TOOL ROOM 2

MECHANICS OF METAL-CUTTING

Specific Objectives

❖ Explain the classification of metal-cutting methods.

❖ Describe types of chips.
❖ Explain the basic features of two component simple tool force dynamometer.
❖ Explain the operation of simple tool force dynamometer.

I. Classification of metal-cutting methods

✓ As per the usage and applications of customer requirement, metals are cut into desired
shape and size, having the specific designs.
✓ Therefore, it is very significant to employ precise metal cutting methods in order to
ensure that the metal fabrications meet customer’s specifications with versatility and
flexibility.
✓ Metal-cutting involves process of removing unwanted materials in the form of chips from
a block of metal using cutting tool.

Factors determining the selection of metal-cutting methods:

(i) The type of metal being cut.

(ii) The precision level required.
(iii) The intended use of the fabricated part.

Types of metal-cutting methods:

(a) Manual-metal cutting method. (b)

Machinery-metal method

(a) Manual-metal cutting method

✓ This method is applied in cutting smaller workpieces.
✓ In this method, the hand tools, including hacksaws and shears, are used for cutting
metal into the desired shape.
✓ It is applicable when cutting thin metal workpieces. ✓ The set of chisels may be
used for metal-cutting Advantages of Manual-metal cutting:
(i) It requires simple tooling.
(ii) It does not require much skills to perform cutting.
1|Note
 (iii) Its capital is relatively low.

Disadvantages of manual-metal cutting

(i) It is limited to only small tasks.

(ii) It is less accurate
(iii) It is a very slow method of metal cutting

(b) Machinery metal cutting method

✓ This method involves the application of machines to cut the
workpiece using a sharp cutting tool.
✓ This method is applicable for cutting thicker metals ✓ The major
machinery-based cutting methods include:

(i) Turning
✓ Turning is used to generate a cylindrical shape.
✓ In this method, the workpiece is rotated and cutting tool removes the unwanted
materials in form of chips.

Figure 12.1: Turning

✓ The cutting tool has a single cutting edge. The speed motion is provided by the
rotating of the workpiece and feed motion is achieved by cutting tool moving slowly
in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of workpiece.

(ii) Drilling ✓ It is a method of metal-cutting that involves creation of a

round hole.

2|Note
 Figure 12.2: Drilling

✓ In this method, the cutting tool is rotated and feed against the workpiece fixed in the
holding device.
✓ The cutting tool typically has two or more cutting edges.
✓ The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into workpiece to form a
round hole.

(iii) Boring
✓ This is a method of metal-cutting that is used for enlargement an already drilled hole.

Figure 12.3: Boring

(iv) Milling
✓ This is a method of metal-cutting that involves the removal of a layer of material
from the work surface. It is also used to produce a cavity on the workpiece.
✓ The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter.

3|Note
 Figure 12.4: Milling

(v) Broaching
✓ This is method of metal-cutting that involves the use of broach (toothed tool) to
consistently remove the unwanted material from the workpiece.

Figure 12.5: Broaching

(vi) Shaping
✓ This involves metal-cutting method that removes relatively large material from the
workpiece using shaper.

4|Note
 Figure 12.6: Milling
Advantages of machined-based metal-cutting method:

(i) It has high cutting efficiency

(ii) It has a fast-cutting speed
(iii) It has good cutting quality
(iv) It is highly versatile in cutting different materials.

Disadvantages of machined-based metal-cutting method:

(i) It incurs high capital

(ii) It incurs high maintenance cost.
(iii) It requires high level of skills

II. Chips
✓ Chips are materials which are removed from the workpiece during machining.
Factors determining the amount of chips removed:
(a) Nature of the workpiece
(b) Type of cutting materials
(c) Cutting speed
(d) Cutting tool geometry
(e) Feed rate

Theory of chip formation:

✓ The cutting tool removes the materials from the workpiece in form of chips.
✓ As the tool advances into the workpiece, the metal in front of the tool is compressed
and when the compression limit has been exceeded, it is separated from the
workpiece and flows plastically in the form of chip.

✓ The plastic flow of metal takes place in a localized region called shear plane, which
extends from the cutting edge obliquely up to the uncut surface in front of the tool.
✓ The cutting edge of the tool is positioned at a certain distance below the original
work surface.

