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Book Art World - Howard S Becker Art Worlds
Book Art World - Howard S Becker Art Worlds
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December 31, 1982
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H OW ARD S. B6CK6R
ART WORLDS
Works of art are produced by cooperation. The
creating artist works with a network of suppliers
of materials, distributors of art works, fellow'
artists, and with critics, theorists, and audiences.
These contributing individuals and organiza
tions together constitute an art world. And the
very existence of this art world gives artists the
opportunity and means to make art. How is this
cooperation possible? In what w'ays do works of
art show the effects of having been made
collectively?
In this most unusual book, noted sociologist
Howard Becker draws examples from music,
drama, dance, literature, film, and the visual arts.
Among his findings is that much work ev en
tually recognized as art has its beginnings apart
from the cooperative nurturing of an art world.
He cites such outsiders as composer Charles
Ives, sculptor Simon Rodia, and quiltmakers as
artists whose work did not receive recognition
until a suitable art world existed to foster them.
Sociologists, critics and analysts of the several
arts, and working artists will find herein a clari
fication of the role of well-know n observations
about the cooperative character of art work. The
analysis clarifies problems in aesthetics and crit
icism and provides a model for the analysis of
other social worlds.
T h is On©
SEAX-ARP-6X6G
SEAX-ARP-6X6G
HOWARD S. 86CKLR
ART WORLDS
UNIVBRSITV OF CRUFORNIR PR6SS
Berkeley ♦Los Rngeles ♦London
University o f California Press
B erkeley a n d Los Angeles, C alifornia
U niversity o f C alifornia Press, Ltd.
L o n d o n , E n g la n d
© 1982 by
T h e R e g e n ts of th e U niversity o f California
P rin te d in th e U nited S ta te s o f A m erica
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B ibliography: p.
In c lu d e s index.
1. Arts a n d society. 2. P o p u la r culture.
3. Arts—Psychology. 1. Title.
NX180.S6B42 700'.1'03 81-2694
ISBN 0-520-04386-3 AACR2
Contents
List of Illustrations vi
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xii
1 Art W orlds a n d Collective Activity 1
2 C onventions 40
3 Mobilizing R esources 68
4 Distributing Art W orks 93
5 Aesthetics, Aestheticians, a n d Critics 131
6 Art a n d the S tate 165
7 E diting 192
8 In te g ra te d Professionals, Mavericks, Folk Artists,
a n d N aive Artists 226
9 Arts a n d Crafts 272
10 C h an g e in Art W orlds 300
11 R e p u ta tio n 351
Bibliography 373
Index 385
v
Illustrations
vi
vii ♦ I L L U S T R A T I O N S
ix
X ♦ P R E F AC E
1
2 * ART W O R L D S AND C O L L E C T I V E A C T I V I T Y
ART AS ACTIVITY
Think of all the activities th a t m u st be carried o u t for any
w o rk of a rt to a p p e a r as it finally does. F or a sy m p h o n y
o rc h e s tra to give a concert, for instance, in s tru m e n ts m u s t
have been invented, m a n u fa c tu re d , a n d m ain tain ed , a n o ta
tion m u s t have b e en devised a n d m usic c o m p o se d using th a t
notation, people m u st have learn e d to play the n o ta te d notes
on the in s tru m e n ts, tim es a n d places for re h e a rsa l m u s t have
been provided, ad s for the c o n ce rt m u st have been placed,
publicity m u s t have been a rra n g e d a n d tickets sold, a n d an
a u d ien c e c a p a b le of listening to a n d in so m e w ay u n d e r
s ta n d in g a n d re sp o n d in g to the p e rfo rm a n c e m u st have been
recruited. A sim ilar list can be com piled fo r a n y of the p e r
form ing arts. W ith m in o r variations (substitute m a terials for
in s tru m e n ts a n d exhibition for p erfo rm an ce), the list applies
to the visual a n d (su b stituting language a n d p rin t for m a t e
rials a n d pu b licatio n for exhibition) literary arts.
The list of things th a t m u st be d o n e varies, naturally, from
one m e d iu m to a n o th er, b u t we can provisionally list the
kinds of activities th a t m u st be p erfo rm e d . To begin, s o m e
one m u s t h a v e a n idea of w h a t kind of w ork is to be m a d e
a n d of its specific form . The originators m a y get th a t idea
long b efo re actually m a k in g the work, o r the idea m a y arise
in the p ro c e ss of working. The idea m ay be brilliant a n d
original, p ro fo u n d a n d moving, o r trivial a n d banal, for
all practical p u rp o s e s indistinguishable from th o u s a n d s of
o th e r ideas p ro d u c e d by o th e rs equally u n ta le n te d o r u n in
terested in w h a t they are doing. P ro d u cin g the idea m ay
require e n o rm o u s effort a n d c o n c e n tratio n ; it m a y co m e as a
gift, o u t of the blue; o r it m ay be p ro d u c e d routinely, by the
m a n ip u la tio n of w ell-known form ulas. The way the w ork is
p r o d u c e d b e a rs no necessary relationship to its quality.
E very w ay of p ro d u c in g art w o rk s for so m e people a n d not
for others; every w ay of p ro d u c in g a rt p ro d u c e s w o rk of
every conceivable g ra d e of quality, h o w ev e r that is defined.
3 ♦ A R T W O R L D S AND C O U . E C T I V E ACTI V IT Y
T H E DIVISION OF LABOR
CHART 1
H U RRICANE, T echnical C redits
D ire c te d by J a n Troell
P r o d u c e d by Dino d e L a u ren tiis
S c r e e n p la y by L o ren zo S em p le, Jr.
B ase d o n th e novel H urricane by C harles N o r d h o ff a n d
J a m e s N o r m a n Hall
E x e cu tiv e P r o d u c e r L o re n z o S em p le, Jr.
D irec to r o f P h o to g r a p h y S v e n Nykvist, A.S.C.
M usic c o m p o s e d by N ino R o ta
Film E d ito r S a m O 'S te e n
P r o d u c tio n , C o s tu m e s a n d Sets d e s ig n e d by D anilo Donati
S e c o n d Unit D irector F r a n k Clark
1st a s s is ta n t d ire c to r Jo se L op ez R o d e ro
2 n d a s s is ta n t d ire c to r F re d Viannellis
3rd a s s is ta n t d ire c to r Ginette A n g o sse L o p e z
A ssistant to d ire c to r G eorge O d d n e r
S e c o n d unit a s s is ta n t d ire c to r G iovanni Soldati
S e c o n d u n it a s s is ta n t m a n a g e r G o r a n S e tte rb e r g
C am era operator Edw ard L achm an
S e c o n d unit & U n d e r w a t e r c a m e r a o p e r a t o r Sergio M artinelli
F o c u s p u ller L ars K arlsso n
S e c o n d u n it fo cu s p u lle r S ergio M elaranci
Loader D an M y h r m a n
C am era m echanic G e r h a r d H e n ts c h e l
G affer Alfio A m b rog i
S pecial effects Glen R o b in s o n
Aldo Puccini
Joe Day
S p e cial eff ects c re w Jack Sam pson
R a y m o n d R o b in s o n
J o e B e rn a rd i
W a v n e R ose
C o n s tru c tio n M a n a g e r Aldo Puccini
T ec h n ic a l A ssist a n c e in t h e C o n s t r u c t io n
o f t h e T a n k a n d V illa L a l iq u e
C.G.E.E. A l s t h o m - P a t e e t e
U n d er t h e S uperv isio n of M ichel S trebel
C horeographer Coco
T e c h n ic a l c o n s u lta n t Milton F o r m a n
Art d i r e c to r Giorgio Postiglione
I llu s t r a t o r M e n to r H u e b n e r
9 ♦ ART W O R L D S AND C O L L E C T I V E A C T I V I T Y
M a k e -u p artist M a ss im o d e Rossi
A ssistan t m a k e - u p A d o n ellad e Rossi
S c r ip t s u p e rv is o r Nikki C lap p
H a i r stylist E n n io M arroni
P ro p s G eo rg e H a m ilto n
W ardrobe F r a n c o Antonelli
S o u n d m ix e r L a urie Clarkson
Boom m en J o h n S te v e n so n
J o h n Pitt
Key grip M ario Stella
S t u n t c o - o r d in a to r Miguel P e d re g o sa
S tuntm en P ab lo G arcia
R o m a n A riz n a v a rre ta
Still P h o t o g r a p h e r F ran k C o n n e r
S pecial Stills Alfonso Avincola
U nit publicist T o m G ray
D ialogue c o a c h N o r m a n S c h w a r tz
A ssistant film e d i t o r B o b b ie Di
P ro d u c tio n A u dito r Brian G ibbs
A ssistant A u d ito r Rex Saluz
C ra n e O p e r a t o r D an H oge
C a s tin g bv M cL ean/E bbins/M ansou
L o c a l C astin g a n d D ialogue C oach J o h n A larim o
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colour the panel at his own expense with good colours and
with powdered gold on such ornaments as demand it .. . and
the blue must be ultramarine ol the value about four florins
the o u n c e .. . . (Quoted in Baxandall, 1972, p. 6)
This resem b les the c o n tra c t one m ight m a k e with a builder,
specifying the quality of steel a n d c o n cre te to be used.
At the s a m e time, o r even earlier, so m e clients w ere sp eci
fying m a terials less a n d skill m ore. Thus, a c o n tra c t in 1445,
b e tw e e n Piero della F ra n c e s c a a n d a n o th e r ecclesiastical
client, while it did not fail to specify gold a n d u ltra m a rin e ,
p u t a g re a te r e m p h a s is on the value of the p a in te r's skill,
insisting th a t “ no p a in te r m ay put his h a n d to the b ru sh o th e r
th a n Piero him self" (Q uoted in B axandall, 1972, p. 20.).
A n o th er c o n tra c t w as m o re detailed:
The said master Luca is bound and promises to paint (1) all
the figures to be done on the said vault, and (2) especially the
faces a n d all th e pa rts o f the figures f r o m the m id d le o f each
fig u re u p w a r d s , and (3) that no painting should be done on
it without Luca himself being present. . . . And it is agreed
(4) that all the mixing of colours should be done by the
said master Luca himself. . . . (Quoted in Baxandall, 1972,
p. 23)
This is a very different kind of co n tract. H ere the client w ants
16 ♦ A R T W O R L D S A N D C O L L E C T I V E A C T I V I T Y
Trollope concluded:
It is a matter of course that in all things the public should trust
to established reputation. It is as natural that a novel reader
wanting novels should send to a library for those by George
Eliot or Wilkie Collins, as that a lady when she wants a pie
should go to Fortnum and Mason. Fortnum and Mason can
only make themselves Fortnum and Mason by dint of time
and good pies combined. If Titian were to send us a portrait
from the other world . . . it would be some time before the art
critic of The Times would discover its value. We may sneer at
the want of judgment thus displayed, but such slowness of
judgment is human and has always existed. I say all this here
because my thoughts on the matter have forced upon me the
conviction that very much consideration is due to the bitter
feelings of disappointed authors. (Trollope, 1947, p. 172)
COOPERATIVE LIN K S
W h a te v e r the artist, defined as the p e rso n w h o p e rfo rm s
th e core activity w ith o u t w h ich the w ork w ould not be art,
25 ♦ A R T W O R L 1) S A N D C 0 L L E C T I V E A C T ! V I T Y
r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r
w ho
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CON VENTIO NS
P ro d u cin g a rt w o rk s re q u ire s e la b o ra te co o p eratio n
a m o n g specialized personnel. H o w do they arrive at the
29 ♦ A R T W O R L D S A N D C O L L E C T I V E AC T I V I T Y
ART W O RLDS
Art w orlds consist of all the people w'hose activities are
necessary to the p ro d u c tio n of the characteristic w orks
w hich th a t world, a n d p e r h a p s o th e rs as well, define as art.
