary, Secondary and Tertiary alkyl halides.
Q6 (b) Which reagent is used to convert CH3Br into,
(i) CH3OH (ii) CH3OCH3 (iii) CH3NH2
Q7 (b) Write short note on: (i) SN1 Reactions
25. 1995:
Q4 (d) Explain: (iii) SN2 Reactions
Q5 (b) How will you obtain: (iii) Acetic Acid from Carbon Dioxide.
26. 1994:
Q6 (a) What is Grignard’s Reagent? Starting with methyl magnesium iodide how will
you obtain the following compounds?
(i) Methane (ii) Ethanol (iii) Ethanoic Acid
27. 1993:
Q6 (a) How are alkyl halides classified?
Q6 (b) Outline three methods by which alkyl halides are prepared.
Q6 (c) Define nucleophilic substitution reaction. Discuss the mechanism of SN 2 reaction.
28. 1992:
Q8 (a) Complete the following equations:
(i) CH3MgBr + CH3OH
(ii) CH3MgBr + CO2
(iii) C2H5MgI + HOH

CARBON COMPOUNDS WITH OXYGEN
9 CONTAINING FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
(iv) CH3MgCl + H-CHO
1. 2019
xiii) Reduction of aldehyde gives:
* Carboxylic acid * Alcohol * Ester * Ether
xiv) Hybridization in the carbon atom of carbonyl group is of this type:
* sp * sp2 * sp3 * dsp2
Q2(xvi) Write equation for the preparation of the following:
* Oxime from formaldehyde * Phenol from chlorobenzene
* Diethyl ether from chloroethane * Acetic anhydride from sodium ethanoate
Q5(b) Draw the molecular structures of the following:
* Catechol * Picric acid * Isobutyraldehyde
Q6(b) Complete the following reactions:
𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 /𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
* 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝑂 − 𝐶𝐻3 + [𝑂] →
10%
* 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐶2 𝐻5 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 →
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
* 𝐻𝐶𝐻𝑂 + [𝐴𝑔(𝑁𝐻3 )2 ]𝑂𝐻 →
2. 2018
xiii) Rectified spirit contains;
* 75-80% alcohol * 92-95% alcohol * 80-85% alcohol *100% alcohol
xiv) It is used as a preservative for biological specimens;
* Phenol * Acetone * Formalin * Benzene
xv) Give the preparation of the following.
* Carbolic acid from Benzene * Acetal from Methanal
* Diethyl ether from Ethyl alcohol
* Aldehyde and Ketone
6.a) What is fermentation? How is Ethyl alcohol manufactured by the fermentation.
* Starch * Molasses
* HCHO + NaOH →
* O
II
2CH3 – C – OH →
3. 2017
Q1. (xi) The reagent converts acetic acid into Acetyl Chloride is:
* NaCl * HCl/ZnCl2 * SOCl2 * HCl
Q1. (ix) In Acetone, the numbers of bonds are:
* Nine  and one  * Ten * Eight and two  * Nine  and one 
Q2. xi) Write equation for the following reactions:
* Cannizaro reaction
* William Son synthesis
* Fermentation of Molasses
* Esterification

* Formaldehyde and Acetone
Q5 (b) Give the structural formula of the following compounds (any five)
i) Pyrogallol
ii) P-Cresol
iii) Caproic acid
iv) β - methyl butyraldehyde
v) phenyl hydrazine
vi) Diethyl Acetylene
Q6. (b) How the following conversion carried out:
i) Acetone into tetra butyl alcohol
ii) Ethanol into chloro ethane
iii) Diethyl ether into Ethyl iodide
iv) Formaldehyde to meta formaldehyde
v) Acetyl chloride into acetic anhydride
4. 2016:
Q1 xiv) Another name for wood spirit is;
* Ethyl alcohol * Methyl alcohol * Propyl alcohol * Butyl alcohol
xvii) Ethyl acetate is present in;
* Pineapple * Orange * Guava * Lemon
Q.2 xi) Give chemical test to distinguish between the following:
* Aldehyde and Ketone
Q.2 xiii) What happens when?
* Methanol reacts with steam.
* 2-Propanone is oxidized in presence of K2Cr2O7 and conc. H2SO4
xv) What is fermentation? Explain the manufacture of Ethanol from starch.
* Decomposiiton of Acetic acid in the presence of MnO2.
* Reaction of Methanal with caustic soda
Q.5 b) Give the preparation of the following.
* Phenol from Benzene.
5. 2015:
Q1 ix) The percentage by weight of Ethanol in rectified spirit is:
* 92 – 95 * 70 – 80 * 85 – 90 * 50 – 60
Q1 xvi) The formula of Valeric acid is:
* CH 3 .(CH 2 )2 .COOH * CH 3 .(CH 2 )3 .COOH
* CH 3 .(CH 2 )4 .COOH * CH 3 .(CH 2 )5 .COOH
* Phenol from Chlorobenzene * Ethyl ethanoate from Ethanol
Q5 c) What happen when:
* Acetone is treated with I2 in the presence of Sodium carbonate.
* Solution of sources is treated with yeast.
* Phenol is treated with Bromine water.
6. 2014:
xv) The formula of Caproic acid is:
* CH 3 .(CH 2 )2 .COOH * CH 3 .(CH 2 )3 .COOH * CH 3 .CH 2 .COOH

