Just a reading material on GST 112

READING MATERIAL
GST 112: LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE
Meaning of Philosophy

Philosophy was derived from two Greek words, "Philos, Philia or Philein" which means
"friend", "love" or "to love" and "Sophia" which means "wisdom". In a very simple sense,
philosophy means love of wisdom. Now, what is love? What is wisdom? Love simply means
having great affection or liking for someone or something. Wisdom is a combination of
knowledge, understanding, experience and insight, and ability to apply them. Thus, love of
wisdom refers to seeking the highest intellect or wisdom and the wisdom that is sought. It
engages in critical understanding of the world and inquires into the world beyond sense-
experience.

Branches of Philosophy

The following are main branches of Philosophy:

1. Logic: studies the rules of inference that enables one to derive a conclusion from
premises. It deals with the nature and structure of argument, as it assesses what
constitutes “good” or “bad” reasoning, how can we determine whether a piece of
reasoning is good or bad, etc.

2. Epistemology: deals with the nature of knowledge and belief. It studies knowledge,
what can be known about the world and how can it be known, what is knowledge? Do
we know anything at all? How do we know that we know? Can we be justified in
claiming to know certain things? It concerns itself with the source, scope and
justification of knowledge. For instance, on sources of knowledge, two subjects such
as empiricists and rationalists hold. The empiricists hold that sense experience is the
ultimate source of genuine knowledge; for rationalists, reason is the ultimate source of
genuine knowledge. The difference among knowledge, belief, opinion, dogma and faith
is discussed under this branch of philosophy.

3. Metaphysics: studies the fundamental nature of existence and reality. It deals with the
reality of existence – its existence in the world, what it is like and how it is ordered. It
studies fundamental questions including is there a God? What is a person? What is
truth? Do people have mind? What is the relationship between the mind and the body?
What makes a person the same through time? How can one event cause another?

4. Ethics: deals with the moral value concerning what we ought to do, what would be the
best to do, what is good, what is right, what makes actions or people good, what makes
actions right, is morality objective or subjective, how should I treat others? Etc.

Other branches are:

5. Aesthetics: the nature of beauty and taste

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6. Philosophy of religion

7. Philosophy of language

8. Philosophy of art

9. Philosophy of science

10. Political Philosophy, etc.

Logic

Etymologically, Logic is derived from the Greek word "logike" which means 'possessed of
reason', 'intellectual or argumentative,' or the Greek word "logo" which means 'expression of
reason, reasoned discourse, order in things or words. It implies that logic has to do with correct
reasoning. Based on history, logic was traced to Parmenides who was the first ancient Greek
philosopher that developed some logical principles. The principles are identity and non-
contradiction principles exploring "what is" and "what is not", through which Aristotelian
conception of "Truth Functional Logic" was grounded.

Logic is a main branch of philosophy that studies correct reasoning in order to make an
inference. It deals with the rules of thoughts, correct reasoning, valid inference or logical truth.
It studies the nature and structure of argument and concerns itself with reasons or arguments
given for answers the fundamental questions. It deals with the study of the rules of inference
that allows people to derive conclusions from the true premises. “The study of truths based
completely on the meanings of the terms they contain.”

Logic also deals with the approach and principles employed in differentiating good from bad
reasoning, correct from incorrect reasoning, valid from invalid conclusion or inference in
arguments. It has to do with how people should think in order to reason correctly or it is meant
to lead people ensure that their reasoning is in line with the basic principles which give room
for correct reasoning. Logic is also said to be the study of criteria for distinguishing correct
from incorrect arguments.

Questions such as "what constitutes 'good' or 'bad' reasoning? How can we determine whether
a given piece of reasoning is good or bad? are asked in logic. Logic is the study of the rules of
thoughts and correct reasoning, and it investigates how arguments can be determined based on
the relationship between premises and conclusion. Logic is important for all professionals if
there is a reason for arguments, classification, meaningful and true/valid conclusion and
ordering of words or things, the knowledge of logic is thus needed. This is why Otakpor (1985)
referred to logic as the queen of all disciplines".

Types of Logic

1. Formal logic: deductive reasoning is employed to determine the relationship between

the premise and conclusion. Here, the premise must be true and you have to follow the
premises to reach a formal conclusion. Methods of deduction such as rules of inference,
biconditionals, quantificational theory are used to determine the validity of an

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argument. E.g. if I use my umbrella, then it is raining or I use my umbrella if and only
if it is raining.