M em b ers o f a rt w orlds c o o rd in a te the activities by which
w o rk is p ro d u c e d by referring to a body of conventional
u n d e rs ta n d in g s e m b o d ie d in c o m m o n practice a n d in fre
q u en tly used artifacts. The s a m e people often c o o p e ra te re
peatedly, even routinely, in sim ilar w ays to p ro d u c e sim ilar
w orks, so th a t we can think of an a rt w orld as a n established
3 5 ♦ A R T W O R L D S A N D C O L L E C T ! V F. A C T I V I T Y
40
41 ♦ C O N V E N T I O N S
i?JT7Tnn
68
69 ♦ M O B I L I Z I N G R E S O U R C E S
M ATERIAL R E SO U R C E S
PERSONNEL
It is unfeeling to sp eak of the people w h o c o o p era te in the
p ro d u c tio n of a rt w orks as “p e rs o n n e l” or, w o rse yet, “s u p
port p e rso n n e l,” b u t th a t accu rately reflects their im p o rta n c e
in the c o n v en tio n al a rt w orld view. In th a t view, the p erso n
w h o d o e s the “real w o rk ,” m a k in g the choices that give the
w ork its artistic im p o rta n c e a n d integrity, is the artist, w ho
m ay be a n y of a n u m b e r of people involved in its p ro d u c tio n ;
e v ery o n e else's jo b is to assist the artist. I do not a c c e p t the
view o f the relative im p o rta n c e of the “p e rs o n n e l” involved
th a t the te rm co n notes, b u t I use it to e m p h a siz e th a t it is the
c o m m o n view in a rt worlds.
It is e v en useful to c a rry the d e h u m a n iz a tio n o f artistic
s u p p o r t p e rso n n e l one step f u rth e r a n d think o f th e m as
resources, a sse m b le d in re so u rc e pools like m aterial re
sources, a n d ask how su ch pools arc a sse m b le d a n d h o w the
people in th e m get c o n n e c te d to p a rtic u la r art p ro je cts in a
s u p p o r t role.
The people w h o m ak e up a pool of potential p e rso n n e l for
art p ro je cts b e lo n g to th a t pool b e c a u se they c a n do som e
specialized task re q u ire d in the m ak in g o f the art w o rk s in
q u e stio n a n d they m a k e th em selves available to do it. The
n u m b e r s a n d kinds of people a n d the conventional te rm s on
w h ich they m a k e th em selv es available differ fro m m e d iu m
to m e d iu m a n d place to place. The B ro a d w a y th e a te r w orld
has available to it p e r h a p s ten tim es as m a n y (or m ore)
p eo p le w ith extensive d ra m a tic training, w h o could p e rfo rm
a d e q u a te ly in a variety of roles a n d vehicles, th a n are a c
tually w o rking as a cto rs at any given time. On th e o th e r han d ,
few people have the o d d c o m b in a tio n of skills called for in
m a k in g theatrical props, a n d even fewer m a k e them selves
available fo r theatrical work. T h ere will usually be an o v e r
su p p ly of people for the roles th o u g h t to c o n tain som e ele
m e n t of the “a rtistic ”—in th eater, th a t includes playw rights,
actors, a n d d ire c to rs —a n d a s h o rt supply o f people with
technical skills to do s u p p o rt w ork th a t does not s h a re in that
c h arism a . M ore p eo p le w a n t to w rite novels th a n design
th e m for the printer, be great m usical p e rfo rm e rs th a n repair
in stru m e n ts, d ra w on lithographic stones th a n print from
them .
78 ♦ M O B I L I Z I N G RESOURCES
Dore is young. He has not had this job very long. I felt I
must encourage him or else he would feel stifled. It would
have been so easy to say no to him. Instead, I said yes. I
figured I would write it ofT to experience. You can buy almost
anything, but you can't buy experience.
How else was I going to teach Dore? I supported Dore. I let
him make the picture. I knew that the best way to help him
was to let him make a mistake. Now he will know better. A
86 ♦ M O B I L I Z I N G RESOURCES
!
4 ♦Distributing Art Works
93
94 ♦ D I S T R I B U T I N G ART W O R K S
SE L F -SU P PO R T
M any a rt w orlds—for exam ple, c o n te m p o ra ry poetry a n d
p h o to g ra p h y , for m o st of their p a rtic ip a n ts —p ro d u c e so little
in c o m e for th e ir p ra c titio n e rs th a t m o st w ork is p ro d u c e d
th ro u g h a system of self-support. Artists w h o lack su b sta n tia l
financial reso u rces c a n n o t do w o rk w hich requires costly
m aterials, e q u ip m e n t, personnel, or space. M edia like poetry
a n d p h o to g ra p h y , req u irin g relatively small investm ents,
th u s a ttra c t m a n y practitioners. T h a t m a k e s it even m o re
difficult fo r a n y one of th e m to s u p p o r t full-time artistic
activity on the p ro c e e d s from a rt w ork itself. Most artists in
these m edia, then, provide their ow n s u p p o rt from som e
source ou tsid e th e w orkings of the art w orld o r tan g en tial to
the a ctu al creation of a rt works. S o m e artists have been
96 ♦ D I S T R I B U T I N G A R T W O R K S
First I put the washes on all of the canvases. Then I do all the
backgrounds. Then 1 spend about two hours on each one,
putting in ail the details and the foreground. (McCall, 1977,
p. 38)
PATRONAGE
PUBLIC SALE
U n d e r this kind o f system , artists m a k e w o rk s which are
sold o r d is trib u te d publicly. Typically, professional in te rm e
diaries o p e ra te o rg an izatio n s w hich sell w o rk s o r tickets to
p e r f o rm a n c e s to a n y o n e with the m o n e y to buy them . S om e
relatively sim ple s ta te m e n ts suggest the basic w orkings of
public-sale system s. (1) Effective d e m a n d is g e n e ra te d by
people w h o will s p e n d m o n e y for art. (2) W hat they d e m a n d
is w h a t they have learn ed to enjoy a n d w ant, a n d th a t is a
re su lt o f their e d u c a tio n a n d experience. (3) Price varies with
d e m a n d a n d quantity. (4) The w orks the system h a n d le s are
th o se it can d istrib u te effectively e n o u g h to stay in o p eratio n .
(5) E n o u g h artists will p ro d u c e w orks the system can effec
tively d istrib u te that it c a n c o n tin u e to o p erate. (6) Artists
w h o se w ork the d istrib u tio n system c a n n o t o r will not h a n d le
find o th e r m e a n s of distribution; alternatively, their w ork
achieves m inim al o r no distribution.
We can apply the th re e criteria p ain ters applied to p a tro n s
to public-sale system s. W h at kind of financial su p p o rt do
they provide for people m a k in g art w orks? H ow do they
108 ♦ D I S T R I B U T I N G ART W O R K S
Dealers
H askell (1963) a n d H a r r is o n a n d Cynthia W hite (1965)
d e sc rib e the shift from system s of p a tro n a g e to sy stem s
d o m in a te d by dealers, galleries, a n d critics. In eighteenth-
a n d n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry Italy a n d France, large n u m b e rs of
w ea lth y m e rc h a n ts a n d o th e r business people b e c a m e in te r
ested in a cq u irin g paintings for their ow n e n jo y m e n t a n d as
!
109 ♦ D I S T R I B U T I N G A R T W O R K S
Im presarios
Since the p e rfo rm in g a rts do not p ro d u c e o b je cts w hich
can be stored, exhibited, a n d sold, they d istrib u te art differ
ently from gallery system s. They resem ble th e m in th a t an
e n tr e p r e n e u r invests time, m oney, a n d energy in assem bling
m a te ria ls a n d bringing th e m to potential au diences. They
differ in selling the a u d ie n c e not objects, but tickets to see
s o m e th in g done. O bjects c a n be sold a fter potential buyers
see th e m ; p e rfo rm a n c e s m u s t be presold. The im p re sario
u n d e rta k e s to sell e n o u g h tickets for the p e rfo rm a n c e to
bring profit to him a n d a living to the p e rfo rm in g artists (or at
least a n in co m e sufficient to allow m o re w ork to be done) a n d
to c re a te an a u d ie n c e w hich will a p p re c ia te the w ork a n d
re w a rd the artists w ith a n increased reputation.
Im p re s a rio s u n d e rta k e to do w h a te v e r is n e ce ssary to
g a th e r an a u d ie n c e in a n a p p ro p ria te place for the p e rfo r
m a n c e to o ccur. They ren t the space the p e rfo rm a n c e will
ta k e place in, do the necessary advertising, sell tickets, h a n
dle finances, a n d m a k e su re th a t necessary auxiliary p e rs o n
nel (e.g., te ch n ic ia n s a n d ushers) are there. They typically
120 ♦ D I S T R I B U T I N G A R T W O R K S
Culture Industries
Paul H irsch (1972) used the term culture industries to refer
to "profit-seeking firms p ro d u c in g cu ltural p ro d u c ts for
national [we could a d d " in te rn a tio n a l"] d istrib u tio n " a n d
sp oke also of "th e cu ltural in d u stry system , c o m p rise d of all
o rg an iza tio n s en g ag e d in the process of filtering new p r o d
ucts a n d ideas as they flow from ‘creativ e’ p e rso n n e l in the
technical s u b sy s te m to the m anagerial, institutional a n d so
cietal levels o f org an izatio n " (p. 642). To p a r a p h r a s e his a n
123 ♦ D I S T R I B U T I N G ART W O R K S
A E S T H E T IC S AS ACTIVITY
A estheticians s tu d y the p rem ises and a rg u m e n ts people
use to justify classifying things a n d activities as " b e a u t i f u l / ’
"artistic," "art," "not art," "good art," " b a d art," a n d so on.
They c o n s tru c t sy ste m s with w hich to m ak e a n d justify both
the classifications a n d specific in stances of their application.
Critics apply aesth etic sy stem s to specific art w orks a n d a r
rive at ju d g m e n ts of th e ir w o rth a n d explications of w hat
gives th e m that w orth. Those ju d g m e n ts p ro d u c e r e p u ta
tions for w o rk s a n d artists. D istributors a n d au d ien c e
m e m b e r s take re p u ta tio n s into a c c o u n t w h e n they decide
w h a t to s u p p o rt em otionally a n d financially, a n d that affects
the re so u rc e s available to artists to co n tin u e th e ir work.
To talk this way describes aesthetics as an activity ra th e r
th a n a b o d y of doctrine. A estheticians are not the only people
w h o engage in this activity. Most p a rtic ip a n ts in art w orlds
m a k e aesth etic ju d g m e n ts frequently. Aesthetic principles,
a rg u m e n ts, a n d ju d g m e n ts m a k e up an im p o rta n t p art of the
b o d y of c o n v e n tio n s by m e a n s of w hich m e m b e rs of art
w orlds act together. C reating an explicit aesthetic m a y p re
cede, follow, o r be s im u lta n e o u s with developing the tech-
131
132* A E S T H E T I C S , A E S T H E T I C I A N S , AND C R I T I C S
P r ic e s o f A d m is s io n A r e a s U s u a l .
T h e B e g i n n i n g Is at H alf -P ast 6 O ’c l o c k .