* CH 3 .(CH 2 )4 .COOH
Q2 xii) Give equation for the following reactions:

* Methanol with steam * Glucose with Tollen’s Reagent
* Acetyl chloride with Sodium ethanoate
Q2 xiii) a) What are Monohydric alcohols? How are they classified?
b) How is wood spirit manufactured from Water gas?
Q2 xv) b) Complete the following reactions:
O
+ H 2 ⎯⎯⎯→
Catalyst
* *
H  C  H ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯→
Polymerization
Q2 xvi) Differentiate between the following:

* Saturated and Unsaturated hydrocarbon * Reducing and Non-reducing sugar
Q5 c) Give equations for the following reactions:
* Phenol with dilute HNO3 * Ethanal with Sodium and Ethanol
Q6 a) What is Fermentation? How is Ethyl alcohol manufactured by the fermentation of:
* Starch * Molasses
7. 2013
Q: How will you prepare the following?
* Carbolic acid from Benzene * Acetaldehyde from Acetylene
* Acetal from Methanal * An oxime from Formaldehyde
Q: Give two preparation of Dimethyl ketone.
Q: What are Vitamins? How are they classified? Write their names & sources. Also name
diseases caused by their deficiency.
Q: Prepare: Ethyl alcohol from Molasses
Q: Distinguish Test b/w: Aldehyde and Ketone
8. 2012
Q2 (x) Convert * Ethanol to Ethanoic acid
(xi) b) Write the structural formula of the following:
* Divinyl acetylene * Hydroquinone * Ethyl ter-butyl ether * 2-Bromobutanal
(xiii) b) Distinguish test b/w * Aldehydes and Ketones
(xv) Give equations for the following reactions:
* Reaction of Sodium benzoate with Soda-lime
* Reaction of Acetone with acidified K2Cr2O7.
* Reaction of Sodamide with Chloroethane. * Reaction of Phenol with Conc HNO3.
Q5 a) What is Fermentation? How is Ethyl alcohol obtained by fermentation of Starch?

b) What happens when: * Methanal is treated with Phenyl hydrazine
* Phenol is treated with Bromine water.
* Phenol is treated with red hot Zinc dust.
9. 2011
Q2(ix) b) Distinguish by simple chemical tests: * Aldehyde and Ketone
Q2(xv) a) What are phenols? Classify them.
Q5.Give equation for the preparation of following organic compounds:

i) Ethyne from Ethene ii) Diethyl ether from Ethanol
iii) Methanol from Water gas iv) Methanal from Methanool
v) Acetone from Acetic acid vi) Ethanoic acid from Ethanol
vii) Ethanol from Glucose
b) Give equation for the following reactions:
i) Cannizzaro’s Reaction ii) Polymeriztion fo Aceldehyde
iii) Reduction of Acetone iv) Esterification
v) Combustion of Ethane vi) Oxidation of Benzene
vii) Hydrolysis of Ethyl acetate in basic medium
10. 2010
Q2 (xiv) What happens when the following reactions take place?
* Methanol is reacted with Toll en’s Reagent.
* Acetone is heated with iodine and Na2co3.
* Hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in basic medium.
* Acetic acid is heated with C2H5OH in presence of cone. H2SO4.
Q6 (a) Complete the reactions:

* 2HCHO + NaOH →
* (CH 3 COO)2 Ca ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯
⎯→
dry distillation
Q6 (b) Define Fermentation. How is ethylalcohol prepared by the fermentation of starch?

Explain how ethylalcohol is made unfit for drinking.
11. 2009
Q6 (a) Fill in the blanks with the correct answer
i) Ethers are ___________ derivatives of water.
ii) Ethanol is prepared by the formation of ___________.
iii) Ethanol is an effective __________.
iv) Phenols are aromatic compounds containing __________ group directly attached
to the carbon atom of benzene.
Q6 (d) Differentiate between a Reducing sugar (Aldehyde) and a Non-reducing sugar
(Ketone).
Q8 (d) Complete the following reactions:
i. CH 3COOC 2 H 5 + NaOH (10%) → ____________________
C2 H 5OH + SOCl 2 → _______________________
ii.
3CH 3 − CH 2 − OH + PCl5 → _________________
iii.
12. 2008
Q5 (d) Write short note on Ether.
Q6 (b) Write down the equations of the preparation of the following: (i) Acetamide from
Acetyl chloride.
Q7 (a) What are alcohols? Classify monohydric alcohols.
Q7 (b) How is methyl alcohol is prepared from water gas?
Q7 (c) Write down at least two methods of preparation of Acetone and its two chemical
reactions.
Q8 (c) Which reagent should be used to change methyl iodide into following? Write
chemical equations:

(i) H3C-O-C2H5 (ii) H3C-COO-CH3
(iv) C6H5-OH + HNO3 (at 250C) →
13. 2007:
Q6 (a) Complete the following reaction: (i) C2H5OH + H2SO4 →
Q7 (c) Complete the following reaction: (i) 2HCHO + NaOH →
(iii) CH3COOC2H5 + HOH →
14. 2006:
Q6 (a) Define Functional Group. Give a method of preparation of a primary alcohol and
write down the reaction of ethanol with the sodium metal.
Q6 (b) Give two methods of preparation of carboxylic acid and write the reaction of
ethanol with acetic acid.
Q6 (c) What are Aldehydes and Ketones? Give I.U.P.A.C. rules for naming these
compounds with example.
Q6 (d) How are the following prepared?
(i) Ethene from Ethyl Alcohol
(ii) Acetic Acid from Acetaldehyde
(iii) Picric Acid from Phenol
15. 2005:
Q7 (d) Fill in the blank with the correct answer:
(v) Resorcinol is not an alcohol but it is a/an Phenol.
Q8 (b) What is Methyland spirit? Give its composition.
Q8 (c) Explain how you will prepare any Two of the following:
(i) Carbolic acid from benzene (ii) Acetaldehyde from acetylene
(iii) Acetal from formaldehyde.
Q8 (d) What are Phenols? How are they classified? Explain why phenols are acidic in
nature.
Q8 (e) Complete and balance the following equations:
(i) H-CHO + NaOH
(ii) CH3-COCl + CH3COONa
16. 2004:
Q6 (c) Show the conversion of the following by means of question:
(iv) Methanol to Methanal
Q7 (b) What are Aldehyde and Ketone? Give only one reaction with an equation to
distinguish them
Pd
(iii) + H2
heat
H2SO4
(iv) + C2H5OH
heat
Q8 (c) What is Cannizzaro’s Reaction? Show it by an equation.
17. 2003 P.M:

Q7 (c) How is methyl alcohol prepared from water gas?

Q7 (d) Write down the balanced equations for the following:
(i) Reaction of methanol with ethanoic acid.
(ii) Reaction of ethanol with Sodium metal.
(iii) Reaction of methanal (formaldehyde) with K2CrO7 / H2SO4 (conc.)
(iv) Reaction of methanal with Na / C2H5OH.
(v) Reaction of phenol with NaOH.
2003 P.E:
Q7 (b) What is meant by fermentation? Give the preparation of ethyl alcohol by
fermentation of starch.
18. 2002 P.M:

Q5 (e) Write down the reaction between the following:
(i) Formaldehyde and Fehling’s solution
(iii) Dehydrogenation of Mathanol.
Q6 (c) Write down the reaction of the following with balance equations:
(i) Reaction of Ethanol with Acetic Acid
(ii) Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium Metal
(iii) Oxidation of Methanol with K2CrO7 and H2SO4 (conc.)
Q7 (c) Give two tests with chemical reactions which distinguish aldehyde from ketone.
Q8 (b) Write notes on any two of the following:
(i) Methanol (ii) Acetone (iii) Phenol
2002 P.E:
Q5 (e) Write a short note on ethers.
Q7 (c) Write the reactions for the preparation of any Four of the following compounds:
(i) Phenol by chlorobenzene
(ii) Addition of alcohol to formaldehyde
(iii) An oxime from formaldehyde.
(iv) Acetic anhydride from ethanoic acid
(v) Cannizzaro reaction.
19. 2001:
Q7 (b) How is Ethyl Alcohol obtained by the fermentation of Starch? What do you mean
by Rectified and Methylated spirits?
Q7 (c) How does methanal react with the following? Write the equations only:
(i) Nitric Acid
(ii) Sulphuric acid at 100 oC
Q7 (d) How does methanal react with the following? Write the equations only:
(i) Tollen’s Reagent
(ii) Phenyl Hydrazine
Q7 (e) How is Acetic Acid converted into:
(i) Amide
(ii) Ester?
20. 2000:
Q7 (a) Give only one method for the preparation of;
(i) Propanone (ii) Methanal (iii) Ethyl Acetate (iv) Ethanoic Acid
(v) Diethyl Ether

21. 1999:
Q5 (b) Give only one method for the preparation of the following compounds.
(i) Ethanal (ii) Propanone (iii) Ethanoic Acid
Q8 (a) Define Fermentation. How can Ethanol be prepared from molasses by
fermentation.
Q8 (b) What happens when?
(i) Phenol is treated with NaOH solution.
(ii) Ethanol, in excess, is heated with conc. H2SO4
(iii) Ethanol is heated with Ethanoic acid in the presence of conc. H2SO4
Q8 (c) Write True & False of the following.
(iv) Methanol causes blindness
22. 1998:
Q5 (a) What are aldehydes and Ketones?
Q5 (b) How would you obtain the following?
(i) Acetaldehyde from Ethyl Alcohol.
(ii) Acetone from Acetic Acid
Q5 (c) Define Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohol. Write the structure and the
names of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols of the molecular formula C2H10OH.
(iii) C2H5Cl + Ag2O
(iv) H.CHO + [Ag(NH3)2]OH
23. 1997:
Q6 (a) How is Ethyl alcohol prepared by fermentation process?
Q6 (c) Fill in the blanks with the correct answers.
(i) Compounds with the general formula CnH2nO2 are called carboxylic acids
(ii) Resorcinol is not an alcohol but a phenol.
(iii)A ketone containing different alkyl radicals is called mixed ketone.
Q6 (d) How is an aldehyde group is identified? OR
Give the uses of phenol.
24. 1996:
NONE
25. 1995:
Q5 (b) How will you obtain;
(iii) Di-Ethyl Ether from Ethyl Bromide.
26. 1994:
Q6 (b) How are the monohydric alcohols classified? Explain with examples.
27. 1993:
NONE
28. 1992:
NONE