2. Informal logic: deals with daily reasoning and arguments. It covers arguments we make
in our personal exchange with others. It is the study of the natural language of argument.
e.g. Abdullah’s palm itches; so he will get money soon. Esther saw a black cat on her
way to work; when she got to work, she was fired; therefore, black cats are bad luck.

3. Symbolic logic: deals with how symbols and variables are assigned to verbal reasoning
or used to represent verbal or written argument to avoid ambiguity or vagueness. It is
meant to clarify the philosophical argument and determine the nature of the argument.
For example, “I use my umbrella” may be represented using letter P and “it is raining”
using letter Q. “If I use my umbrella, then it is raining” can be represented as P →Q,
where → is called “implication”. “I use my umbrella and it is raining” is represented as
P ˄ Q where ˄ stands for “and” and it is called conjunction.

4. Mathematical logic: refers to an application of the techniques of formal logic to

mathematics and mathematical arguments, and an application of the mathematical
techniques to represent and analyse formal logic. It is “an extension of symbolic logic
used in studying model theory, proof theory, set theory and recursive theory”.

Some Concepts used in Logic

1. Argument: is a statement or combination of statements that comprises premise

(evidence) meant to determine the degree of truth of another statement called
conclusion. It can be studied from three main perspectives namely, logical, dialectical
and rhetorical forms.

2. Proposition or Statement: is the primary bearer of the truth or falsity. It is a declarative

statement which is either true or false and neither a command nor a question.

3. Premise: are the statements used to build an argument. It serves as evidence or reason
upon which a conclusion may be derived.

4. Conclusion: is the final proposition drawn

5. Inference: is a mental activity of reaching a conclusion from premises.

For example,

Abuja is in Nigeria.
Nigeria is in Africa
Therefore, Abuja is in Africa

The composition earlier is an example of argument; it contains three propositions: the first two
propositions (Abuja is in Nigeria. Nigeria is in Africa) are premises and the final proposition
(Therefore, Abuja is in Africa) is the conclusion of the argument. The inference is that since

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Abuja is in Nigeria while Nigeria is an African country, therefore, it is logic to arrive at the
conclusion that Abuja is in Africa.

Argument Type

1. Deductive Argument: the truth of the conclusion is proven by its premises. It deals with
certainty and often involve moving from the general to specific that is following from
the premises to conclusion. It is a formal logic.

2. Inductive Argument: it is an informal logic where there is no strict connection between

the premise and conclusion. It does with probability as it starts from specific premises
and then form a general conclusion.

Parts of Argument

1. Premises: evidence or reason of an argument

2. Conclusion: the final statement drawn based on premises

Form of Argument

1. Simple: contains a few premises with a conclusion

2. Complex: comprises a long argument with many premises to generate a conclusion.

Argument

In the field of logic and philosophy, an argument is a series of propositions meant to determine
the degree of truth of another statement. It has both premises and conclusion as the building
blocks. Premises are statements that provide reasons or evidence to determine the truth of a
conclusion. Therefore, an argument can have more than one premise. In an argument, a
conclusion is the main point that a person or arguer wants to prove. In an argument, there is
only one conclusion and one or more premises. For examples:

Premise 1: All Mewar students are mature.

Premise 2: Abdullah is a Mewar student.

Conclusion: Therefore, Abdullah is mature.

Premise 1: Every man is an animal.

Premise 2: Abdullah is a man.

Conclusion: Therefore, Abdullah is an animal.

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Premise 1: Abdullah is a noisemaker.

Premise 2: No noisemaker is allowed in the class.

Conclusion: Therefore, Abdullah is not allowed in the class.

Premise 1: All Nigerians are black.

Premise 2: Abdullah is a Nigerian.

Conclusion: Therefore, Abdullah is black.

Premise 1: All Nigerians are black.

Premise 2: Abdullah is black.

Conclusion: Therefore, Abdullah is a Nigerian.

Valid and Invalid Arguments

An argument is valid when its premises guarantees the truth of its conclusion. An argument is
valid if the premises and conclusion are related to each other in the right way that if the premises
are true then the conclusion would have to be true as well. However, an argument is invalid if
the premises do not support the conclusion or the conclusion cannot be inferred from the
premises. One can accept the premises to be true but reject the conclusion, when it is not
derived from the premises. Deductive arguments can be valid or invalid but all inductive
arguments are invalid.

Examples of Valid Argument

Every man is an animal.

Abdullah is a man.
Therefore, Abdullah is an animal.

Abdullah is a noisemaker.
No noisemaker is allowed in the class.
Therefore, Abdullah is not allowed in the class.