137 ♦ A E S T H E T I C S , A E S T H E T I C I A N S , A N D C R I T I C S
A E S T H E T IC S AND ORGANIZATION
The rest o f w h a t aesth etician s a n d critics do is to provide a
ru n n in g revision of the value-creating theory which, in the
fo rm of criticism , c o n tin u o u sly a d a p ts the p rem ises of the
138 ♦ A E S T H E T I C S , A E S T H E T I C I A N S , AND C R I T I C S
You may submit photographs to be considered for one person shows or as part of the group
exhibit Since the photographs will be placed in the interior advertising s pa ce of the buses there
are certain size requirements, and in the case of one person shows, a specific number of photo
graphs are needed to fill the available spaces. If you are submitting for group exhibition, send us
any number of photographs in any of the size categories. For one person shows, you must submit
the exact number of photographs need ed to fill a bus. m each of the size categories The size
requirements and number of photographs for each bus is as follows 14 photographs with an
image height of 9 inches, one horizontal photograph with an image height ot 13 inches; two verti
cals with an image height of 16 inches Photographs not accepted for one person shows will auto
matically be juried as part of the group exhibition
All work must be unmounted and untrimmed Remember to submit duplicate prints of each
photograph Work not accepted will be returned if postage is included On the back of ea ch print
write your name the picture's title, and the rights you grant to the Library of Congress Enclosea
3" x 5" file card with your name, address, and phone number Mat! prints to Bus Show, Photog
raphy Department Pratt Institute. Brooklyn, New York 11?05 For information call (212)
6 3 6 3573 The deadline for submission is March 1. 1975
This exhibition is m ad e possible with support from the New York State Council on the Arts
Poster ‘ 1975 by Pratl Institute Photograph by Bill Arnold
FIGURE 14. Poster advertising The Bus Show. The Bus Show,
organized by Bill Arnold in 1975, proposed to exhibit 8,500 contem
porary photographs o f high artistic quality in the advertising spaces
on New York City buses. Arnold gathered material for the show by
advertising to art photographers. (Courtesy Bill Arnold.)
141 ♦ A E S T H E T I C S , A E S T H E T I C I A N S , AND C R I T I C S
FIGURE 17. Andy Warhol, Brillo. Pop Art works provoked the
criticism that anyone could have done them, that they did not re
quire or embody the special gifts o f the artist. (Photograph courtesy
o f the Castelli Archives.)
W ho?
W ho can c o n fe r on so m eth in g the statu s of c a n d id a te for
app reciatio n , a n d thus ratify it as art? W ho can act on b e h alf
of th a t social institution, the a rt world? Dickie settles this
q u e stio n boldly. H e describes the art w orld as h aving core
personnel w h o can act on its behalf:
A loosely organized, but nevertheless related, set of persons
including artists . . . , producers, museum directors, mu-
seum-goers, thcater-goers, reporters for newspapers, critics
for publications of all sorts, art historians, art theorists, phil
osophers of art, and others. These are the people who keep
the machinery of the artworld working and thereby provide
for its continuing existence. (Dickie, 1975, pp. 35-36)
W hat?
W h at c h aracteristics m u st an o b ject have to be a w ork of
art? The institutional th eo ry suggests th a t an y th in g m ay be
c ap a b le o f being ap p rec iated . In fact, in response to a critic
w h o says th a t so m e o b je c ts—-“o rd in a ry th u m b ta c k s , c h ea p
w hite envelopes, the plastic forks given at som e drive-in
re s ta u ra n ts '—ju st c a n n o t be a p p re c ia te d (Cohen, 1973, p. 78),
Dickie says:
H o w M uch?
A estheticians, b o th the institutionalists a n d their critics,
w orry a b o u t the effect of aesth etic theorizing on artists a n d
a rt w orlds. They fear, for instance, th a t a too-restrictive
aesth etic theory w ould unn ecessarily d ep ress artists a n d
m ig h t u n d u ly constrict their creativity. This o v erestim ates
the degree to w h ich a rt w orlds tak e their direction from
aesthetic theorizing; the influence usually ru n s in the o th e r
direction. But the institutionalists d ra w one im p o rta n t im
plication from their analysis: if practicing artists w a n t their
w o rk a c c e p te d as art, they will have to p e rs u a d e the a p p r o
priate p eo p le to certify it as art. (While the basic institutional
analysis suggests th a t a n y o n e can do that, in practice these
theorists a c c e p t the existing a rt w orld as the o n e w hich has to
be p e rs u a d e d to d o the job.) But if a rt is w h a t a n a rt w orld
ratifies as art, a n alternative exists, one analyzed in m o re
detail in a later c h a p te r, the strategy of organizing de novo an
art w orld w hich will ratify as a rt w h a t one p ro d u ces. In fact,
the strategy h a s been used often a n d with co n sid erab le s u c
cess. M any m o re people have tried it a n d failed, but th a t
d o e s n ’t m e a n it is not a re a so n a b le possibility.
157 ♦ A E S T H E T I C S , A E S T H E T I C I A N S , A N D C R I T I C S
H o w M anv?
N either Dickie n o r D anto is very clear as to how m a n y art
w orlds there are. Dickie says:
165
166 ♦ A R T A N D T I I E S T A T E
PROPERTY
Many, b u t not all, societies treat art as a c o m m o d ity w hich
can be b o u g h t a n d sold like any o th e r co m m o d ity . Artists
a n d business p eo p le c o lla b o ra te —as we have seen, often u n
willingly a n d with great m u tu a l m istru st—to p ro d u c e o b je cts
a n d e v en ts w hich can be m a rk e te d , sold, a n d distributed
u n d e r the laws the state p rovides for the regulation of such
activities. In m ak in g a n d en fo rcin g these laws, the state dis
plays no p a rtic u la r interest in w o rk s of art as such. Its c o n
cern, ra th er, lies in creating the co n ditions for ro u tin e e c o
nom ic activity, a rt sim ply being o n e of the c o m m o d ities
tra d e d .
The law conceives a n d treats p ro p e rty as a b u n d le of
rights. The rights of the o w n e r of a piece of p ro p e rty vary
d e p e n d in g on the kind of p ro p e rty it is. Art w o rk s similarly
vary in the w ay the law d istrib u tes rights in th e m to the
several categories of people involved in their production.
The basic p ro p e rty right is a m o n o p o ly over the physical
possession of th e object. Artists w h o p ro d u c e objects, like
visual artists, typically sell the right to physical possession of
a u n iq u e o r s e m iu n iq u e object: a painting, scu lpture, o r one
of a lim ited n u m b e r o f prin ts o r p h o to g ra p h s. The p u rc h a s e r
(or recipient of a gift) retain s possession a n d m a y sell o r give
the right of possession to a n o th e r p e rso n o r to an institution.
S o m e o b je c ts do not have that kind of u n iq u e value. A
p rin te d copy of a book has lim ited value (unless it is a scarce
copy of an originally sm all edition); the w o rk 's value resides
in the w o rd s, n o t the physical o b je ct they h a p p e n to be
e m b o d ie d in. (A literary w ork in the a u t h o r ’s ow n han d , su ch
th a t th e calligraphy is an intrinsic p a rt of it, w ould be unique;
b u t even su ch w orks can be a n d are re p ro d u c e d , so th a t
m a n y p e o p le can ow n copies of them .) W hen you buy a book
168 ♦ A RT AND THE STATE
Even though all states have enacted penal statutes that pro
hibit forgery, such statutes do not deal specifically with the
creation or marketing of false paintings. The California stat
ute is typical: anyone who signs the name of another with
fraudulent intent or attempts to pass as genuine any forged
writings is guilty of forgery. The statute deals primarily with
forgery of writings or instruments such as checks or bank
notes, while forged paintings are not mentioned. Even if the
statute were amended to include paintings, numerous alter
natives for faking paintings are left uncovered. (Bauman,
1972, p . 940)
sonal lovaltv
%/ w and the value of one’s word, much more than the
NUISANCE
T he sta te also c o o p e ra te s in the p ro d u c tio n o f w orks o f art
w h e n it intervenes on b e h alf of n o n a rtists w h o claim th a t
artists' w ork is interfering w ith so m e right of theirs. In this
case, as in the creatio n a n d e n fo rc e m e n t of laws governing
p ro p e rty rights, the state has no direct interest in the w orks
17 7 ♦ A R T A N D T H E S T A T E
IN TER V EN TIO N
The state, finally, affects w h a t artists do a n d p ro d u c e by
directly in tervening in th e ir activities. In te rv e n tio n takes
v arious form s: o p e n su p p o rt, censorship, a n d suppression.
In this case, the state acts in b e h a lf of its ow n interests, taking
actions designed to fu rth e r those cau ses a n d activities its
agents th in k crucial or im p o rta n t for its a n d th e ir survival
a n d well-being. To be sure, these activities are often legiti
m a te d by referen ce to the general welfare, as are all g o v e rn
m e n t activities, b u t they are n o t u n d e rta k e n , as are the activ
ities ju s t discussed, on b e h alf of so m e citizen w h o invokes
the p o w e r of the state to en force the rules of th e g a m e in his
interest. The state acts becau se it has interests of its own.
The in terests the state p u rs u e s th ro u g h its intervention in
th e arts have to do w ith the p re se rv a tio n of public o rd e r—the
arts being seen as c ap a b le b o th o f stre n g th e n in g a n d of
s u b v e rtin g o rd e r—a n d with the d e v elo p m e n t of a national
culture, seen as a good in itself a n d as s o m e th in g w hich
p ro m o te s n a tio n a l unity ("o u r heritage") a n d the n atio n 's
re p u ta tio n a m o n g o th e r nations.
The state p u rs u e s its interests by giving o r w ithholding the
form s of s u p p o rt artists n e ed a n d d e p e n d on w hich the state
c a n influence. Since artists can buy m u c h o f w h a t they need
if th e y have the m oney, the sta te can influence the w ork they
do by m a k in g fu n d s available for so m e kinds of w ork b u t not
for others. T he state c a n also influence o th e r things artists
need. Access to d istrib u tio n c h an n e ls m ay be co ntrolled by
181 ♦ A R T A N D T H E S T AT E
Support
G o v e rn m e n ts m ay re g a rd the arts, so m e o r all of them , as
integral p a rts of the n a tio n ’s identity, things it is know n fo r as
Italy is k n o w n for opera, a n d subsidize th e m as they w ould
any im p o r ta n t fe a tu re of th e national cu ltu re th a t could not
s u p p o r t itself. T hey m a y re g a rd the arts as a positive force in
n a tio n a l life, a force w hich s u p p o rts social order, mobilizes
the p o p u la tio n for desirable n a tio n a l goals, a n d diverts p e o
ple fro m socially u n d e sira b le activities (m an y g o v e rn m e n ts
clearly believe in the circus p a r t of the b re ad -a n d -c irc u se s
th e o ry o f g o v e rn m en t). G o v e rn m e n t s u p p o rt o f the arts often
m e a n s p re se rv in g in m u s e u m s w h a t has a lre a d y been done;
th a t im p u lse leads new natio n s to d e m a n d th a t w o rk s of art
fo r m e r colonial p o w e rs have re m o v e d be r e tu rn e d to be
in c o rp o ra te d into the n a tio n a l heritage. Bui it also often
includes s u p p o r t for w orking artists, training institutions,
p e rfo rm in g groups, exhibition spaces, publication, a n d e x
p e n se s of p ro d u c tio n , as well as fellow ships a n d o th e r g ra n ts
w h ich free a rtis ts ’ tim e fo r work.
