Combined Sciences Notes f2

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Form 2
Combined Science
Biology
Cells And Levels Of Organisation
BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1. State differences among living things,

2. Compare continuous and discontinuous variation,
3. Draw bar graphs to show variations in living things.
Variation
 Variation is any differences in features or characteristics within living things of the same kind
(same species).
 It is used to classify organisms into different groups.
Causes of variation
Genetic factors
 These are characteristics which are in-born.
 They are inheritable; they can be passed on from the parent to the offspring.
 Examples are eye colour (fig.1.1.1), body form and blood type in humans.
Reference Ruzivo Digital learning

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Fig.1.1.1:
Variation in eye colour caused by genetic differences.

Environmental factors
 These include food supply, climate and actions of other organisms.
 Variation may result from one factor or the combined effect of many factors.
 In humans, there may be differences in mass, skin complexion and health.
Fig.1.1.2: Variation in body mass can be

influenced by environmental factors.
Types of variation
 There are two types of variation: continuous and discontinuous.
Continuous variation
 This occurs when there are many very small differences in a characteristic among
individuals.
 It is caused by both genetic and environmental factors.
 Individuals are difficult to separate into distinct groups.
 The differences in the characteristic are spread over a range (from low to high).
 Most individuals are found in the middle (intermediate) range.

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 Characteristics that show continuous variation in both plant and animals are shown in table
1.1.1.
 When plotted on a graph, continuous variation produces a bell shaped graph (fig.1.1.3).
Table 1.1.1: Examples of continuous variation
Plants
Animals
 Height  Height
 Mass  Mass
 Shoe size  Leaf length
 Skin colour  Number of seeds in a pod
Fig 1.1.3:
A bar graph of mass of people against the number of people

Experiment 1.1.1: Investigating the variation in height of pupils in a class
Materials
 Metre rule or tape measure
 Graph paper
Procedure
1. Measure the height of all the pupils in a class.
2. Record the grouped height in a table as shown below.
Table 1.1.2: Record of height of pupils in a class

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Height of pupils (class) Number of pupils
1.45 – 1.49m
1.50 – 1.54m
1.55 – 1.59m
1.60 – 1.64m
1.65 – 1.69m
1.70 – 1.74m
1.75 – 1.79m
 Draw a bar graph for each class of the height against the number of pupils.
 Calculate the average height of the pupils.
Expected Observations
 The bar graph obtained should appear like the one below.

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Fig 1.1.4:
A bar graph of height of pupils against the number of pupils

Discontinuous variation
 This occurs when there are very sharp clear-cut differences of a characteristic among
individuals.
 It is caused by genetic factors and not influenced by environmental factors.
 There are usually two or more distinct or separate variations (fig.1.1.5).
 There are no intermediates.
 Examples of discontinuous variation include;
 Hand use : right or left handedness
 Earlobes : distinct or indistinct (fig.1.1.6)
 Tongue rolling : roller or non- roller (fig.1.1.6)
 Blood groups : A, B, AB and O
 Gender : male or female

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Fig.1.1.5:
A bar graph showing discontinuous variation in human blood groups
Fig 1.1.6:
Discontinuous variation in earlobes and tongue rolling

Table 1.1.3: Differences between continuous and discontinuous variation

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Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
No distinct groups or classes Distinct groups or classes
Moderately influenced by genetic factors Strongly influenced by genetic
Strongly influenced by the environment Not influenced by the environ
Cells-and-levels-of-organisation-Exercise 1
Answer the following questions. For each question, there are four possible answers. Choose the one
that you consider correct.
1) Which of the following best defines variation? Differences between cells, individual organisms,
or groups of organisms of any species.
Differences between all the living things in a population.
Differences between living things and non-living things.
The effect of the environment on living things.
2) Which type of variation is strongly affected by the environment? Genetic variation

Continuous variation
None
3) Eucalyptus is an exotic tree that grows very tall compared to some indigenous trees found in
Zimbabwe. Which factor(s) causes the differences in the growth rates? Both genetic and
environmental factors.
Genetic factors only.
Environmental factors only.
First genetic and later environmental factors.
4) Which of the following factors causes discontinuous variation? Heredity

