MEWAR INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

MASAKA

FACULTY OF COMPUTING
DEPARTMENT Of CYBERSECURITY

COURSE CODE: 108

GENERAL PHYSICS PRACTICAL
PHOTONIC SYSTEMS
 GROUP 3

1 MIUSTD2023053 Aliyu Muhammad Kamba

2 MIUSTD2023055 Hamza Idris Abdulkadir
3 MIUSTD2023060 Saleh Hajara Boza
4 MIUSTD2023061 Saleh Farida Boza
5 MIUSTD2023062 Mahammad Bashir Saleh
6 MIUSTD2023069 Victor Ako Jnr
7 MIUSTD2023070 Wesley Alphonsus Mamman
8 MIUSTD2023086 Umar Salisu Tsafe
9 MIUSTD2023089 Abubakar Aminu Abdullahi
10 MIUSTD2023111 Abdulhakeem Nurudden
 INTRODUCTION

Photonics is an optical field that involves the generation, detection, and

manipulation of light in the form of photons by emission, transmission,
modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and detection.
Photonics is closely related to quantum electronics, with quantum
electronics dealing with the theoretical part and photonics dealing with
its technological applications. Although all lighting applications cover
the entire spectrum, most photonic applications are in the visible and
near-infrared light range. The term "photonics" emerged as a result of
the first practical semiconductor light emitters invented in the early
1960s and his optical fibers developed in the 1970s.

Dispersion of light (photons) by a prism

Dispersion of light (photons) by a prism

History
The word "photonics" is derived from the Greek word "phos" meaning
light (with the genitive "photo" and the compound root "photo"). teeth).
At the end of the 1960s, it described a field of research aimed at using
light to perform functions traditionally classified in the typical field of
electronics, such as telecommunications and information processing. It
seemed like it was. The earliest mention of the word was in a letter from
John W. Campbell to Gotthard Günther in December 1954:
Now, I have decided to invent a new science, photonics. It is related to
optics in the same way that electronics is related to electrical
engineering. Photonics, like electronics, deals with individual units.
Optics and EE deal with group phenomena! And notice that things that
are impossible with electrical engineering can be achieved using
electronics.

Photonics as a field began with his invention of masers and lasers

between 1958 and 1960. This was followed by developments in the
1970s, including laser diodes, optical fibers for information
transmission, and erbium-doped fiber amplifiers. These inventions
formed the basis of his late 20th century telecommunications revolution
and provided the infrastructure for the Internet. Although the term
"photonics" was coined earlier, it came into common use in the 1980s
when fiber optic data transmission was introduced by
telecommunications network operators. [citation needed] At this time,
the term was widely used at Bell Laboratories. [citation needed] Its use
was confirmed in his late 1980s when the IEEE Lasers and Electro-
Optics Society established an archival journal called Photonics
Technology Letters. In the period before the dot-com bust in 2001,
photonics was a field primarily focused on optical communications.
However, photonics covers a wide range of scientific and technological
applications, including laser manufacturing, biological and chemical
sensing, medical diagnosis and treatment, display technology, and
optical data processing. If the current development of silicon photonics
is successful, photonics has the potential for further growth.

Relationship to other fields

Classical Optics
 Photonics is closely related to optics existed long before the
quantization of light was discovered when Albert Einstein described the
photoelectric effect in 1905. Optical tools include refractive lenses,
reflective mirrors, and various optical components and instruments
developed from the 15th century to the 19th century. Key principles of
classical optics, such as Huygens' principle developed in the 17th
century, Maxwell's equations, and the wave equation developed in the
19th century, do not depend on the quantum properties of light.

Modern Optics

Photonics is related to quantum optics, optomechanics, electro-optics,

optoelectronics, and quantum electronics. However, each domain has
slightly different meanings in academia, government, and the
marketplace. Quantum optics often refers to basic research, while
photonics refers to applied research and development.

The term "photonics" specifically means:

 Particle characteristics of light,

 Possibility of developing signal processing technology using
photons,
 Practical application of optics,
 Similarity to electronics.

The term optoelectronics refers to devices or circuits that contain both

electrical and optical functionality, i.e., thin film semiconductor
components. The term electro-optics has been used before and includes
nonlinear electro-optic interactions, particularly used as bulk crystal
modulators such as Pockels cells, but also includes advanced image
sensors.