Types of chips:
✓ There are three major types of chips formed during machining, namely:
❖ Discontinuous chips
❖ Continuous chips ❖ Built-up chips

5|Note
 Figure 12.8: Types of Chips

Factors determining the form of machined chips:

(i) Work material
(ii) Level of cutting velocity and feed
(iii) Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects friction and temperature
experienced.

(a) Discontinuous chips:

✓ When the brittle materials are cut, the deformed material get fractured very
easily and thus, the chip produced is in form of discontinuous segments.
Causes of discontinuous chips:
(i) Brittle work material
(ii) Low cutting speeds
(iii) Large feed and depth of cut
(iv) Tool chip friction

(b) Continuous chips:

✓ When machining ductile materials, the continuous chips are normally produced at
high cutting speeds. Causes of continuous chips:
(i) Ductile work material
(ii) High cutting speeds
(iii) Small feeds and depths (iv) Low tool-chip friction

(c) Built-up chips:

✓ These kinds of chips are usually formed on the cutting tool tip during cutting.

6|Note
 ✓ As it becomes larger, it becomes unstable and eventually breaks up. Causes of
Buit-up chip formation:
(i) Increase the cutting speeds
(ii) Decreasing depth of cut
(iii) Using a sharp tool
(iv) Using an effective cutting fluid.

Harmful effects of Built-up chip:

(i) It leads to increased power consumption due to unfavourable

changes of tool tip rake angle.
(ii) It induces vibrations due to alterations of chip formation and
dislodgement at the tool tip.
(iii) It leads to poor quality surface finish.
(iv) It reduces cutting tool life

Chip welding:
✓ Chip welding refers to sticking of chips onto the rake face of the tool due to
machining a ductile material at low-to-medium speeds.
✓ The chip welding can be prevented by:
Reducing pressure
Reducing friction
Reducing temperature

III. Mechanisms of cutting

✓ In metal cutting, a wedge-shaped cutting tool is used to remove the material
from the workpiece in the form of chips.
✓ Two motions are required, including:
(a) Primary motion:- the rotation of workpiece
(b) Secondary motion:- the feed of a cutting tool into the workpiece.

7|Note
 Figure 12.7: Mechanism of chip formation

///NB FOR MORE INFORMATION, KINDLY OBTAINED FROM THE OTHER

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IV. simple tool-force dynamometer

✓ tool force dynamometers are important devices that are used for accurate measurements
of forces and optimizing machining processes.

Features of tool-force dynamometers:

(i) they have an ability to measure the cutting forces during machining.
(ii) They are able to monitor tool-wear.
(iii) They have different specifications based on their purposes such drilling,
turning and milling

Types of tool-force dynamometers:

(a) Mechanical dynamometers: - they are used to measure mechanical force or power
transmitted by a rotating shaft.
(b) Strain-gauge type dynamometers: - they have special strain gauges that are used to
convert force, pressure or tension into electrical signals which can then be measured.
(c) Piezo-electric dynamometers: - they are used for determining external forces and
moments from three-dimensional tool.
(d) Pneumatic dynamometers: - they are used to measure grip strength changes in air
pressure.
(e) Hydraulic dynamometers: - they are used for measuring changes associated with
pressures.

Calibration of tool-force dynamometers:

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 ✓ The static calibration of tool-force dynamometers is so significant for such dynamometers
designed with strain-gauge bridges.
✓ The dynamic calibration is performed to find the working frequency range for
dynamometers on knowing the basic natural frequencies with dynamic features.
✓ The constructed dynamometers should have high natural frequencies relative to frequency
of exiting vibration to keep the measured force unaffected by dynamic response of
dynamometer.

Operation of tool-force dynamometer:

✓ The tool-force dynamometer is designed to measure the cutting force in machining

operations.
✓ The dynamometer utilizes the straight bar load cell connected to tool holder of the
machine to measure different axes of forces.
✓ It is capable of computing forces acting on the workpiece in machining operations.
✓ It has an ability to measure static and dynamic cutting forces
✓ The force signals can then be captured and processed by dynamometers. The measured
force signals can be depicted as cutting forces.

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