10 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. 2019
xvi) Rickets is caused by the deficiency of vitamin:
*A *B *C *D
xvii) Milk sugar is also called:
* Glucose * Fructose * Lactose * Sucrose
Q2(ix) Define the following.
* Peptide Bond * Rancidification
Q5(c) Define amino acids. How are they classified? Explain the role of amino acids in the
human body.
2. 2018
xv) Glycogen is a;
* Monosaccharide *Oligosaccharide *Polysaccharide * Disaccharide
xvi) Citrus fruits are important source of vitamin;
*B *C *A *E
x) Define the following. * Saponification
Q6 (a) What are carbohydrates? How are they classified and discuss the biological
importance of carbohydrates.
3. 2017
Q1. (xiii) It is not a member of Vitamin B complex:
* Niacin * Folic acid * Retinol * Riboflavin
Q2. ix) Define the following:
* Glycosidic linkage * Saponification
Q2. xiii) What are enzymes? Explain the various factors which influence the rate of
enzymes action.
Q5. (c) OR What is amino acid? Describe the importance of amino acid human life.
4. 2016:
Q1xi) This is a natural polymer:
* Cellulose * PVC * Nylon * Terylene
xii) The number of monosaccharide units in oligosaccharides is;
*2–8 * 2 – 10 * 2 – 12 * 2 – 20
xv) Cod liver oil is a source of;
* Vitamin A * Vitamin B * Vitamin C * Vitamin K
Q.2 ix) Define the following terms:
* Saponification
xiv) a) Explain the essential Fatty acids.
b) Draw the structure of the following. * Lysine * Nicotinamide
5. 2015:
Q1 ii) Milk sugar is also called:
* Glucose * Lactose * Fructose * Maltose
Q1 iv) Citrus fruits are important sources of vitamin:
*B *C *D *E
Q2 xii) write the role Amino acids in the human body.

6. 2014:
iii) Saponification result in the formation of:
* Glass * Polymer * Fertilizer * Soap
ix) Chemical name of Fruit sugar is:
* Sucrose * Glucose * Lactose * Frutose
xi) This is animal starch:
* Glycogen * Amylose * Cellulose * Amino acid
xvi) The number of carbon atoms in a Monosaccharide is:
* 3 – 10 *2–8 *3–9 *4-9
Q2 ix) b) What is Rancidification? Mention its causes.
Q2 x) Define the following:
* Carbohydrate
Q2 xi b) How is the purity of oil and fat determined?
Q6 b) Write notes on any two of the following:
* Amino acids
7. 2013
Q: a) Give the biological importance of Carbohydrates.
b) Explain saponification of oils and fats with the help of chemical equation. Write
the names of the products formed.
8. 2012
Q2 (ix) Define * Zwitter iron
(xii) Define and classify Vitamins. Explain vitamin B-complex and vitamin C.
9. 2011:
Q2(xiv) Define and classify Vitamins. Explain vitamin B- Complex and vitamin C.
10. 2010:
Q2 (xii) Explain saponification of oils and fats with the help of chemical equations.
Write the names of the products formed.
Q5 (b) What are vitamins? How are these classified? Write the names, source and the
diseases caused by their deficiency.
11. 2009:
Q7 (b) What are Lipids? Classify Characterize each class.
Q7 (c) Differentiate b/w oils and fats.
Q7 (d) What are enzymes.
Q8 (d) What are Vitamins? Discuss the diseases caused by the deficiency of vitamin D.
12. 2008:
Q7 (a) What is the role of amino acids in human body?
Q8(a) What are enzymes? Explain the effect of various factors which influence the rate of
enzymes.
13. 2007:
Q8 (a) What are Carbohydrates? Describe the importance of carbohydrates in
Biochemistry.
(i) Zwitterion (ii) Peptide Linkage (iii) Triglycerides (iv) Conjugated protein

(i) The deficiency of vitamin ‘A’ causes xerophthalmia. (True)
(ii) The bleeding of teeth and scurvy is due to the deficiency of vitamin ‘B’. (False)
(iii)The deficiency of vitamin ‘C’ causes rickets. (False)
14. 2006:
Q5 (d) What are carbohydrates? Give their classification based on their taste.
Q5 (e) What is Life Chemistry? Describe the importance of protein in life chemistry.
15. 2005:
(ii) Saponification
Q7 (c) Differentiate the following:
(i) Ether linkage and Glycoside linkage
(ii) Reducing sugar and Non-reducing sugar.
Q7 (d) Fill in the blanks with the correct answers:
(i) A dipolar charged but on overall electrically neutral ion is called zwitterions.
(ii) Animal starch is known as glycogen.
(iii) Vitamin B2 is known as riboflavin.
(iv) The carbohydrates containing aldehydic group are called aldoses.
Q8 (a) What is Fermentation? How is ethyl alcohol obtained from molasses?
16. 2004:
Q8 (a) Write a short note on:
(i) Amino Acid
Q8 (b) Differentiate between fats and oils and give a brief account of saponification.
17. 2003 P.M:

Q8 (a) Write notes on any Two of the following:
(i) Carbohydrates (ii) Peptide linkage
2003 P.E:
Q7 (b) What is meant by Fermentation? Give the preparation of ethyl alcohol by
fermentation of starch
(i) Amino acids (ii) Peptide bond (iii) Lipids
Q8 (b) What are the functions of Vitamins? Give a brief account of Riboflavin and
Ascorbic acid.
18. 2002 P.E:

Q8 (a) What are Amino Acids? Classify them giving examples of each.
2002 P.M:
Q8 (a) Write a note on any One of the following:
(i) Amino acids (ii) Enzymes
Q8 (b) Give the saponification reactions
19. 2001:
Q8 (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Zwitterion (ii) Glucosidic Linkage (iii) Peptide Linkage
Q8 (b) Give the biological importance of carbohydrates.

20. 2000:
Q8 (b) Write short note. (i) Vitamins
Q8 (b) What are amino acids? How are they classified? Give example in each case.
21. 1999:
Q8 (d) What are the source of vitamins ‘A’, ‘E’ and ‘K’? What are the diseases caused by
their deficiency?
(ii) Fructose is a reducing sugar True
(iii) The deficiency of vitamin ‘C’ causes scurvy. True
22. 1998:
Q5 (d) Write the chemical names of the following vitamins.
(i) Vitamin E (ii) Vitamin B2 (iii) Vitamin C (iv) Vitamin B1
Q7 (c) Write True or False.
(i) The deficiency of vitamin A causes night blindness. (True)
23. 1997:
Q8 (a) Write short note on: (i) Vitamins
Q8 (b) Write True & False for the following statements:
(iii) Enzymes are synthesized only by living cells. (True)
Q8 (c) Fill in the blanks with the correct answers:
(i) The hydrolysis of fats and oils with a strong alkali is called saponification.
(ii) Renin is active in the stomach of young children.
24. 1996:
Q5 (d) Fill in the blanks & True or False
(iii) The deficiency of __________ in the human body is the cause of diabetes.
(Insulin, Alamin, Ptyalin)
(iv) Gastric Juice is pale yellow in color. (True)
Q7 (b) Write short note on: (i) Lipids
Q7 (c) Choose the correct answers.
(i) Ascorbic acid is enzyme. (False)
(ii) The main function of carbohydrates is to circulate blood. (False)
(iii) If the level of cholesterol increase in the blood serum, it causes _________.
(Diabetes, Heart Attack, High Blood Pressure)
25. 1995:
Q6 (c) Name the vitamins whose deficiency causes the following diseases.
(i) Night Blindness (ii) Rickets (iii) Beri-Beri (iv) Scurvy
26. 1994:
Q8 (c) Give the definition of the following.
(i) Glycosidic Linkage (ii) Zwitties Ion (iii) Peptide Linkage (iv) Fats
(v) Waxes
27. 1993:
Q8 (b) Write short note on: (ii) Vitamins
28. 1992:
Q7 (a) Write short note giving definition, classification and structure (at least two):
(a) Carbohydrate or Proteins

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN
11 PAKISTAN
1. 2019
xv)This imparts green colour to glass:
* CoO * MnO2 * Cr2O3 * CuO
Q6 (c) Write note on any one of the following.
* Detergents * Paints * Glass
2. 2018
xvii)The green colour of glass is due to the presence of;
* CuO *CoO * Cr2O3 * ZnO
Q6 b) Write note on any one of the following.
* Detergents * Fertilizers * Plastics
3. 2017:
Q1. (xvii) This is not nitrogenous fertilizer:
* Ammonium nitrate * Urea * Ammonium sulphate * Triple phosphate
Q5 (c) What is synthetic fiber ? Explain Nylon and polyester.
4. 2016:
Q1. xvi) This acid is used for etching of glass;
* HF * HCI * HBr * HI
Q.6 b) Write note on any one of the following.
* Detergents * Plastics
5. 2015:
Q6 b) What is Fertilizer? Give its types. Explain phosphatic Fertilizers.
6. 2014:
xiv) This impact red colour to glass:
* Cr2O3 * CuO * CoO * ZnO
xvii) Fertilizer maintains the range of pH of soil at:
* 7.0 – 8.0 * 4.0 – 6.0 * 1.2 – 4.2 * 12.0 – 14.0
Q2 xiv) What is Synthetic Fibre? Explain Nylon and Polyester.
Q6 b) Write notes on any two of the following:
* Glass * Detergent
7. 2013
Q: Write short note on: * Paints * Plastics
8. 2012
Q2 (v) Write a note on any one: Detergents
9. 2011:
Q2(xvi) Write notes on any two of the following:
* Glass * Detergents * Plastics