J a n e F u lc h e r has d e sc rib e d the "O rp h e o n ," a working-
182 • A R T A N D T H E S T A T E
C ensorship
At the o th e r e x tre m e of coercion, g o v e rn m e n ts act overtly
to p re v e n t so m e a rt from being done, destroy the results once
they are done, o r im p riso n o r d e stro y the artists. In such
cases, a less d rastic m o d e of g o v e rn m e n t a ctio n —s u p p r e s
sion by benign neglect—tu rn s into active intervention. These
cases show th a t the g o v e rn m en t, h o w e v e r little it does, is
in e sc ap a b ly a n im p o rta n t p art of the cooperative a rt-p ro
d u c in g n e tw o rk : since it m ight in te rv e n e to p re v e n t the p r o
d u ctio n o r d istrib u tio n o f art works, even if it seldom or
n ever does, failure to act is a crucial form o f c o o p e ra tio n in
artistic activities. Artists count on th a t failure in state s which
seldom o r n e v er act as censors. B ecause the state m ight act at
a n y tim e, b e c a u se it can even if it doesn't, all w orks of art
h a v e a political m e a n in g —by actin g o r failing to act, the
g o v e rn m e n t indicates th a t it does o r does n o t th in k a p a rtic
u la r w o rk politically im p o rta n t o r d an g ero u s. E ven w ork
w h o se m a k e r h a d no political intent a c q u ire s political
m e a n in g in the light of g o v e rn m e n t actions.
T he sta te m a y a tta c k the artist o r the work, o r a ttack the
artist by a tta c k in g the work. In to talitarian societies, artists
ru n a c o n sid e ra b le risk. B ecause their w ork m ight mobilize
m a ss uprising o r defections, the regim e m a y deal w ith th e m
as it deals w ith o th e r politically d a n g e ro u s types. Irving
Louis H orow itz has classified g o v e rn m e n ts on the basis of
186 ♦ A R T A N D T H E S T A T E
the w ay they deal w ith dissident elem ents, the types ranging
from “genocidal societies in w hich the state arbitrarily takes
the lives o f citizens for d ev ian t o r dissident b eh av io r" to
"perm issive societies in w hich n o rm s are q u e stio n e d a n d
c o m m u n ity definitions r a th e r th a n state definition o f w h a t
co n stitu tes n o rm a tiv e b e h av io r e m erg e in the d ecisio n -m ak
ing p ro cess" (Horowitz, 1980, pp. 44-45). The artist, only one
of the poten tial dissidents or d eviants g o v e rn m e n ts tre at in
this ra n g e of ways, is su b je c t in so m e societies to the m o st
e x tre m e sanctions.
In states w hich do not act again st the artist directly, the
m o st c o m p le te form of c en so rsh ip is the total d e stru c tio n of
the w o rk s the g o v e rn m e n t finds offensive. The m o d e rn a r
chetype of su ch action is book burning, even th o u g h th a t
actually destroys, n o t the w ork itself, b u t only som e copies of
it; the w ork will c o n tin u e to exist in a re a s the g o v e rn m e n t has
no jurisdiction over, n o tab ly o th e r countries w ith different
political sy stem s a n d aims. (R ay B r a d b u r y ’s F ahrenheit 451
considers the m o re e x tre m e case in w hich every physical
copy h a s been d e stro y ed by an im placab le a n d efficient r e
gime; ev en th e re the w ork co n tin u es to exist by being re
co rded in p e o p le ’s m em ories.)
Visual a rt w o rk s w hich exist in u n iq u e copies c a n be c o m
pletely destro y ed . T h at often occurs as a side effect of su ch
political u p h e a v a ls as foreign c o n q u ests o r civil war. The
d e stru c tio n of so m a n y great w o rk s of religious art in E n g
land a fte r it broke with R o m a n Catholicism exemplifies the
process, as d o es the d e stru ctio n of Aztec a n d In c a art by
S p a n ish c o n q u ero rs. In the first case, the king w a n te d to
d estroy sym bols of religious a u th o rity a n d p o w er to w hich
the c o m m o n people m ig h t co n tin u e to re sp o n d ; in the s e c
ond, the c o n q u e ro rs sim ply w a n te d the precious m e tals the
w orks w ere m a d e o u t of. (C onceptual a rt w orks resem b le
literature in this re sp e c t—any p a rtic u la r copy c an be d e
stroyed, b u t the idea exists as long as a n y o n e know s it.)
M ost c e n so rsh ip is n o t so ruthless a n d com plete. It in te r
feres w ith the distribution, r a th e r th a n the creation o r c o n
tin u ed existence, of the works. T he state forbids their sale,
exhibition, o r p e rfo rm a n c e in the places w h ere a n d to the
187 ♦ A R T AND T H E S T AT E
it can be released or not. For the kid who comes up now, it's
not like that. That's why so many people compose in English
[instead of Portuguese], because it’s easier to get through. "The
next lime I’m going to get it right, since it seems that I did
something wrong.’’ That can be the thinking of a kid who
starts out and finds himself censored. (Chrysostomo, 1976, p.
4, m v translation)
To su m m ariz e , the state p a rtic ip ate s in the n e tw o rk of
co o p era tio n , the a rt world, w h ich p ro d u c e s the w orks c h a r
acteristic of a p a rtic u la r m e d iu m at a p a rtic u la r time. It
c rea tes th e fra m e w o rk o f p ro p e rty rights w ithin w hich artists
get e c o n o m ic s u p p o r t a n d m a k e re p u ta tio n s. It limits w h a t
artists can d o w h e n it p ro te cts people w h o se rights m ay have
been in frin g ed by artists in ten t on p ro d u c in g their work. It
gives o p e n s u p p o r t to s o m e fo rm s of art, a n d to so m e p ra c
titioners of those form s, w h en they a p p e a r to f u rth e r n a
tional p u rp o ses. It uses state p o w e r to su p p re s s w ork w hich
s e e m s likely to mobilize citizens for d isa p p ro v e d activities
o r p re v e n t th e m fro m being m obilized for a p p ro p ria te
p u rposes.
T h e state th u s acts like o th e r art w orld particip an ts, p r o
viding o p p o rtu n itie s to get art w o rk d o n e by giving su p p o rt
b o th directly a n d indirectly for w h a t it a p p ro v e s of, a n d
actin g as a c o n s tra in t on o th e r activities by p re v e n tin g a c
cess, for w orks d e e m e d u n satisfacto ry , to so m e o f the facil
ities o rdinarily available to all particip an ts. Thus, the state
m ay p re v e n t w o rk s from being d is trib u te d (the m ost usual
form of in tervention) o r from c o n tin u in g to exist, o r m ay
p u n is h those people guilty o f creatin g u n d e sira b le w ork by
d e a th , im p riso n m e n t, o r o th e r kinds o f sanctions. In this
sense, all artists d e p e n d on the state a n d th e ir w ork e m
bodies th a t d e p e n d e n c e .
7* Editing
192
193 ♦ EDI TI NG
Jeffers replied:
194 ♦ E D I T I N G
If you insist, let the verse read "To feed the povver-hunger
of a politician"—instead of "paralyzed man." And I hope you
will always protest when Caesar's epilepsy is mentioned. Or
Dostoevski’s—though it influenced his genius, just as Roose
velt’s paralysis influenced, and to some extent excuses, his
character. This is my reason for speaking of it.
( J e f f e r s t o C o m m i n s , 19 F e b r u a r y 1948)
C H O IC ES
I find it useful to think of a n a rt w ork taking the fo rm it
d o es at a p a rtic u la r m o m e n t b e ca u se of the choices, small
a n d large, m a d e by artists a n d o th e rs u p to th a t point. Shall I
press the sh u tter-release b u tto n on m y c a m e ra now o r w ait a
195 ♦ EDI TI NG
S he goes on:
ED ITIN G BY O T H E R S
Artists, th e people w h o get the credit o r b la m e for art
w orks, typically m a k e m a n y of the choices w h ich sh a p e a
w o rk ’s c h a ra c te r. The a rt w orld's o th e r p a rtic ip a n ts affect
the result by e n terin g into the in ternal dialogue w hich p r e
cedes a n d a c c o m p a n ie s th o se choices. But o th e r p a rtic ip a n ts
affect a rt w orks m o re directly as well, m ak in g choices of their
o w n w hich, in d e p e n d e n t of the a rtis t’s wish o r intention, also
s h a p e the w ork. S o m e tim e s artists recognize the possibility
a n d think of it as they w ork; o fte n they do n o t know, a n d
p e rh a p s could not know , w h a t o th e rs will do to afreet their
w ork, a n d th u s c a n n o t a c c o m m o d a te to it. These fateful
actions of o th e rs o c c u r d u rin g the w ork's entire life, often
a fte r th e artists th em selves have died; the effects m a y be
te m p o ra ry o r p e rm a n e n t.
M a n u fa c tu re rs a n d d istrib u to rs p e rfo rm an editorial
function by failing to m a k e so m e m a terials a n d e q u ip m e n t
available. They thus effectively p rev en t artists from m ak in g
certain choices o r m a k e th e m prohibitively expensive in tim e
a n d effort for all b u t people d e te rm in e d to have just th a t item
as p a rt of their work. W hen the m a jo r suppliers re d u c e the
variety of p h o to g ra p h ic film a n d p a p e r available, they force
m e to edit o u t of the possible c o rp u s of m y w ork w h a t I m ight
have m a d e w ith the u n a v aila b le m aterials. Artists notice
th e se c o n stra in ts w h e n s o m e favorite m aterial d isa p p e a rs
fro m the m a r k e t—w h e n they can no longer, fo r instance, get
Agfa's R e c o rd R ap id p a p er. But artists are alw ays c o n
strain ed by the unavailability o f m aterials, especially those
th a t n e v er w ere m a d e at all, b e c a u se suppliers d id n 't know'
how to m a k e th e m o r h a d re jec te d the possibility as im p r a c
tical o r unprofitable. Conversely, w h e n suppliers m a k e new
m a terials available, they a d d to the possibilities from which
artists can choose. T he Polaroid system of in s ta n t color
p h o to g ra p h y c re a te d n e w artistic possibilities.
M an y a rt w orks exist in th e form of directions to o thers
telling th e m w h a t to do to actualize the w ork on a p a rtic u la r
occasion. T he directions m a y consist of a m usical score, the
script of a play, a m a n u s c rip t to be printed, o r plans for a
211 ♦ E D I T I N G
226
227 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , M A V E R I C K S , FOLK ARTIS T S
INTEGRATED PR O FESSIO N A LS
M AVERICKS
E very o rg anized a rt w orld p ro d u c e s m avericks, artists
w h o have been p a rt of the c o n v en tio n al art w orld of their
time, place, a n d m e d iu m but fo u n d it u n a c c e p ta b ly c o n
straining. They p ro p o se in novations the a rt w orld refuses to
accep t as w ithin the limits of w h a t it ordinarily produces.
O th e r p a rtic ip a n ts in the w o rld —audiences, s u p p o rt p e r s o n
nel, so u rces of su p p o rt, o r d is trib u to rs—refuse to c o o p era te
in the p ro d u c tio n of th o se innovations. In ste a d of giving up
a n d re tu rn in g to m o re a c c e p ta b le m a terials a n d styles,
m av ericks c o n tin u e to p u rs u e the innovation w ithout the
s u p p o rt of o th e r a r t world personnel. W hereas integrated
professionals a cc e p t a lm o st com pletely the co n v en tio n s of
their world, m avericks retain s o m e loose co n n ec tio n with it
b u t no longer p a rtic ip ate in its activities directly.
M avericks begin their care ers as conventional novices.