All Nigerians are black.

Abdullah is a Nigerian.
Therefore, Abdullah is black.

Examples of Invalid Argument

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All men are dressed in trousers.

Some women are dressed in trousers.
Thus, some women are men.
Almost all Mewar students are good
Umar is a Mewar student.
Therefore, Umar is good.

All Nigerian are black.

Abdullah is black.
Therefore, Abdullah is a Nigerian.

Dr Henry is a dean and a lecturer in Mewar University.

Dr Gana is a dean and a lecturer in Mewar University.
Dr Adedeji is a dean and a lecturer in Mewar University.
Therefore, all lecturers in Mewar University are deans

Sound and Unsound Arguments

An argument must fulfill two requirements in order to be considered as sound. One requirement
is that the argument must be valid. An argument is valid when its conclusion follows logically
from the premises. In other words, it is impossible for the premises of an argument to be true
while the conclusion is false. The second requirement is that all its premises should be true.
Thus, a sound argument is a valid argument that has true premises.

“The key difference between sound and unsound argument is that a sound argument is valid
and has true premises whereas an unsound argument is invalid and/or has at least one false
premises. Soundness is a technical feature of an argument. It helps us to determine whether the
conclusion of an argument is true. Although many people assume that soundness refers to the
validity of an argument, this is not so. A valid argument is not necessarily a sound argument.
In fact, soundness of an argument is determined by two factors: validity and truth of the
premises”.

Example of Sound Argument

All men are mortal. (true)

Yusuf is a man. (true)
Therefore, Yusuf is mortal. (true)
Example of Sound Argument

All men are responsible (false)

Some people are not responsible (true)
Some people are not men (true)

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Statement

In philosophy, statement is a sentence that is either true or false but not both. It is a sentence
that can be asserted or denied and it is considered as true or false based on its truth value. It is
also known as proposition. Statement can be simple or compound. Statement can be simple or
compound.

A simple statement consists of subject and predicate and expresses an idea, e.g.

1. I am hungry.

2. I eat food.

3. It is hot.

4. It is sunny.

5. It is cloudy.

6. It is raining.

A compound statement comprises at least two simple statements joined together using a logical
connectives such as:

1. Conjunction (and)

2. Disjunction (or)

3. Implication (if-then)

4. Double implication (only if)

Compound Statement can be:

1. Conjunction statement is written as (P and Q) or symbolised as P ^ Q.

Where P stands for the first statement, ^ stands for "and", and Q stands for the 2nd statement.
Example,

It is sunny (P) and (^) it is hot (Q)

That example can be symbolically represented as P^Q.

2. Disjunction statement is written as (P or Q) or symbolised as P v Q.

Where P stands for the first statement, "v" stands for "or", and Q stands for the 2nd statement.
Example,

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It is sunny (P) or (v) it is hot (Q)

That example can be symbolically represented as PvQ.

3. Conditional statement, known as implication is written as (if P then Q) or symbolically

represented as P Q.

Where P stands for the first statement, if-then stands for "implication" and Q stands for the 2nd
statement. Example,

If it is sunny (P), then it is hot (Q).

That example can be symbolically represented as P Q.

The conditional statement can be transformed into 3

I. Converse: (Q P) - if it is hot, then it is sunny.

II. Inverse: (~P ~Q) - if it is not sunny, then it is not hot.

III. Contrapositive : (~Q ~ P) - if it is not hot, then it is not sunny.

~ P or ¬ P stands for "not P"

~ Q or ¬ Q stands for " not Q"

4. Biconditional statement or double implication is written as (P if and only if Q) or

symbolically represented as P ↔️ Q.

Where P stands for the first statement, "P if and only if Q" stands for "double implications"

and Q stands for the 2nd statement. Example,

It is sunny (P) only if it is hot (Q). It is sunny if and only if it is hot

That example can be symbolically represented as P ↔️Q.