10. 2010
Q2 (xv) What are Fertilizers? Name two nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers along
with their method of preparation.
11. 2009
Q7 (a) Write short note on any two of the following:
i) Phosphatic Fertilizers ii) Paints iii) Detergents
12. 2008
Q8(b) Write a short note on any ONE of the following: (i) Plastics (ii) Detergents
13. 2007:
Q8(d) Write short note on the following: (i) Glass (ii) Fertilizers
14. 2006:
Q5 (a) What are fertilizers? Give a brief account of the fertilizer industry of Pakistan.
Q5 (b) What are Detergents? Give a brief account of the cleaning action of detergent.
Q5 (c) What are Plastics? Give a brief account of the Bakelite.
Q8 (d) Write short notes:
(iv) Glass (v) Paints
15. 2005:
Q6 (e) What are detergents? Why are they better cleaning agents than soaps?
16. 2004:
Q8 (a) Write a short note on any one of the following:
(i) Fertilizers (ii) Plastics
17. 2003 P.M:

Q8 (a) Write notes:
(i) Plastics
2003 P.E:
NONE
18. 2002 P.M:

Q8 (b) Write note on: (iv) Plastics
2002 P.E:
Q8 (a) Write a note on: (ii) Plastics
19. 2001:
Q8 (c) What are Fertilizers? Give a brief account of phosphatic fertilizers.
20. 2000:
Q8 (b) Write short note on any one of the following:
(i) Plastics (iii) Rayon (Fibre)

21. 1999:
Q8 (b) Write short note on any one of the following:
(i) Paints (ii) Fertilizers
(ii) P.V.C. is the polymer of benzene (False)
22. 1998:
Q4 (d) Define glass and give a brief account of its preparation.
Q8 (d) Write short note on: (i) Detergents
23. 1997:
Q4 (a)
(i) Define a Fertilizer (ii) How are phosphatic fertilizers prepared?
Q8 (a) Write short note on:
(i) Nylon (ii) Detergents
(i) Polyethene is the most common plastic. (True)
(ii) Lead containing paints are banned because of high cost. (False)
24. 1996:
Q8 (a) Synthetic fertilizers are better than the natural fertilizers why? Describe the
production of phosphatic fertilizers.
25. 1995:
Q6 (b) Explain the term detergent. Give an account of the structure and function of a
detergent.
26. 1994:
Q8 (b) Write short note on any one of the following.
(i) Glass Industry (ii) Fertilizers
27. 1993:
(iii) Paints
28. 1992:
Q7 (b) Write short note giving definition, classification and structure (at least two):
(a) Fertilizers or Detergents

I.U.P.A.C NOMENCLATURES OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
1. 2018
xiv) Write I.U.P.A.C.names for any four for the following.
* CH2 = CH – C  C – CH = CH2
* CH3 – (CH2)3 – COOC (CH3)3 * CH3 – CO – CCl3
* CH3 – CH – CH3 – COOH * CHO – (CH2)3 – CH – CH3
| |
OH CH3
2. 2017
iii) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
* [Pt(NH3)3Cl3]
* [Fe(CO)4]
* Na3[AlF6]
* [CoBr2(en)]Br
* xii) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
* CH2 = CH −∗ CH2 − COOH
* CH3 − C(CH3 )2 COOH(CH3 )2
* C2 H5 − (CH3 )2 COOH(CH3 )2
* CH3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − OC(CH3 )2 C2 H5
3. 2016
c) Write the I.U.P.A.C. names of the following;
i) (C6H5)3 CBr
ii) C2H5O CH (CH3)2
iii) Cl CH3
| ||
H2C = CH – CH – CH2 – CH – C  CH
O O
|| ||
iv) (CH3)2 CH – C – C (CH3)3 v) CH3 – C – CH2 – COOH
4. 2015
Q6: c) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
* (CH 3 )3 C − CH 2 − CO − CH (CH 3 )2
O
* ||
CH 3 − CH 2 − C − CH 2 − COOH
O
* ||
CH 3 − (CH 2 )3 − C − O − C (CH 3 )3

CH 3 − O − CH − CH 2 − CH 2
* | |
OC 2 H 5 OC 6 H 5
* CH 2 = CH − C  C − CH = CH 2
5. 2014
Q6: c) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
CH 2 = C − C  CH O
i) | ii) ||
CH 3 CH 3 − C − O − C (CH 3 ) 3
CH 3 − CH = CH − CH − CH − CH 3
iii) | |
OH CH 3
iv) CH 3 − CH 2 − O − C (CH 3 )3
CH 3
iv)
Cl
Br
6. 2013
Q: Name the following compounds by I.U.P.A.C. system:
* (CH3)2CBr.CHO * CH3(CH2)3COOC(CH3)3
* (CH3)3COH * (CH3)2 CHCOC (CH3)3
Q: Give the structural formulae of the following:
* Catechol * Divinyl acetylene * Glyoxal * Picric acid
7. 2011:
Q6. b) Write the I.U.P.A.C. names of the following organic compounds:
i) CH 3 − CH 2 − CH = CH − COOH ii) CH 2 = CH − C = C − CH = CH 2
O OCH 3
iii) CH 3 − C − O − C6 H 5 iv) CH 3 − O − CH 2 − CH − CH 2 − OC 2 H 5
O O O

v) (CH 3 )2 CH − C − CH (C2 H 5 )2 vi) H − C − (CH 2 )5 − C − H
vii) CH 3
O2 N Br
8. 2010:
Q2(xiii) Write the I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
* CH3 – CH = CH – CH2OH * HOOC – CH2 – CH2 – COOK
CH 3 − C − O − CH(CH 3 ) 2
* HC  C –CH2 –CH2 –CH =CH * ||
O
9. 2009:
Q5 (b) Write down the names of any FOUR compounds according to IUPAC system:
(i) H3C-CH(CH3)-CH(CH3)-CHO
(ii) HOOC – COOH
(iii) H3C-(CH3)C=CH-CH3
(iv) NO2-C6H4-COOH ( NO2 is on Para-Position of COOH )