They learn w h at o th e r y o u n g a sp ira n ts in their art w orld
learn. Thus, Charles Ives (see figure 22), an a rc h e ty p a l m a v
erick, stu d ied co m p o sitio n at Yale with H o ra tio Parker, a
c o n v en tio n al c o m p o s e r a n d te a c h e r in the th e n fash io n ab le
G e r m a n tradition. He le a rn e d c o n v en tio n al h a rm o n y a n d
c o u n te rp o in t, a n d stu d ie d a p p ro v e d m usical forms, doing
classroom exercises w hich confirm ed his abilitv to h an d le
these s ta n d a r d tasks. He h ad received sim ilar training from
his father, a professional m u sic ia n in D anbury, Connecticut.
But his father, m o re a d v e n tu ro u s if less successful th a n
Parker, h ad also tau g h t his son to e x p e rim e n t (with polyto
nality, for instance) in w ay s then u n c o m m o n . So Ives c o m
posed m u sic his te a c h e r fo u n d u n a cc ep ta b le , fo reshadow ing
w h a t w ould h a p p e n w h e n he tried his luck in the big w orld of
professional m u sic in New York (Rossiter, 1975, pp. 54-64).
Not surprisingly, m av erick s get a hostile reception w h en
they present their in n o v a tio n s to o th e r a rt w orld m e m b e rs.
B ec au se it violates so m e of the art w orld's c o n v en tio n s in a
b la ta n t way, the w ork suggests to o th e rs th a t they will have
234 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , MAVERICKS, FOLK ARTISTS
over his ears," complaining that “when you get awfully indi
gestible food in your stomach that distresses you, you can get
rid of it," but that he could not “get those horrible sounds out
of my ears." (Rossiter, 1975, pp. 150-51)
Some pieces, like Concord, Ives never did the same way
twice, and he almost always resented the thought or the fan
cied obligation that he should put it down precisely, because
he loved to improvise it. (Perlis, 1974, p. 220)
W e m ight say th a t every art w ork co n tain s an idea which
n eed s to be w o rk e d out; the w o rking out sh ap e s it into a final
form d ic tate d by the co n v en tio n s of the c o n te m p o ra ry world
for w hich it is m ad e. In th a t final form , it is p re s e n ta b le —c a
pable of being p re se n te d to p eo p le w h o will o th erw ise reg ard
it as not d o n e a n d not yet w o rth y of attention. Presentable
fo rm s signal, in a c o n v en tio n a l way, th a t you w a n t y o u r work
tak en seriously, c o u n te d up in the balan ce of y o u r re p u ta tio n
(thus differing fro m a “w ork in progress"). In music, the
p re se n ta b le form is a finished score (or, at least, t h a t ’s w hat it
w a s w h en Ives wrote). The people w ho led the later m o v e
m e n t for the p e rfo rm a n c e of Ives' m u sic h a d e n o rm o u s
troubles b e ca u se Ives did not p ro d u c e finished scores. Their
love of his m usic barelv*/ concealed their irritation with his
u n p ro fe ssio n a l ways. B e rn a rd H e rrm a n n , the c o m p o s e r and
c o n d u c to r w h o c o n d u c te d som e of the first p e rfo rm a n c e s of
Ives' o rc h estra l w orks, said:
I think he was more interested in just writing his own pieces
and that was it. That is why they all exist in such terrible
states. He wasn’t interested enough to take time to do the
proofreading. . . . Because of the parts, it was terrible in the
238 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , M A V E R I C K S , F O L K A R T I S T S
FOLK ART
My husband tells about the time he got sick with the mea
sles. His mother set him to piecing a quilt and every other
block he set in red polka-dot pattern. Said it was his measles
quilt. He wouldn't like me to tell it now I know. But lots of cold
nights when I’m at the quiltin’ frame on one side of the fire, he
pulls his big old chair up on the other side and cuts pieces for
me. He’s even done a bit of piecin' from time to time.
It's a sight, that big old long-legged man with his boot toes
turned in to make a lap to do his piecework on. (P. 39)
Novice quilters learn s ta n d a r d s as well as te ch n iq u e . S o m e
s ta n d a r d s —c ra ft s ta n d a r d s —are public a n d shared:
Mama had the smallest stitches and the smallest feet in the
country. She was particular about everything she done. I got
that from her. There was an order to everything, and when
one of her quilts was done, it was just like the rest, all of a
piece and finished right—the corners turned to a tee, like
making the bed, every seam straight as an arrow; you know it
wasn't hard to stitch good and it was real satisfying to keep
everything up to standards. (P. 97)
d
FIGURE 24. Quilt designs. These designs are sometimes made
from a simple module, which can he assembled to make a great
variety o f overall patterns, especially when the tonal values and pat
terns of the cloth o f which the module is made are varied. The
“Drunkard’s Path ” block can be made (a) with a dark quarter circle,
the complementary space in the square being light, or (b) with the
values reversed. Using block (b), you can create (c) the classic
“Drunkard's Path” overall design. Combining (a) and (b) allows you
to make the more complicated (d) “Millwheel. ” (Drawings by Nan
Becker.)
a ltern a tin g light a n d d a rk (called "B a rn Raising"), o r a
surprisingly large n u m b e r of o th e r variations, s o m e of w hich
h a v e trad itio n al n a m e s a n d o th e rs not. If you a d d to these
possibilities the en dless w ays th a t colors, hues, a n d print
p a tte rn s c a n be built into su ch a rra n g e m e n ts , it is clear th a t
the q u iltm a k e r has a large a rra y of artistic re so u rce s to w o rk
with. A look at the illustrations in the books I h a v e b e en citing
will confirm th a t so m e q u iltm a k e rs use th e m to p ro d u c e
w ork which, as H olstein claims, resem b les th a t of c o n te m
p o ra ry p ain ters; b u t it is a good b et th a t the q u iltm a k e rs
w ould not reg ard th a t p ain tin g as serious art.
253 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , MAVERICKS, FOLK ARTISTS
Mother saved pieces from every dress she ever made for me;
when I got older she gave them to me to make a quilt. In her
day pieced tops were all made from a woman’s scrap hag, and
at that time, more often than not, the linings were other old
worn-out quilts or old blankets. We never wasted a bit of
cloth . . . used it over and over until it wore out. Waste not,
want not. (P. 100)
girls, let's go to it." We'd pull up our chairs around the frame
and anyone that dropped in would do the same, even if they
couldn’t stitch straight. Course we’d take out their stitches
later if they was really bad. But it was for talking and visiting
that we put in quilts in the summer. People would get out after
the chores in the summertime and how the word would fly
that we had the frame up. Had to have a screened porch
‘cause sometimes you’d quilt and visit till midnight by lamp
light with the bugs battin’ against the screen. (P. 76)
Since ev ery o n e involved know s, w ithin limits, as m u c h
a b o u t w h a t is being d o n e as ev ery o n e else, a n d ev ery o n e can
do w h ic h e v e r of the several activities involved n eed s to be
done, c o o p e ra tio n o c c u rs easily, w ith very little friction o th e r
th a n the o rd in a ry friction of h u m a n intercourse. To take u p a
quite different e x am p le for a m o m e n t, Bruce Ja c k so n (1972)
d escrib es h o w black convicts in Texas priso n s c o o rd in a te
their effort th ro u g h the use of w ork songs, the songs p ro v id
ing the rh y th m by w hich su ch activities as cutting d o w n a
tree c a n be c arried o u t safely (see figure 25). S o m e m en lead
the singing b e tte r th a n others, a n d ev erybody prefers it w hen
they do the leading. N evertheless, even a b a d le ad e r will
serve the p u rp o s e as long as he c a n keep tim e a n d be h e a rd
over the w ork noise. A nyone can lead, b e c a u se everyone
k now s the song already. The le a d e r’s m ain function is sim ply
to sing o u t the verses they sh o u ld use in singing the song. The
lead e r takes the verses from a large pool of verses k n o w n to
be p a rts of th a t song; ev ery o n e know s all the parts, a n d they
n e ed not be d o n e in a n y p a rtic u la r order, n o r need a n y p a r
ticu lar n u m b e r o r c o m b in a tio n of th e m be d o n e on any p a r
ticu lar occasion.
B ecause quilts, to re tu rn to th a t exam ple, w ere the p r o d
ucts of a sy stem of fam ilies in a c o m m u n ity , a n d not art
w o rk s p ro d u c e d in a n a rt world, until recently they w ere
preserved, if at all, in th o se families, p a sse d on from p a re n t
to child to g ran dchild, their value lying partly in their b eau ty
b u t m o re in their c o n tin u in g utility as b e d d in g a n d their
value as sen tim e n ta l e m b o d im e n ts of fam ily c o n tin u ity a n d
solidarity. T hey h a d no artistic value, w ere not critically
ju d g e d w orks of a n a m e d artist, w hose re p u ta tio n w ould
257 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , MAVERICKS, FOLK ARTISTS
FIGURE 25. Convicts singing. Folk art occurs as part of the daily
activity o f members o f a community. Texas convicts coordinate po
tentially dangerous activities like chopping down trees by singing
rhythmic songs. (Photograph by Bruce Jackson.)
NAIVE ARTISTS
A final kind of artist is alternately called primitive, naive,
o r grass-roots. G r a n d m a M oses is the prototype, alth o u g h she
ev en tu ally w as d iscovered by a n d in c o rp o ra te d into the art
w orld (as so m e tim e s h a p p e n s to such people). These artists
have usually h a d no c o n n e c tio n w ith any art w orld at all.
They do not kn o w the m e m b e r s of the o rd in a ry a rt w orld in
w hich w o rk s like theirs (if su ch exist) are p ro d u c e d . They
have not h a d the training people w h o ordinarily p ro d u c e
such w orks have had, a n d they k n o w very little a b o u t the
259 • P ROF ES S I ONALS , MAVERI CKS, FOLK ARTI STS
FIGURE 26. Simon Rodia, the Watts Towers. Naive artists work
outside the confines o f any art world, accomplishing what they do
without the support o f others. Rodia explained his work to others,
when he bothered to explain it at all, by saying he had done it “all by
himself. ” (Photograph by Seymour Rosen.)
to the same spot and found some even more beautiful stones,
which I enthusiastically began to collect.
I took this coincidence as an omen. Since nature it
self provided sculptures, then I coaid be an architect or
mason! . . .
And so, for the next 25 years, I moved stones. (Cheval, 1968,
p. 9)
H e r m a n R usch, a f a r m e r in C ochrane, W isconsin, began the
Prairie M oon M u seu m a n d G arden, a tw o-acre c o n stru ctio n
of arches, pillars, tow ers, a n d o th e r things m a d e of cem ent,
"to dress the place up" (Hoos, 1974, p. 71). G ra n d m a Prisbrey
began h e r w ork b e ca u se the trailer she lived in w as not big
e n o u g h for h e r family or h e r collection of two th o u s a n d
pencils. W hen the w ork w as conceived a n d execu ted delib
erately, as so m e w ere (e.g., S. P. D in sm o o r’s G arden o f
E d en , a half-acre a rc h ite c tu ra l a n d scu lp tu ral politico-
religious c o n stru c tio n in Lucas, K ansas), the reaso n s for
doing it are p e rso n a l a n d not alw ays intelligible, a point I will
re tu rn to.
These works, not belonging to a n y trad itio n of artistically
defined p ro b le m s a n d solutions, seem to spring o u t of n o
w here. No o n e know s how to re sp o n d to them . A udiences
(w h o ev er h a p p e n s to see th em ) do n o t know w h a t to m a k e of
th e m , a n d their m a k e rs c a n n o t take a d v a n ta g e of a n y e s ta b
lished n e tw o rk of c o o p e ra tio n in building them . They w ork
alone. R odia said:
I did it all by myself. I never had a single help. One thing, I
couldn't hire any help, for I no have-a no money. Not a thing.