Methods of Deduction/ Deductive Reasoning

Deduction/Deductive Reasoning means

1. Rules of inference

2. Bi-conditionals

3. Quantification theory

Rules of Inference

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Inference means

Rules of Inference include the following:

1. *Modus ponens* is the rule of inference in which the antecedent is affirmed; therefore, it
implies that the consequent is also affirmed. It has the form of

1. If P, then Q

2. P

3. Therefore, Q

Example:

1. If I go to school, then I receive a lecture.

2. I go to school.

3. Therefore, I receive a lecture.

2. *Modus tollens* is the rule of inference in which the consequent is denied; therefore, it
implies the denial of the antecedent. It has the form of:

1. If P, then Q

2. Not Q

3. Therefore, not P

Example:

1. If I go to school, then I receive a lecture.

2. I do not receive a lecture.

3. Therefore, I do not go to school.

3. The rule of *hypothetical syllogism* states that if P R is true whenever P Q is true,

then Q R is true. Syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning where a conclusion is derived
from two premises. It is also known as transitivity. It has the form:

I. P →Q

II. Q→R

III. P→R

Example

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You know my password (p)

You can unlock my phone (q)

You can access my data (r)

Statement 1: If you know my password, then you can unlock my phone (p q)

Statement 2: If you can unlock my phone, then you can access my data (q r).

Conclusion: If you know my password, then you can access my data (p r)

4. Disjunctive Syllogism is a rule of inference which states that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true,
then Q will be true. It can be represented as:

I. P v Q
II. ¬P
III. ⸫ Q
Example:

Statement-1: I will go to school or I will stay at home (P∨Q)

Statement-2: I will not go to school (¬P)

Conclusion: therefore, I will stay at home. (⸫ Q)

5. Addition as a rule of inference states that If P is true, then P∨Q will be true. It can be
represented as:
I. P
II. Q
III. P∨Q
Example:
Statement: I will go to school. (P)
Statement-2: I will stay at home. (Q)

Conclusion: I will go to school or I will stay at home. (P∨Q)

6. Simplification is a rule of inference which states that if P∧Q is true, then Q or P will also be
true. It can be represented as:

I. P∧Q

II. PvQ

Example:

Statement: I will go to school and I receive a lecture. (P∧Q)

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Conclusion: Therefore, I will go to school or I receive a lecture. (P∨Q)

7. Resolution rule states that if P∨Q and ¬ P∨R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It can be
represented as:

I. P∨Q

II. ¬ P∨R

III. Q∨R
Example:

Statement: It is sunny or I use my umbrella. (P∧Q)

Statement: It is not sunny or I drink cold water. (¬ P∨R)

Conclusion: Therefore, I use my umbrella or I drink cold water. (Q∨R)

In conclusion, a valid argument must match any of the rules of inference. However, if it does
not match any of them, such an argument is considered invalid.

Note
All deductive arguments can be either valid or invalid.
All valid deductive arguments can be described as either sound or unsound.
All invalid arguments are unsound
All inductive arguments are invalid; therefore, they are unsound.
Inductive arguments can be strong, weak or none depending on the premise.

Fallacies
Fallacy is a type of argument which appears to be correct but with a thorough examination it
is not so.

Types of fallacy

1. Formal fallacy

2. Informal fallacy

Categories of Informal Fallacy

1. Fallacies of Relevance

2. Fallacies of ambiguity

3. Fallacies of presumption

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Fallacies of Relevance: arises as a result of significance, weight or importance,

psychological/emotional, social factor which influence one’s reasoning, thereby leading to an
erroneous consideration of an argument. The following are forms of fallacies of relevance:

1. Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam)

2. Appeal to emotion (argumentum ad populum)

3. Appeal to authority (argumentum ad verecundiam)

4. Appeal to ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)

5. Appeal to force (argumentum ad baculum)

6. Argument against the man (argumentum ad hominem)

7. Irrelevant conclusion (ignoratio elenchi)

8. Black-or-white fallacy

Fallacies of ambiguity: arises as a result of imprecise or vague use of language. They include

1. Fallacy equivocation

2. Fallacy of division

3. Fallacy of composition

4. Fallacy of assent

5. Fallacy of amphiboly

Fallacies of presumption: arises as a result of an implicit supposition of some other

proposition or statement that its truth is not certain. The following are fallacies of resumption:

1. Fallacy of accident

2. Converse accident

3. False cause

a. Non cause pro cause: occurs when you mistake what is not the cause of a given effect
for its real cause

b. Post hoc ergo propter hoc: “occurs when you say that one event is the cause of another
from the mere fact that the first event occurred earlier and immediately before the
second” event

4. Beginning the question (petitio principii)

5. Complex question

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Meaning of Law of Tort

Tort was derived from the Latin word "tortus" which means "twisted". It was then used to mean
"wrong". Tort is mainly meant to protect interests and compensate wrongs, injuries or damage.
The law is made to protect personal and property interests from being harmed or damaged by
other people or party. The law is essential because tortuous acts occur in our daily life. Even
when a person interferes with the interest of another person, without any legal justification or
excuse, the law of tort still holds and intervenes when there's a tortuous act, and apportion
blame and remedies accordingly. Tort is considered as a civil as well as legal wrong.