An important aspect of modern definition of photonics is that there is not

necessarily widespread agreement in the recognition of field boundaries.
Follow sources of information about optics. org, In response to a request
from the editors of the Journal of Optics: A Pure and Applied Physics to
the editorial board to rationalize the journal name, we note that there is a
significant difference in the usage of the terms "optics" and "photonics."
It was pointed out. It is described as part of the subject area, with some
descriptions suggesting that "photonics also includes optics." In fact, as
the field evolves, the evidence that "modern optics" and photonics are
often used interchangeably has become so widespread that it has been
absorbed into scientific language.

Emerging Fields

Photonics also refers to the emerging sciences of quantum information

and quantum optics. Other emerging areas include:

• Photoacoustics or photoacoustic imaging. Laser energy introduced into

living tissue is absorbed and converted into heat, which then emits
ultrasound waves.

•Optomechanics. Involves the study of the interaction between light and

mechanical vibrations of mesoscopic or macroscopic objects.

•Optomics. Devices that integrate both optical and atomic devices for
applications such as high-precision timekeeping, navigation, and
metrology.

•Plasmonics. Study the interaction between light and plasmons in

dielectric and metallic structures. Plasmons are quantized plasma
vibrations. When coupled with electromagnetic waves, they appear as
surface plasmon polaritons or localized surface plasmons.

•Polaritonics. It differs from photonics in that the basic information

carrier is a polariton. Polaritons are a mixture of photons and phonons
and operate in the frequency range from 300 gigahertz to about 10
terahertz.

•Programmable Photonics. We will explore the development of photonic

circuits that can be reprogrammed to implement different functions,
similar to electronic FPGAs.

Applications

A sea mouse (Aphrodita aculeata),

The colorful spiny sea mouse (Aphrodita aculeata), a notable example of

biological photonic engineering
Applications of photonics are ubiquitous. From everyday life to the
latest science, light detection.

telecommunications, information processing, solar power generation,

photonic computing, lighting, measurement technology, spectroscopy,
holography, medicine (surgery, vision correction, endoscopy, health
monitoring), biophotonics, and all other fields. , military technology,
laser material processing, art diagnostics (including infrared
reflectography, X-ray, ultraviolet fluorescence, XRF), agriculture,
robotics, etc.
Just as the applications of electronics have increased dramatically since
the invention of the first transistor in 1948, unique applications of
photonics continue to emerge. Commercially important applications of
semiconductor photonic devices include optical data recording, fiber
optic communications, laser printing (based on xerography), displays,
and optical pumping of high-power lasers. The potential applications for
photonics are nearly limitless and include chemical synthesis, medical
diagnostics, on-chip data communications, sensors, laser defense, and
nuclear fusion energy, to name a few interesting examples.

•Consumer equipment: barcode scanners, printers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray

devices, remote control devices
•Telecommunications: fiber optic communications, optical
downconverters to microwaves

•Renewable energy: solar power systems

•Medical: amblyopia correction, laser surgery, surgical endoscopy, tattoo

removal

•Industrial manufacturing: Use of lasers in various methods of welding,

drilling, cutting, and surface modification
•Construction: laser leveling, laser metrology Range, intelligent
structures

• Aviation: Photonic gyroscopes without moving parts

• Military: IR sensors, guidance and control, navigation, search and
rescue, mine laying and detection
• Entertainment: Laser shows, beam effects, holographic art
• Information processing

• Passive radiative cooling during the day

• Sensors: LIDAR, sensors for consumer electronics
• Measurement techniques: time and frequency measurements, distance
measurements

• Photonic computing: between computers, circuit boards, or Clock

distribution and communication within optoelectronic integrated circuits.

The Future: Quantum Computing

Quantum computers represent a completely new approach to computing.

They have the potential to solve very complex statistical problems that
are beyond the limits of today's computers. Quantum computing has so
much promise and momentum that McKinsey has identified it as one of
the next big trends in tech.

Microphotonics and nanophotonics typically involve photonic crystals

and solid-state devices.

Overview of Photonics Research

The science of photonics involves the study of the emission,

transmission, amplification, detection, and modulation of light.

Light Sources

Semiconductor-based light sources such as light emitting diodes (LEDs),

superluminescent diodes, and lasers are commonly used in photonics.
Other light sources include single photon sources, fluorescent lamps,
cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and plasma displays. Note that CRTs, plasma
panels, and organic light-emitting diode displays generate their own
light, while liquid crystal displays (LCDs) such as TFT panels require
backlighting with cold cathode fluorescent lamps or, more recently,
LEDs. .
A feature of the research on semiconductor light sources is that
semiconductors are frequently used instead of classical semiconductors
such as silicon or germanium. This is due to the special properties of
semiconductors that allow the implementation of light-emitting devices.
Examples of material systems used include gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) or other compound
semiconductors. In combination with silicon, it is also used to make
hybrid silicon lasers.