If I hire a man, he don't know what to do. A million times, I
don't know what to do myself. I would wake up all night,
because this was my own idea. (Trillin, 1965, p. 72)
(There is no technical re aso n for n o t using helpers. Antoni
G audi, the C atalan a rt n o u v e a u architect, m a d e c o n s tru c
tions w hich h a v e m a n y of the sam e featu res of the w ork of
R odia a n d o th e r naive artists. But, being a n established
p ro fessio n al architect, th o u g h m o re th a n a little e c c e n
tric, G audi h a d rich p a tro n s a n d clients a n d could afford
265 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , M A V E R I C K S , FOLK ARTI STS
it is apparent that the form the towers took was decided partly
by the limitations of his equipment. Since he had no scaf
folding, for example, he had to provide his own as he went
along. It took the form of horizontal spokes and circles ringing
the tallest spires, and the dense spiderweb effect they produce
results partly from the fact that no ring is farther from the one
below it than a short man can reach. (Trillin, 1965, p. 80)
266 ♦ P R O F E S S I O N A L S , M A V E R IC K S , FO L K A R T IS T S
[Fred Smith said,] “I’m 166 years old and I'll be better when
I'm 175. It has to be in the man. You have to be almost gifted
to do what I have done." (Blasdell, 1968, p. 33)
CONCLUSION
272
273 ♦ ARTS AND CRAFTS
CRAFT B E C O M E S ART
As a w ork ideology, an aesthetic, a n d a form of work
org an izatio n , c ra ft can a n d does exist in d e p e n d e n t of art
w orlds, their p ractition ers, a n d their definitions. In the p u re
folk definition, a c raft consists of a body of know ledge and
skill w h ich c a n be u se d to p ro d u c e useful objects: dishes you
c a n e at from , c h airs you c a n sit in, cloth th a t m a k e s s e r
viceable clothing, p lu m b in g th a t w orks, w iring th a t carries
cu rren t. F rom a slightly different p o in t o f view, it consists of
the ability to p e rfo rm in a useful w ay —to play m usic th a t can
be d a n c e d to, serve a m eal to guests efficiently, a rre s t a
crim inal w ith a m in im u m of fuss, clean a h o u s e to the satis
faction of those w h o live in it.
To sp e a k of u sefulness im plies the existence of so m e o n e
w h o se p u rp o s e s define the e n d s for w hich the o b je cts or
activities will be useful. Those p u rp o s e s arise in som e w orld
of collective actio n in w hich they are characteristic, p a rt of
274 ♦ ARTS AND CRAFTS
aesthetic an e m p h a s is on b e a u ty a n d develop so m e a d d i
tional organizations, w hich free th e m of the n e e d to satisfy
em p lo y ers so com pletely. These a rtist-c raftsm e n d ev elo p a
kind of a rt w orld a ro u n d their activities, a “ m in o r a rt" w orld.
The w orld contains m u c h of the a p p a r a tu s of full-fledged
m a jo r arts: shows, prizes, sales to collectors, teach in g posi
tions, a n d the rest. N ot all c raft w orlds develop su ch an
artistic, beau tv -o rien ted seg m e n t (p lu m b in g has not). But
w h ere an a rt s e g m e n t develops, it usually coexists peacefully
with the m o re purely utilitarian c raft segm ent.
A n o th er s e q u e n c e o c cu rs w h en m e m b e rs of a n established
w orld alread y defined as art, people involved in the typical
activities a n d ideologies of the c o n te m p o ra ry art world, in
vade (and the m ilitary m e ta p h o r is a p p ro p ria te ) an e s ta b
lished c raft w orld, especially its a rt segm ent. The se q u e n c e
begins w h e n so m e fine artists look for new m ed ia in w hich to
explore a c u rre n t expressive p roblem . These artists h a p p e n
on o n e of the crafts a n d see in its m a terials a n d te c h n iq u e s a
poten tial for artistic exploitation. They see a w ay to do s o m e
thing th a t will interest th e art w orld to w hich they are ori
e n te d a n d to w hich they re sp o n d . They have no interest in
the c o n v en tio n al s ta n d a r d of practical utility; their notion of
b e a u ty is likely to be very different fro m a n d m o re a d v a n c e d
th a n th a t of the c raft th e y are invading a n d the kind of skill
a n d control th a t interests th e m quite different from th a t
prized by th e m o re tra d itio n a l practitioner.
The n e w b re ed of artists in the c raft devise new a n d a g
gressively n o n u tilitarian s ta n d a rd s . Only the utilities defined
by the a rt w o rld in w h ic h they p a rtic ip ate in te re st them .
Art utilities typically include usefulness as o b je cts of a e s
thetic c o n te m p la tio n , as o b je c ts o f collection a n d o s te n ta
tious display, a n d as item s o f in v estm en t a n d p e c u n ia ry gain,
b u t not the practical utilities defined by the p u rp o s e s a n d
org an izatio n o f o th e r w orlds. Artists invading a c raft w an t
to m a k e sure th a t the w orks they p ro d u c e c a n n o t be used as
people have b e en a c c u s to m e d to using th e m . R o b ert A rne
son, for exam ple, o n e of the leading spirits in the m o v e m e n t
w h ich claim ed p o tte ry as a fine-art field (Zack, 1970), m a d e
a series of large plates, technically c o m p ete n t, w hose utility
279 ♦ A R T S AND C R AF T S
«. *< ,
■■i
•tSfflE
►t ^ —y
c h a p te r 4, th e p a tro n s m ig h t on occasion re a so n a b ly be
th o u g h t o f as collaborators. C o n te m p o ra ry artists, e n m e s h e d
in a w orld of collectors, galleries, a n d m u s e u m s , typically
p ro d u c e with no p a rtic u la r p u rc h a s e r in m in d a n d expect
their w ork to be m a rk e te d th ro u g h the co n v entional a p
p a r a tu s of d ealers a n d m u se u m s, the p u r c h a s e r exercising
control by buying o r refusing to buy. W h a te v e r the o rg a n i
zational form , the folk definition fu rth e r p re s u m e s th a t these
p u rc h a s e rs a n d in te rm e d iaries are as c o n c e rn e d as the artist
with the utilities defined by the a rt w orld a n d th e refo re with
283 ♦ A R T S A N D C R A F T S
d e p e n d i n g o n w h e r e y o u s t o o d , t h a t it all d i d n ' t s e e m t o m a k e
t o o m u c h d i f f e r e n c e a n y w a y —j u s t a lo t o l w o r k in w h i t e m u d
c a l l i n g i t s e l f a r t . ( Q u o t e d in S l i v k a , 1971, p. 42)
ART B E C O M E S CRAFT
As the years pass, these w orlds settle d o w n a n d begin to
ex perien ce their ow n seg m en tatio n s, differentiations, a n d
splits. An alread y developed w orld c o m m o n ly defined by
insiders a n d o u tsid ers alike as a n a rt world, c o m p lete with
a p p ro p ria te ideologies, aesthetics, a n d form s of social o rg a
nization, o fte n (in a n o th e r c h ara cteristic seq u en ce) ch an g e s
in the opposite direction. The originally expressive art
w o rk s a n d styles b e c o m e increasingly m o re organized, c o n
strained, a n d ritualized; organizational form s su b o rd in a te
th e artist increasingly to partially o r entirely e x tra n e o u s
so u rc e s of control; a n d the w orld a n d its activities begin to
resem ble conventional c ra ft worlds. In this sense, a n a rt
tu rn s into a craft. The process tak es tw o form s. One leads to
w h a t is usually called “ a c a d e m ic " art, the o th e r to w h a t is
usually called “c o m m e rc ia l’' art.
i
289 ♦ A R T S A N D C R A I T S
A ca d em ic Art
A cadem icism consists of an increasing c o n c e rn w ith how
things are do n e, with the skill the artist o r p e rfo rm e r exhibits,
as o p p o s e d to w h at is done, the ideas a n d e m o tio n s the w orks
e m b o d y a n d express. Since all arts re q u ire som e s u b
stantial m e a s u re of skill, a c a d e m ic art is clearly an in te rm e
diate a n d a m b ig u o u s case of a te n d en c y th a t e m e rg e s full
blow n in c o m m ercia l art. Most p a rtic ip a n ts in any art w orld
d o n ’t w o rry a b o u t being expressive or creative; they are
c o n te n t to w o rk w ithin conventionalized form ats. But they,
a n d th o s e w h o s u p p o rt their art w orld as p a tro n s o r c u s
tom ers, generally o rient th em selv es to expressiveness and
creativity as the valuable c o m p o n e n ts of art w orks.
W e can sp e a k o f a c a d e m ic a rt as a rt p ro d u c e d in a w orld in
w h ic h artists a n d o th e rs shift their co n ce rn fro m e x p re s
siveness a n d creativity to virtuosity. T h at co n cern , p a ra l
leling the c raft co n ce rn with skill, is a step aw ay from the
s ta n d a r d s conventionally a c c e p te d as developing out of the
history of a n a r t a n d to w ard the s ta n d a r d s characteristic
of crafts, b u t it is only a step, not the full trip, for the util
ities to w a rd w h ich the w ork is p o in ted are still those o f the
art w o rld —ap p rec iatio n , collection, a n d display. Sixteenth-
cen tu ry engraving exemplifies the d e v e lo p m e n t of such
a c a d em ic ism :
C om m ercial Art
S u b o rd in a tio n to the re q u ire m e n ts of a u d ie n c e s a n d e m
ployers o c c u rs in a m o re coercive a n d c o m p lete way in
c o m m ercializ ed arts (see Becker, 1963, pp. 79-119; Griff,
1960; S a n d e rs, 1974; Lyon, 1975). The e m p lo y e r cho o ses a
use, ju st as in c raft w orlds, a n d the artist uses his virtuoso
skill to m e et the e m p lo y e r’s re q u ire m en ts. An artist w h o has
m o re interest in the display of virtuosity th a n in the e x p re s
292 ♦ A R T S AND C R AF T S
Ninety-eight per cent of the time is just simple and dull. But
one or two per c e n t . . . it's demanding and you have to do
it . . . Now tomorrow at 9:00 I have a call 1 don’t have the
vaguest idea who I'm working for, or what it is, how big the
orchestra is, or who else is with me in the section. It may be X,
Y or Z studio . . , 9:00. Now a cue might come up from a cello
concerto, which if Leonard Rose or Pablo Casals had for a
goddam concert, they'd have to study it for two months. And
we have to knock it off . . . just like that on the spot—two runs
and then a ta k e .. . . That’s why they're paying me more, and
that’s why you are known as a soloist in the business; that's
why you’re in demand. And we better do it. So those kinds,
like I say, two per cent of the time . . . you get ’e m . . . . Those
moments are rare, just here and there . . . a couple of weeks
293 ♦ A R T S A N D C R A F T S
that *•you have to use everv«r bit of talent and tricks and what-
ever learning from past experience has taught you. (Faulkner,
1971, p . 120)
Many reed players don’t bend, they’re not flexible. Some don’t
even get the right sound in the studio or they refuse to play
different. So [a composer] wants a light, French sound on the
oboe for example, and [another composer] prefers a dark,
flat German sound and you have to bend, to be able to play
them all___
R evo lt
As an a rt b e co m e s conventionalized, s ta n d a r d s b e co m e
m o re a n d m o re rigorous. M ost artists a cc e p t th a t rigor, s a t
isfied with the expressive possibilities of conventionally a c
c ep tab le form s. They are in teg rated professionals, an alo g o u s
to the scientists w h o p ro d u c e “ n o rm al science" in n o n re v o
lutionary p eriods (K uhn, 1962). But o th e rs find the rigor
c o n strain in g a n d oppressive. They feel that, to d e m o n s tra te
their c o m p e te n c e , they h a v e to sp en d so m u c h tim e a c q u ir
ing the co n v entional w isd o m a n d skills th a t they can n ever
get to th e p ro d u c tio n o f the art w hich interests them . They
so m e tim e s also feel th a t they will n ever be able to o u td is
297 ♦ A R T S A N D C R A F T S
SO M E FINAL TH O U G H T S
M ost c o n te m p o ra ry high a rt p ro b a b ly s ta rte d out as so m e
kind o f c raft (see B axandall, 1972; H arris, 1966; M artindale,
1972). The co m p o sitio n a n d p e rfo rm a n c e of E u r o p e a n a rt
m usic s ta r te d as a n activity su b serv ien t e ith e r to th e r e
q u ire m e n ts of the c h u rc h (as in the co m p o sitio n a n d p e rfo r
m a n c e of the M ass a n d plainsong), o r to the desires of a royal
299 ♦ A R T S A N D C R A F T S
300
301 ♦ C H A N G E I N AH T W O R L D S
B IR TH AND DEATH
F ro m tim e to tim e new a rt w orlds a p p e a r, grow, a n d
pro sp er, eventually achieving sufficient stability th a t they
can go th ro u g h so m e of the se q u e n c e s of internal ch an g e we
have alread y considered. An art w orld is b o rn w h e n it brings
to g e th e r people w h o n ever c o o p e ra te d before to p ro d u c e art
b a se d on a n d using c o n v en tio n s previously u n k n o w n or not
exploited in th a t way. Similarly, a n art w orld dies w h en no
one c o o p e ra te s any longer in its ch ara cte ristic ways to p r o
d u c e art b ased on a n d exploiting its ch aracteristic c o n v e n
tions. We c a n n o t clearly se p a ra te n e w art w orlds fro m those
w hich have c h a n g e d substan tially by virtue of an artistic
revolution, n o r c a n we easily decide w h e n an art w o rld has
died, as o p p o se d to being c h a n g e d or ta k e n over by new
people. We need not m a k e these distinctions definitively,
since o u r interest is in the gro w th a n d d e ca y of fo rm s of
collective action r a th e r th a n in the d e v e lo p m e n t of logical
typologies. W e will look for the m e c h a n is m s w hich help art
w orlds to o p e ra te a n d w hose d is a p p e a ra n c e in terferes with
th a t operation.