Q5 (c) Write down the structural formulae of any Four of the following:
i) 2, 3 dimethyl 3 pentanol ii) Resorcenol iii) α-napthol
iv) 3 ethoxy hexane v) Ethyl ethanoate
10. 2008:
Q6 (a) Write structural formulae of the following. Give their IUPAC names also:
(i) Vinyl bromide
(ii) Carbolic acid
(iii) Valeric acid
(iv) Di-ethyl ether
11. 2007:
Q5 (e) Write the structural formulae of the following:
(i) 1,2-dibromo-2-methylpropane
(ii) 3-ethyl-1-heptyne
(iii) Triphenyl-bromo-methane
(iv) Ethane-di-oic-acid
(v) 2-methoxy-propane

2006:
Q6 (e) Give the I.U.P.A.C names of the following:
(i) CH3- CH3 = CH - CH3
(ii) CH 3 − COOCH (CH 3 )2
(iii)
12. 2005:
Q7 (b) Draw the structure give I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
(i) Vinyl Chloride (ii) Neo-pentane (iii) Ter-butyl, methyl ether (iv) Picric acid.
13. 2004:
Q8 (d) Draw the structural formulae of the following:
(i) Picric (ii) Triphenyl bromomethane (iii) 3-methyl butanal (iv) Meth-oxy-methane
Q6 (d) Name the following by I.U.P.A.C system:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
14. 2003 P.M:

Q8 (b) Give I.U.P.A.C. names of the following compounds:
(5)
(i) CH 3 − C  C − CH = CH 2 (ii) CH 2 = CH − CH 2 OH
(iii)

COOH
iv)
COOH
(v)
2003 P.E.:
Q7 (d) Write the structural formulae of the following:
(i) Resorcinol (ii) o-nitrophenol (iii) 3-chloropentanoic
(iv) Valeric acid (v) 2-chloropropanal
Q5 (b) Write down the structural formulae of the following compounds:
(i) 3-chloro, 2-butenoic acid (ii) 4-hexene-1-yne (iii) 1, 3-propan diol
(iv) pentane-2-one (v) Formaldehyde
15. 2002 P.M.:

Q5 (b) Give the structural formulae of any Four of the following:
(i) 4-hexene-1-yne (ii) diphenyl amine (iii) 2-butenal
(iv) ethandioic acid (v) picric acid
Q7 (d) Name the following compounds by I.U.P.A.C system:
(i) CH3 – CO – CH2 – CHBr2 (ii) CH3 – CH2 – COOC2H5
(iii) (CH 3 )3 − C − OCH 3 (iv) CH2 = CH – CH2 – COOH
2002 P.E.:
Q8 (c) Write I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
(i) CH(CH3)2 – CHCl CHO (ii) CH3COOC2H5
(iii) CH 3 − CH = CH − CH 2 − C  CH
(iv) Br C(CH3)2 – (CH2)2COOH
Q8 (d) Write the structural formulae of the following:

(i) Catechol (ii) 1-bromo-3-methyl hexane-2-one (iii) Isopropyl butanoate
(iv) 1, 3, 5-tri nitro bezene.
16. 2001
Q8 (d) Give the structural formulae of the any Three following:
(i) 2, 3-dichloro 1-pentene (ii) B-naphthol (iii) Bromo acetic acid
(iv) Ethyl acetate
Q8 (e) Name any Three of the following compounds by I.U.P.A.C. system:

(i) (CH 3 )3 − C − OH (ii) (CH 3 )3 − CH − CO − C (CH 3 )3
(iii) (iv) C3H7 – O – CH3

17. 2000:
Q6 (c) Write the Structural formula of the following:
(i) 3,3-dimethyl-1-butyne (ii) Diethylacetylene (iii) Iso propyl bromide
(iv) 3-Bromo-4-Methyl-3-Hexene (v) 2,4,6 Trinitro Toluene
Q7 (b) Give I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
(i) CH 2 = CH − CH 2 − C  CH (ii) CH 2 = CH − CH 2 − C  C − CH 3
(iii) CH 3 − COO − CH (CH 3 ) 2 (iv) CH 3 − O − (CH 3 ) 3
18. 1999:
Q7(c) Give I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
(i) C2 H 5 − O − CH (CH 3 ) 2 (ii) CCl3 − COOH
(iii) CH 3 − CHOH − CH 2 − COOH
19. 1998:
Q7(d) Give I.U.P.A.C. names of the following:
(i) CH 3 − CH = CH − COOH (ii)
(iii) CH 3 − CHOH − (CH 2 ) 4 − Br (iv)
Q8 (b) Write the Structural formula of the Following:

(i) 1,4-Hexadiene (ii) 5,5-dimethyl Hexan-3-one
(iii) 2-Bromo-3-Methyl Hexanoic acid (iv) Iso Butyr Aldehyde
20. 1997:
Q6(b) Name the following in I.U.P.A.C. system:
(i) (ii)
(iii) CH3CH2COOC2H5 (iv) Isopropyl Alcohol (v) Methyl Ethyl Ether

Q7 (c) Give the Structural formula of the following:
(i) Methoxy Benzene
(ii)  -Napthol
(iii) Picric Acid
20. 1996:
Q6 (c) Give the structure formulae of the following:
(i) p-Bromo Nitro Benzene
(ii)  -Chloropropanal
(iii) 4,4-dimethyl-2-pentyne
(iv) 2-Butene-1-ol
(v) Isobutane

Q8 (b) Name the following in I.U.P.A.C. system:
(i) (ii) (CH3)3.C.CH2.CH3
(iii) (iv) Br3.C.COOH
(v)
21. 1995:
Resorcinol
(i)  -Napthol
(ii) Tertiary Butyl Alcohol
(iii) 4,5-diMethyl-3-Heptanone
(iv) Diethyl Acetylene
Q6 (d) Name the following in I.U.P.A.C. system:
(i) (CH3)3.C - CH2 – CH2OH (ii) CH3 - C H2 - COO – C2H5
(iii) (iv) (C6H5)2.CHBr
22. 1994:
(i) 2,2-dimethyl-1,4-Hexandiol
(ii) Trichloro Ethanal
(iii) 2,4-dimethyl-3Pentanone
(iv) Methyl IsoPropyl Ether
(v) 2-Chloro-3-Methyl Butanoic Acid
Q8 (a) Name the following in I.U.P.A.C. system:
(i) (CH3)2CHOH
(ii) C2H5 – O – CH(CH3)2
(iii) (iv)
(v)

23. 1993:
Q8 (a) Name the following in I.U.P.A.C. system:
(i) (ii) (CH3)3 – C – OCH3
(iii) CH3 – CH = CH – CHO (iv)
(v)
24. 1992:
Q8 (b) Name the following in I.U.P.A.C. system:
(i) (CH3)2CH– CH(CH3) – CH2 – CH3
(ii) C2H5 – O – C2H5
(iii) CH3 – CHO
(iv) CH  C − CH = CH2
(v)
Q8 (c) Give the structural formulae of the following:

(i) 2,2,3,3-tetramethyl pentane
(ii) Triphenyl methane
(iii) 1,2,3-propantriolp-bromo benzoic acid


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For The Examination

THE CONCEPT COLLEGIATE

Years ago, at the pressing demand of the residents of Gulberg Town

TCC’s specialized and experienced faculty is confident of your success.

If you keep yourself punctual and attentive during your coaching

This book is written to prepare the students for their board

We shall be thankful for the notification of the any mistake in this

The Concept Collegiate

1. Periodic Classification of Elements 01 – 18

5. p-Block Elements 95 – 118

6. Introduction to Organic Chemistry 119 – 138

7. Chemistry of Hydrocarbons 139 – 174

8. Alkyl Halides 175 – 192

Carbon Compounds with Oxygen 193 – 212

10. Chemistry of Life 213 – 230

11. Chemical Industries in Pakistan 231 – 240

12. Past Papers 241 – 220

DOBEREINER’S LAW OF TRIAD

Defects in the Law

Newland Law of Octave

Merit of Newland law

Demerits of Newland law

Meyer’s suggestion for periodic classification of elements was quite similar to

Demerits of the law

Main feature of Mendeleev’s periodic table

Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table

Missing Element Mendeleev’s Information Winkler Information

Demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic table:

“The physical and chemical properties of elements

PERIODS IN THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

GROUPS IN THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE

Group I – A (Lithium family)

Sub Group A Valence Configuration

TYPES OF ELEMENTS ON THE BASIS OF

(ii) p-Block elements

Group Family Name Valence Configuration Elements

(iii) d-Block elements: (transition elements)

Series of d-block Periods Valence Elements

(iv) f-block elements: (Inner transition elements)

Merits of Modern Periodic Table

The following points overcome the defects in Mendeleev’s periodic table.

(i) Anomalous Pairs

Demerits of Modern Periodic Table

POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE

HYDROGEN AND GROUP IA

HYDROGEN AND GROUP VII-A

(ii) Electrical dissociation under reduced pressure.

Uses of Atomic Hydrogen

Atomic hydrogen torch is based on the fact that when

Basic different between Nascent hydrogen and atomic hydrogen

BINARY COMPOUNDS OF HYDROGEN

Properties of Covalent Hydrides

List of Covalent Hydrides

Use of Covalent Hydrides

Types of Covalent Hydrides

Structure and bonding Complex Hydride

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN GAS

SEPARATION OF HYDROGEN IN FREE STATE FROM WATER GAS

A) By converting carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide

Group Atomic Atomic Configuration Group Atomic Atomic Configuration

Alkali and Alkaline earth metals

Group IA Mostly obtained from Group IIA Mostly obtained from

Abnormal behavior of Hear elements

Causes of diagonal relationship