Food
Light
Environment
5) Which of the following is an example of genetic variation? One person is older than another.
One person has a scar, but her friend does not.
Simba eats meat, but his sister Tanya is a vegetarian.
Two children who have different eye colours.
6) Which environmental factors can cause variation in the choice of sporting preferences by pupils
at school? Nutrition and the height of the pupil.
Height of the pupil and the size of their feet.
Availability of pitches and family history.
All of the above.
7) Variation is affected by genetics and the environment. Which of the following in a bean plant is
determined by both the environmental and genetic factors? Number of seeds in a pod.
Shape of the seed pod.
Natural colour of the seed pod.

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Number of petals on a flower.
8) Which of the following characteristics shows variation in plants as a result of genetic factors?
Yellowing of leaves.
Holes in some leaves.
Brown leaf margins.
Leaves with parallel veins.
9) The following is a list of factors that can cause variation.

Climate
Food supply
Actions of other organisms
Which group of factors does this list belong to? Environmental factors
Genetic factors
Characteristics
Human factors
10) Male sheep have horns while female sheep do not. Which type of variation is described in that
statement? Continuous variation
Basic variation
Individual variation
Cells-and-levels-of-organisation-Exercise 2
Choose whether the following characteristics show continuous or discontinuous variation.
1) Hair colour
2) Left/Right handedness
3) Body size
4) Gender
5) Ear length
6) Intelligence
7) Finger length
8) Fingerprints
9) Ear lobes

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10) Blood groups
Nutrition
1. Explain the importance of plants as producers;

2. State the word equation for photosynthesis;
3. Draw and label digestive system of humans;
4. Outline the route followed by food in the human digestive system.
Importance of plants as producers

 All animals depend on plants as a source of food to give them energy to continue surviving.
 Green plants use raw materials from the environment to make food.
 Plants are therefore the producers of food.Plants are essential for converting sunlight
energy into chemical energy, which is consumed by animals.
 Animals obtain chemical energy from the plants, which they in turn convert into different
forms of energy they require, for example heat energy for warmth and kinetic energy for
movement and locomotion.
 The sun provides energy to the plants.
 Plants photosynthesise and produce oxygen as a by-product.
 The oxygen is inhaled by all animals and most living organisms.
 Organisms which can produce their own food are known as autotrophs.
 Heterotrophs are organisms which depend on plants for food and energy, for example
animals.
 They cannot produce their own food.
Photosynthesis
 The process by which green plants use carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates
is called photosynthesis.
 ‘Photo’ means light and ‘synthesis’ means building up.
 This process occurs in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants, which is responsible for absorption of sunlight.
 Photosynthesis can be summarised by the following word equation:
 Carbohydrate is produced in the form of glucose and is stored in the form of starch because
starch is insoluble.
 It can also be converted to other forms.
 Oxygen is given off as a by-product and it is important for respiration.
 Carbon dioxide, water and sunlight energy are the raw materials needed for photosynthesis.

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 Water is absorbed from the soil through the roots and is transported through tubes called
xylem vessels.
 Carbon dioxide is abundant in the atmosphere.
 Sunlight energy is obtained directly from the sun.
 Photosynthesis takes place in the leaf.
 However, few plants which do not have leaves use the stem to photosynthesise, for
example, cactus/madhorofiya/icena.
Adaptations of the leaf for photosynthesis
 Leaves have got some special features on them which enable them to carry out the process
of photosynthesis.
 These features are the adaptations of the leaf for this process and include the following:
 Leaves have a large surface area which maximises photosynthesis.
 They are thin allowing maximum penetration of light.
 Numerous pores called stomata allow gases to diffuse in and out.
 Leaves have veins which bring water from the roots and carry food from the leaves to the
rest of the plant.
 They have chlorophyll, the green pigment which traps sunlight.
 Leaf surfaces reduce water loss by being shiny, hairy or waxy and having a tick cuticle.
Fig 1.2.1:
Photosynthesis in a leaf
Digestive system in humans
 Animals consume food made by plants.
 After consumption, the body breaks down these foods into simple, soluble ones.
 The breaking down of food into simpler, soluble molecules is called digestion.
 Digestion occurs in the alimentary canal (Fig1.2.2).
 The alimentary canal is the whole passage along which food passes through the body from
mouth to anus.
 The alimentary canal can also be known as the digestive system.
 It carries out both physical and chemical digestion.