W e sh o u ld not co n fu se innovation w ith the d e v elo p m e n t
of a n a rt world. New w orlds develop a ro u n d in n o v a tio n s—
technical, co n cep tu al, o r organizational c h a n g e s —b u t m o st
in n ovations do not p ro d u c e n e w art w orlds. We have seen
how m avericks can c reate interesting in n o v atio n s w hich b e
co m e d e a d e n d s a n d blind alleys, not becau se the innovation
could not sustain c o n tin u e d e x p erim en ta tio n a n d d e v elo p
m e n t, b u t b e c a u se the in n o v a to r could n o t find sufficient
n u m b e rs of people to join in th a t d ev elopm ent. W hat m ight
have been a n a rt w o rld re m a in s an u n e x p lo red possibility.
M ost su b sta n tia l in n o v atio n s w hich so m e o n e has d e lib er
ately m ad e, h o p in g to p e rsu a d e o thers to join in their exploi
tation, sh are th a t fate. To u n d e rs ta n d the birth o f new a rt
311 ♦ CHANGE IN ART WORLDS
e n te d to w a rd c o m p u tin g a n d m a c h in e ry ra th e r th a n m u
sic, they have beg u n to m a k e m usic w ith the m a ch in e s
alone, dispensing with h u m a n players. Not only does th e m u
sic diff er in various w ays—using r a n d o m noise o r m a c h in e
g e n era te d p u re tones as raw m aterial, for in sta n c e —b u t the
c o m p o se rs are less p e rfo rm a n c e oriented, m o re in terested in
m ailing ta p e s to each o th e r a n d in having th e m available for
o th e rs to hear. Not h aving been tra in e d to see public p e rfo r
m a n c e as th e p ro p e r w ay to h e a r m usic, an y th in g else being
m erely a reco rd of th a t public event, they tre at ta p e s as an
a u th o r tre a ts books, as o bjects co n tain in g the w ork itself,
any copy being as good as any other, a n d do not re g a rd the
w ork as being im p ro v e d in the slightest by being d o n e in
public, a n y m o re th a n a literary w o rk 's essential m erit lies in
how it s o u n d s w h e n its a u th o r re ad s it aloud. This version of
electronic m usic m a k e s the d e v e lo p m e n t of a new a rt w orld
m o re likely.
S o m e art w orlds begin w ith the d e v e lo p m e n t of a new
concept, a new w ay of thinking a b o u t som ething, w hose
possibilities can be explored a n d exploited ju s t as a technical
d e v e lo p m e n t is. Ian W att describes the d e v e lo p m e n t of the
novel as p a rtly d u e to the new idea of “form al realism " as an
a p p ro p ria te m o d e of disco u rse in fiction. S u c h inventors of
th e novel as Defoe, R ich ard so n , a n d Fielding substituted,
for the stylized plots a n d c h a ra c te rs of earlier fiction, a fidelity
to th e details of o rd in a ry ex perience th a t sh o w ed itself in re
alistically com plex, original, a n d not com pletely designed
plots, in th e p articu larity (as o p p o se d to universality) w ith
w hich c h a ra c te rs a n d e n v iro n m e n ts w ere d raw n , a n d in the
plain, e v ery d a y language in w hich the story w as told (W att,
1957, pp. 13-30). A story so told differs in m o re th a n m in o r
details fro m a ro m a n c e w ith a n artificial plot, c h a ra c te rs (like
G a rg a n tu a ) w h o se n a m e s insist th a t they are universal types,
a n d a lan g u ag e n o n e of the c h a ra c te rs could have m a n a g e d
in real life—it differs in its c o n c e p tio n of w h a t a w o rk of
fiction o u g h t to strive for a n d w h a t it m ig h t accom plish.
A round th a t new c o n c e p tio n a n e w w orld of w riters and
re a d e r s grad u ally arose.
S o m e a rt w orlds begin w ith the d e v elo p m e n t of a new
313 ♦ C H A N G E IN AR T W ORLDS
FIGURE 33. James M. Davis, The Railroad, ‘Tis Like Life. Stereo
graphs emphasized the three-dimensionality o f the image by in
cluding diagonals that ran into deep space. (Courtesy o f the Visual
Studies Workshop.)
Production
As w ork b e co m e s k n o w n over a larger area, people p r o
d u c e m ore of it, eith er b e ca u se m o re people get involved
in p ro d u c tio n o r th ro u g h the in tro d u ctio n of industrialized
m e th o d s. Jazz sp re a d faster a fte r the industrialized p r o d u c
tion a n d d istrib u tio n of p h o n o g ra p h re co rd s allow ed local
players to h e a r a n d im itate w h a t m usician s elsew here w ere
doing.
T h e in d u strializatio n o f s te re o g ra p h p ro d u c tio n to o k place
in a relatively sh o rt time. If a n atio n al m a rk e t w a s going to
d isse m in a te the new art of stereo views, m a n u f a c tu r e r s h ad
to p ro d u c e th e m in sufficient q u a n tity to m e e t the d e m a n d
(see figure 34). The h a n d ic ra ft m e th o d s of the early p r o
d u c ers w ould n o t do:
Distribution
N ew business a n d d istrib u tio n a rra n g e m e n ts help the
grow ing art w orld sp re a d over a larger territory. This in
volves the sale of finished work, for o b je c t-p ro d u c in g arts,
a n d the d e v e lo p m e n t of stab le c o n tra c tu a l a rra n g e m e n ts for
p e rfo rm a n c e s .
The small businesses of early s te re o g ra p h o p e ra to rs were
confined largely to th e ir ow n localities. Different a re a s tra d ed
im ages th ro u g h “e x c h a n g e clubs," w h o se a m a te u r m e m b e rs
regularly tr a d e d work. Im a g ery also traveled as people
b ro u g h t back ste re o g ra p h ic souvenirs o f th e ir trips, b u t the
large-scale m igration o f im ag ery b e g an with highly o rg a
nized m e rc h a n d is in g schem es, designed to m ove the o u tp u t
of the industrialized p roducers.
Early p h o to g ra p h e rs sold views out of their studios,
th ro u g h su c h ag en ts as op tician s a n d art shops, a n d by mail.
T he big p ro d u c e rs w h o re p lac ed th e m c re a te d large door-
to-door sales forces. The p re sid e n t of the K eystone View
C o m p a n y d e sc rib e d turn-of-the-century m a rk e tin g te c h
niques as follows:
C om m unication
Those walls, insulating local artists from the influence of
w o rk e rs in o th e r localities w h o are p ro d u c in g a different
version o f the innovation, will a lrea d y have b e g u n to fall,
b e c a u se of the in c rea sed c o m m u n ic a tio n b etw een local art
330 ♦ C H A N G E I N ART W O R L D S
Interchangeable PcrsonneI
As a result of all these changes, the perso n n el of a n a rt
w o rld all s h a re know ledge o f its basic conventions. The w o rk
of people e x p e rim e n tin g w ith a n in n o v a tio n is so provincial
th a t people from ou tsid e their locality c a n n o t c o o p e ra te in its
p ro d u c tio n o r c o n su m p tio n . W ith in creased c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
a variety of w o rk b e co m es available for study, a n d p ra c ti
tioners fro m alm o st an y w h ere, h a v in g seen o r h e a rd the
w ork of others, can co llab o rate w ith those from a n y w h e re
else w ith little difficulty. A udiences likewise no longer n e ed to
be fro m the local a re a to u n d e r s ta n d w h a t is being done.
They, too, have h ad c o n ta c t with a g re a te r variety of w ork
a n d can re sp o n d to art from a n y of the places w h ere the new
w ork is being done.
O nce th e skills necessary to p a rtic ip ate in any o f an art
w o rld ’s im p o r ta n t activities are no longer linked to a specific
locale, the art w orld in q u e stio n can re p ro d u c e itself e n d
lessly a n d c a n recruit p e rso n n e l from anyw here, no longer
being d e p e n d e n t on c h a n c e m is fo rtu n e s th a t m ight affect
o n e area. O nce the people w h o p articip ate in the p ro d u c tio n
of the w o rk c a n be in te rc h a n g e d w ith o u t reg ard for their
local origins, th e w orld has b e c o m e s e m ia u to n o m o u s . W h at
333 ♦ C H A N G E IN A R T W ORLDS
FIGURE 37. The Buddy Petit Jazz Band o f New Orleans. Early
jazz groups were locally based, and reflected the character o f the
black population in their locality and the kinds o f occasions for
which they performed. This band might have performed for street
parades, outdoor concerts, and the like. (Photograph courtesy o f the
Institute o f Jazz Studies, Rutgers University.)
i h jh b
.♦
351
352 ♦ R E P U T A T I O N
REPUTATION AS PR O C ESS
Art worlds, in a variety of in terw o v en activities, routinely
m a k e a n d u n m a k e re p u ta tio n s —of works, artists, schools,
genres, a n d m edia. They single o u t from the m a s s of m o re or
less sim ilar w ork d o n e by m o re o r less in te rc h a n g e a b le p e o
ple a few w orks a n d a few m a k e rs of w orks of special w orth.