Law of torts is part of civil law that protects and compensates party or people that have been
injured by the negligence, recklessness or intentional acts of wrongdoers. When someone
unjustifiably interferes with the right of another person, such a person has committed a tortuous
act and such a person is called a *tortfeasor* . When a person breaches a civil duty imposed by
law towards all persons, such a person has committed a tortuous act.

Aims of Law of Tort

1. It is to restore the plaintiff to his or her position or state before the wrong or accident.

2. It is to prohibit wrongdoing

3. It is to ensure that parties/people are not negligent or carefree in their relationship with others.

4. It is not meant to punish wrongdoers for the interest of the public but to compensate the
plaintiff for the damage he suffered due to the defendant's wrongful conduct.

Damages persons suffer from other persons include:

1. Physical injury to person

2. Physical damage to property

3. Injury to reputation

4. Damage to economic interests

Areas covered by the law of tort or Tortuous Acts include:

1.Trespass to person, that is, assault, battery and false imprisonment.

2.Malicious prosecution

3.Trespass to chattel, that is, conversion and detinue

4.Trespass to land

5. Negligence

6.Nuisance

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7.The Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher (strict liability)

8.Liability for animals

9.Vicarious liability

10.Occupier’s liability

11.Defamation

12.Deceit

13.Passing off

14.Economic torts, such as, injurious falsehood, interference with contract, etc. (NOUN, 2019).

Steps

1. The wrong must be tortuous. The law must regard the wrong as tortuous act

2. The plaintiff must prove that the defendant has committed a tort.

Redressing or Civil Remedies for Tortuous Acts

The breach of tort law is usually redressed by an award of:

1. Unliquidated damages

2. Injunction

3. Other appropriate civil remedy

The remedy is basically monetary compensation.

Difference between Criminal and Tortuous Acts

"There are in addition several examples of conduct which are both criminal and tortuous. If A
steals B’s bicycle, he will be guilty of stealing (a criminal offence, see sections 382-388 of the
Criminal Code and sections 286-290 of the Penal Code), and at the same time be liable to B
for the tort of conversion. Again, if A wilfully damages B’s goods, he is liable for the crime of
malicious damage to property (see section 451 of the Criminal Code and section 326 of the
Penal Code) and for the tort of trespass to chattels. The effect in such cases is that the civil and
criminal remedies are not alternative but concurrent, each being independent of the other. The
wrongdoer may be punished by imprisonment or fine and he may also be compelled in a civil
action for tort to pay damages to the injured person by way of compensation." (NOUN, 2019)

Difference between Tortuous and Contractual laws

A contract is a binding agreement between two or more persons. The main distinction between
tort and contract is that in tort the duties of the parties are primarily fixed by law, whereas in
contract they are fixed by the parties themselves. In other words, contractual duties arise from

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agreement between the parties; tortuous duties are created by operation of law independently
of the consent of the parties. However, parties to a contract are also subject to those underlying
rules and principles of contract which the law imposes on them.

Objectives of the law of tort

According to NOUN (2019), Objectives of the law of tort can be summarized as follows:

1. Compensation: The tort is to provide a means for compensating victims of injury and
loss.

2. Protection of interests: The tort law protects a person’s interests in property, in his or
her reputation and bodily integrity. For example, the tort of nuisance protects a person’s
use or enjoyment of land, the tort of defamation protects his or her reputation, and the
tort of negligence protects the breaches of more general duties owed to that person.

3. Deterrence: the rules of tort have a deterrent effect, encouraging people to take fewer
risks and to conduct their activities more carefully, mindful of their possible effects on
other people and their property.

4. Retribution: People harmed are sometimes anxious to have a day in court in order to
see the perpetrator of their suffering squirm or put to book under cross-examination.

5. Vindication: Tort provides the means whereby a person who regards himself or herself
as innocent in a dispute can be vindicated by being declared publicly to be ‘in the right’
by a court. However, again it must be noted that many cases never actually come before
a court and the opportunity for satisfaction does not arise.

6. Loss distribution: Tort law is a means of distributing losses suffered as a result of

wrongful activities. "In this context loss means the cost of compensating for harm
suffered. This means redistribution of the cost from the claimant who has been injured
to the defendant, or in most cases the defendant’s insurance company. Ultimately,
everyone paying insurance or buying goods at a higher price to cover insurance
payments will bear the cost. The process is not easily undertaken and it involves
considerable administrative expenses which are reflected in the cost of the tort system
itself".

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