Transmission Media

Light can be transmitted through any transparent medium. Glass or

plastic optical fibers can be used to direct the light along the desired
path. In optical communications, optical fibers allow transmission
distances of 100 km or more without amplification, depending on the bit
rate used for transmission and the modulation format used. A very
advanced research topic in the field of photonics is the investigation and
production of special structures and "materials" with technical optical
properties. These include photonic crystals, photonic crystal fibers, and
metamaterials.

Optical Amplifier

Optical amplifiers are used to amplify optical signals. Optical amplifiers

used in optical communications include erbium-doped fiber amplifiers,
semiconductor optical amplifiers, Raman amplifiers, and optical
parametric amplifiers. A very advanced research theme regarding optical
amplifiers is research on optical quantum dot semiconductor amplifiers.

Detection
Photodetector detects light. Photodetectors range from very fast
photodiodes for communications applications, to medium-speed charge-
coupled devices (CCDs) for digital cameras, to very slow solar cells
used to generate energy from sunlight. It will span. There are many other
photodetectors based on thermal, chemical, quantum, photoelectric, and
other effects.

Light Modulator

Modulation of a light source is used to encode information about the

light source. Modulation can be achieved directly through the light
source. One of the simplest examples is using a flashlight to send Morse
code. Another method is to extract light from a light source and
modulate it with an external light modulator.
Another topic of modulation research is modulation format. On-off shift
keying is the most commonly used modulation form in optical
communications. In recent years, more advanced modulation formats
such as phase-shift keying and orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing have been considered to prevent effects such as dispersion
that degrade the quality of the transmitted signal.

Photonic Systems

Photonics also includes the study of photonic systems. This term is

often used in optical communication systems. This research area focuses
on the implementation of photonic systems such as high-speed photonic
networks. This includes research into optical regenerators that improve
the quality of optical signals.

Photonic Integrated Circuits

Photonic Integrated Circuits (PICs) are optically active integrated

photonic semiconductor devices. The main commercial use of PICs is as
optical transceivers for optical networks in data centre’s. PICs fabricated
on III-V indium phosphide semiconductor wafer substrates achieved
commercial success for the first time. His PIC, which is based on silicon
wafer substrates, is now a commercialized technology.

Comparison with Electronic Integration

In contrast to electronic integration, where silicon is the primary

material, system photonic integrated circuits are based on various
materials such as electro-optic crystals such as lithium niobate, silicon
on silicon, and silicon on insulators. Manufactured from materials. ,
various polymers and semiconductor materials used in the manufacture
of semiconductor lasers, such as GaAs and InP. Different material
systems are used because each offers different benefits and limitations
depending on the functionality being integrated. For example, his silicon
dioxide-based PICs have relatively low losses and low thermal
sensitivity, properties that are highly desirable for passive photonic
circuits such as AWGs (see below). GaAs or InP-based PICs enable
direct integration of light sources, while silicon PICs enable cross-
integration of photonics and transistor-based electronics.

The manufacturing technique is similar to that of electronic integrated

circuits, where photolithography is used to pattern the wafer for etching
and material deposition. Unlike electronics, where transistors are the
main component, there is no single main component. Devices required
on the chip include low-loss interconnect waveguides, power splitters,
optical amplifiers, optical modulators, filters, lasers, and detectors.
These devices require different materials and manufacturing techniques,
making it difficult to implement them all on a single chip.

New technology using resonant optical interferometers paves the way to

using UV LEDs for much cheaper optical computing needs, paving the
way for petahertz consumer electronics.

Examples of Photonic Integrated Circuits

 The main application of photonic integrated circuits is in the field of
fibre optic communications, but applications are also possible in other
fields such as biomedicine and photonic computing.

Arrayed waveguide gratings (AWGs) are commonly used as optical

(de)multiplexers in wavelength division multiplexed (WDM) fibre optic
communication systems, replacing earlier multiplexers that used
multiple individual filter elements. This is an example of a photonic
integrated circuit that has been replaced by a photonic integrated circuit.
Since quantum computing requires the separation of optical modes, this
technique helps miniaturize quantum computers (see Linear Optical
Quantum Computing).

Another example of a photonic integrated chip that is currently widely

used in fibre optic communication systems is the externally modulated
laser (EML), which combines a distributed feedback laser diode and an
electroabsorption modulator on a single InP-based chip.