They re w a rd th a t special w o rth w ith e steem an d , fre q u en tly
b u t not necessarily, in m o re m aterial w ays too. They use
re p u ta tio n s, once m ade, to organize o th e r activities, treating
things a n d people w ith distinguished re p u ta tio n s differently
from others.
Levels o f R ep u tation
Artists are not the only ones to have re p u tatio n s. W orks
have re p u ta tio n s, too. “T he finest novel of the last ten y e ars,”
“the g re ate st w ork of S o u th A m erican fiction,” “one of the
ten g re ate st paintings of the tw entieth c e n tu r y ”—m e m b e rs of
a rt w orlds say su ch things every day. They are not ju d g in g
the people w h o m a d e the works, b u t ra th e r h o w well the
w ork deals w ith the problem s, possibilities, a n d con strain ts
of its genre, o f w h a t George K u b le r (1962) calls a “ form-
class.” They c o m p a re the w ork to o th e rs like it, m o re or less
w ith o u t re feren c e to w h o m a d e it. An o th erw ise ungifted
artist, c o n tra ry to the th eo ry of artists' re p u tatio n s, m a y get
h o t a n d m a k e one g re at w ork. The w o rk ’s re p u ta tio n will
o v e rsh a d o w its m a k e r ’s. Likewise, a great w o rk c a n be m a d e
b u t know ledge of its m a k e r be lost o r n ever re co rd e d ; K ubler
m e n tio n s this as ch ara cte ristic of m a n y of the great artistic
cultures.
Schools develop rep u tatio n s, m a d e up in p a rt of the r e p u
tatio n s of the individual artists w h o belong to th e m a n d the
w o rk s those m e m b e rs create. M ethod actin g a n d serial
com position, for instance, have re p u ta tio n s —n o t necessarily
universally ag reed o n —w hich are b a s e d on b u t not the sa m e
as the individual re p u ta tio n s of w orks a n d w orkers. The r e p
u ta tio n of a school d e p e n d s on so m e larger a rt w o rld ’s
a ss e s s m e n t o f th e possibility of creating im p o rta n t w ork u s
ing the co n v en tio n s ch ara cte ristic of the school. C an you
c o m p o se em otionally m e an in g fu l m usic if you a c c e p t the
c o m p lica te d c o n strain ts of the twelve-tone system ? Can you
c o m p o se m u sic th a t e m b o d ie s y o u r o w n gifts a n d sensibility
by leaving m u c h of w h a t is to be played to c h a n c e o p e ra tio n s
carried on by the p e rfo rm e r on the occasion of e ac h p e rfo r
m a n c e ? Art w orld m e m b e r s w h o a n sw e r “n o ” to these q u e s
tions a u to m atica lly decide the re p u ta tio n s of all the artists
w h o b elong to th o se schools a n d all the w orks b a s e d on those
theories.
G en res develop re p u tatio n s, ju s t as schools do, w hich
reflect the c o n se n su s of th e relevant art w orld a b o u t the
degree to w hich im p o rta n t w orks c a n be d o n e in th e m . W hite
359 ♦ R E P U T A T I O N
R ep u tation a n d A rt W orld
The th eo ry o f re p u ta tio n says th a t re p u ta tio n s are b ased
on works. But, in fact, the re p u ta tio n s of artists, works, a n d
the rest result from the collective activity o f a rt worlds. If we
review the m a jo r activities of a rt w orlds from this point of
view, we can see h o w they all c o n trib u te to a n d d e p e n d on
the m ak in g of rep u tatio n s.
F or re p u ta tio n s to arise a n d persist, critics a n d a e sth e ti
cians m u st establish theories of a rt a n d criteria by w hich art,
good art, a n d great art can be distinguished a n d identified.
W ith o u t those criteria, no o n e could m a k e the ju d g m e n ts of
works, genres, o r m e d ia on w hich the ju d g m e n ts of artists
d e p e n d . R e m e m b e r D a n to ’s a p h o rism : “To see s o m e th in g as
a rt re q u ire s s o m e th in g the eye c a n n o t d e sc ry —a n a t m o
sp h e re of artistic theory, a know ledge of the history o f art: an
a rtw o rld " (Danto, 1964, p. 580). Likewise, h isto ria n s a n d
sch o lars m u s t establish the can o n of a u th e n tic a te d w orks
w h ich c a n be a ttrib u te d to an artist, so th a t th e rest o f us can
b a se o u r ju d g m e n ts on the a p p ro p ria te evidence. T he distri
b u tio n system relies on these scholarly ju d g m e n ts to ratify its
choices of w h a t to d istrib u te (a n d at w h a t price):
The two major facts which introduce, at the level of the supply
[of classical paintings], guarantees of rarity and quality are
the following. Each work put on sale is singular and irreplace
able: it is the unique product of the undivided labor of a
unique creator. The authenticity and the originality, as well as
the quality of works, arc guaranteed by a corps of specialists,
the historians of art. (Moulin, 1978, pp. 242-43, my translation)
W HAT LASTS?
Most th e o rie s of aesthetics a n d the m o re traditional ver
sions o f the sociology of art insist on the possibility a n d the
necessity of m a k in g ju d g m e n ts of quality a b o u t art works.
They m a k e re a so n e d a rg u m e n ts a b o u t how w ork of e x c e p
tional value can be distinguished from the o rd in a ry a n d in
sist th a t th a t distinction m u st be the c o rn e rsto n e of any
ra tio n a l o r serious investigation of art as h u m a n activity. If
art e x p resses basic cu ltural values o r h u m a n em otions, som e
a rt will do th a t b e tte r th a n o th e r art a n d will th e refo re be
w h a t o u g h t to be stu d ied to u n d e r s ta n d w h at is genetically
tru e of the p h e n o m e n o n . S uch a n investigation m ight m odel
itself on Aristotle's Poetics, taking the best sp e c im e n s of a
g en re a n d inspecting th e m to see w h a t they have in c o m m o n .
T rad itio n a l sociologists of art (e.g., L ow enthal, 1957; Lukacs,
1964; G o ld m a n n , 1964, 1967) typically believe th a t to stu d y
the “ close relatio n sh ip b e tw ee n literary creatio n a n d social
a n d historical r e a lity .. . . the very p eak s of literary creation
m a y n o t only be stu d ied quite as well as average w orks, but
are even fo u n d to be p a rticu larly suitable" (G o ld m an n , 1967,
p. 495).
But w h ich w o rk s are better? To identify th e m by their
c o n g ru e n c e w ith the th eo ry th a t is to explain th em begs the
q u estio n . Recognizing that, the c o m m o n solution to the
p ro b le m of identifying w h a t is best is to a p p e a l to c o m m o n
sen se a n d collective experience, to w h a t “everyone know s."
W h at e v ery o n e k now s—it is a fact of c o m m o n o b s e rv a tio n —is
th a t som e w orks have lasted for years, centuries, even m il
lennia. W h a t lasting consists of is n o t very clear. It does not
refer to sim ple physical survival, b u t r a th e r to co n tin u ed
a p p re c ia tio n by large n u m b e rs of people. It is not u n r e a s o n
able to see lasting as a p h e n o m e n o n of re p u ta tio n . T h at is, a
366 ♦ R E P U T A T I O N
373
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382 ♦ B I B L I O G R A P H Y
385
386 ♦ I N D E X
Tactile Art G roup, 71-72, 205, 209 Vollard, Am brose, 173, 198
Taft, Robert, 298, 32 L 339, 346
Talbot, George, 222 W achsm ann, K laus, xi
Taste, 102-103 W alker Art Center, 261
T axation, 172 W alton, John, 152
Taylor, Paul, 49, 303 W arhol, Andy, 146
Thackeray, William M ake W aring, Fred, 171
peace, 127 W aste, 205
T heater, 52-53. 61, 75, 7L 90^91, Waste Land, The, 192-193
175. 189-190. 202.219.302 W att, Ian, 312, 313
T hom pson, Peter H unt, 75 W atts Towers, 226, 260, 265, 266,
Throne o f the Third Heaven o f the 268, 269
National M illenium General A s Way, B renda, 49
sembly, The, 261, 262 W eaving, 287-288
Tice, George, 321. 340 W ebern, Anton, 66, 305
Titian, ix, 23, 115. 224 W elles, Orson, 175
Toulouse-Lautrec, H enri, 207 W eston, E dw ard, LL 291, 343-345
Tracy, Mr., 267 W hite, Clarence, 296
Travesties, 14, 354 W hite, Cynthia, xi, 108-109.
Trillin, Calvin, 226, 260, 264-265, 268 111-112. 222. 232. 358-359
Trollope, A nthony, L 18-19. 23-24. W hite, E ric W alter, 10, 291
126, 128, 356, 364 W hite, H arrison, xi, 108-109.
Tugwell, Rex ford, 345 111-112, 222, 232, 358-359
Tulsa, 207 W hite, H. C. Co., 324
Tuttin, M., 68-69, 364 W ilder, Alex, 57
Twain, M ark, 207 W illiams, W illiam Carlos, 96
W inogrand, Gary, 50
U nderw ood and U nderw ood, 326, W ippich, Louis C., 266
337-339 W izard o f Oz, The, 21
Useem, Michael, 348 Wolfe, T hom as, 194
Utility. 273-275. 278-279, 283, W ollheim. R ichard, 23
291-296 W ork songs, 256
W orm er, Karl H., 19
Vanity Fair, 127
Vclho, G ilberto, 188 Zack, David, 278, 283
Villon, Jacques, 116-117 Zaidee, 124
Virtuosity. 275-277, 279, 289^290, Zolberg, Vera, 118. 122
291-296
D esigner: W en d v C alm enson
C om positor: D h a r m a Press
Printer: T h o m so n -S h o re Inc.
Binder: John H. D ekker & Sons
T ext: 1 1 /1 3 A s t e r
D isplay: B a u h a u s L ight
• 9
ART UJORLDS
"Maybe the years I spent playing the piano in taverns in Chicago and
elsewhere led me to believe that the people who did that mundane work
were as important to an understanding of art as the better-known players
who produced the recognized classics of jazz. Growing up in Chicago—
where Louis Sullivan's democratic philosophy was embodied in the sky
scrapers of the downtown 1 loved to prowl around and Moholy-Nagy's
Institute of Design gave a Midwestern home to the refugee Bauhaus*
concern for the craft in art—may have led me to think that the craftsmen
who help make art works are as important as the people who conceive
them. My rebellious temperament may be the cause of a congenital
antielitism. learning the Chicago tradition" of sociology from Everett C.
Hughes and Herbert Blumcr surely led to a skepticism about conventional
definitions of the objects of sociological study.
All those things had a part in forming the attitudes of this book.. . . I
have treated art as the work some people do, and have been more concerned
with patterns of cooperation among the people who make the works than
with the works themselves or with those conventionally defined as their
creators That has inevitably meant treating art as not so very different
from other kinds of work, and treating people defined as artists as not so
very different from other kinds of workers, especially the other workers
who participate in the making of art works.
"The idea of an art world forms the backbone of my analysis. Art world’
is commonly used by writers on the arts in a loose and metaphoric way,
mostly to refer to the most fashionable people associated with those
newsworthy objects and events that command astronomical prices. I have
used the term in a more technical way, to denote the network of people
whose cooperative activity, organized via their joint knowledge of conven
tional means of doing things, produces the kind of art work that art world is
noted for.
FROM T H E PREFACE
ISBN 0-520-04386-3