Key applications of integrated photonics include:

• Connecting to data centres: Data centres are growing in size as

businesses and institutions store and process more information in the
cloud. As data centre computing increases, so does the demand for data
centre networks. Optical cables can support greater trace bandwidth over
longer transmission distances than copper cables. For short distances and
data rates up to 40 Gbit/s, non-integrated approaches such as vertical
cavity surface emitting lasers can be used for optical transceivers in
multimode fibre networks. Beyond this range and bandwidth, photonic
integrated circuits are the key to achieving
high-performance, low-cost optical transceivers.
•Analog RF signal applications: Manipulate high-fidelity radio
frequency (RF) signals using GHz-accurate signal processing photonic
integrated circuits to add or delete. Additionally, photonic integrated
circuits can remove background noise from RF signals with
unprecedented accuracy, increasing the signal-to-noise ratio and setting
new standards in low-power performance. This high-precision
processing has made it possible to pack large amounts of information
into long-distance wireless communications.
• Sensors: Photons can also be used to detect and differentiate optical
properties of materials. It can identify chemical or biochemical gases
from air pollution, organic products, and contaminants in water. It can
also be used to detect blood abnormalities such as low blood sugar levels
and measure biological data such as pulse rate. Photonic integrated
circuits are designed as comprehensive and ubiquitous glass/silicon
sensors to be integrated into a variety of mobile devices in mass
production. [citation needed] Mobile platform sensors allow us to more
directly address practices that protect our environment, monitor our food
supply, and maintain our health.
• LIDAR and other phased array imaging: Arrays of PICs can
reconstruct 3D images using phase delays in light reflected from objects
with three-dimensional shapes, and are used for optical imaging,
detection, and Ranging (LIDAR) can provide a radar solution. By
providing accurate imaging (including 3D information) at close range.
This new form of machine vision has immediate applications in self-
driving cars and biomedical imaging for crash mitigation. Phased arrays
can also be used for free-space communications and new display
technologies. Current versions of LIDAR rely primarily on moving
parts, making them large, slow, low resolution, costly, and prone to
mechanical vibration and premature failure. Integrated photonics enable
LIDAR to have a postage stamp-sized footprint, scan without moving
parts, and be manufactured in large quantities at low cost.

Types of fabrication and materials

Fabrication techniques are similar to those used in electronic integrated

circuits, where photolithography is used to pattern the wafer for etching
and material deposition.
The most versatile platforms are considered to be indium phosphide
(InP) and silicon photonics (SiPh).

• Indium phosphide (InP) PICs provide active laser generation,

amplification, control, and detection. This makes it an ideal component
for communication and sensing applications.

•Silicon nitride (SiN) PICs have a wide spectral range and ultra-low loss
waveguides. This makes them ideal for detectors, spectrometers,
biosensors, and quantum computers. The lowest propagation losses in
SiN (from 0.1 dB/cm to 0.1 dB/m) were achieved with TriPleX
waveguides from LioniX International.

•Silicon photonics PICs (SiPh) provide low loss for passive components
such as waveguides and can be used in small photonics circuits. These
are compatible with existing electronics production. The term "silicon
photonics" actually refers to the technology, not the material. It
combines the fabrication of high-density photonic integrated circuits
(PICs) and complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
electronics. The most technologically mature and commercially used
platform is silicon-on-insulator (SOI).

• Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3) is a modulator of choice for low-loss

modes. The low refractive index and wide transparency window make it
very effective for matching fibre input and output. For more complex
PICs, lithium niobate can be formed into large crystals. As part of the
ELENA project, there is a European initiative to accelerate the
production of LiNbO3 PICs. Efforts have also been made to develop
lithium niobate on insulators (LNOI).
• Silica is lightweight and has a small form factor. It is a common
component of optical communication networks
such as planar lightwave circuits (PLCs).
• Gallium arsenide (GaAS) has high electron mobility. This means GaAS
transistors operate at high speeds, making them ideal as analogue
integrated circuit drivers for high-speed lasers and modulators.

Different chip types (including existing electronic chips) can be

configured to combine in hybrid or heterogeneous integration to
leverage the strengths of each.

This complementary integrated approach addresses the increasingly

sophisticated demand for energy-efficient solutions.

Biophotonics
Biophotonics uses tools from the field of photonics to biological
research. Biophotonics is primarily focused on improving medical
diagnostic capabilities (such as cancer and infectious diseases), but it can
also be used for environmental and other applications.

The main advantages of this approach are rapid analysis, non-invasive

diagnosis, and the ability to work in the field.