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 Physical digestion is achieved by chewing food mechanically using teeth, or by the turning
and squeezing of food in the alimentary canal.
 Chemical digestion occurs by means of digestive juices produced by glands.
 These juices are enzymes; biological catalyst which speed up a chemical reaction whilst
remaining unchanged.
Fig 1.2.2:
The human alimentary canal.

 Below is the pathway followed by food in the alimentary canal.

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Fig 1.2.3:
Route followed by food in the human digestive system

 Food is ingested through the mouth.
 The tongue mixes the food by rolling it.
 It is chewed by teeth and broken down into smaller pieces.
 Specialised teeth such as molars and pre molar crush the food mechanically.
 Salivary amylase, produced by salivary glands chemically breaks down large starch molecules
into smaller soluble glucose molecules.
 The food moves down the oesophagus as a ball known as bolus.
 The muscles in the oesophagus contract and relax enabling movement of food.
 This movement of food is called peristalsis.
 Food then moves to the stomach where it is stored temporarily and more chemical digestion
takes place.
 Stomach walls contain stomach juices which digest proteins.
 The first digestion of proteins occurs in the stomach.
 The acidity within the stomach, provides a favourable environment for protein digestion.
 Physical digestion of stomach walls occurs by contracting and relaxing of the muscles
(squeezing/churning the food).
 The pancreas and liver play a role in necessitating chemical digestion by producing digestive
juices, for example the liver produces bile which emulsifies (break down) fats.
 Pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
 Carbohydrates and fats are digested in the small intestines.
 Food is broken down and transported through the intestinal wall to other parts of the body.
 Absorption occurs because of the large surface area of the ileum projections called villi.
 Undigested food is then moved to the large intestines.
 Water is absorbed and the solid material left is passed to the rectum.
 It is stored in the rectum as faeces.
 It is excreted through the anus.

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Nutrition-Exercise 1
1) Which of the following is not an adaptation of the leaf for photosynthesis? Green pigment
Presence of stoma.
Spiky leaves
Veinated leaves
2) Another method of mechanical digestion in the mouth takes place by ________. churning of
stomach walls
rolling of tongue
contracting and relaxing of muscles
movement of bolus
3) What is the process that takes place in the oesophagus? Digestion

Absorption
Assimilation
Peristalsis
4) Which characteristic of leaves enables the diffusion of gases into and out of the leaf during
photosynthesis? Shiny surface
Pores on the edges.
Chlorophyll
Venation system
5) During photosynthesis, plants make carbohydrate as ________, while animals eat the
carbohydrate as ________. starch; fat
glucose; starch
fat; starch
starch; glucose
6) In which part of the digestive system is water absorbed? Pancreas

Large intestines
Small intestines
Rectum
7) Where is the juice produce by the liver stored? Bile duct

Liver
Gall bladder
Pancreas
8) In which part of a plant does photosynthesis take place? Stem

Roots
Fruit
Leaves
9) ________ are digested in the small intestines. Proteins

Minerals
Vitamins

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Fats
10) Chemical digestion is aided by ________. enzymes

saliva
stomach walls
water
Nutrition-Exercise 2
Answer the following questions by filling in each space using the suitable word(s).
1) Name the tissues which transport water from the roots to the leaves.
2) ________ is used as a raw material for photosynthesis because it is abundant in the

atmosphere.
3) Name of the digestive juice produced by the liver.
4) Photosynthesising plants which do not use the leaves use the ________.
5) The digestive system can be alternatively known as the ________.
6) The process by which green plants use carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates is
called ________.
7) Animals convert chemical energy to potential and ________ energy.
8) What is the name of the green pigment in plants which traps sunlight?
9) What is the process of breaking down complex food molecules into simpler soluble ones?
10) Which substance in the digestive system emulsifies fats?
Respiratory Organs
1. Label parts of the respiratory system;

2. Describe the breathing mechanisms in humans.
Respiratory organs
 Respiratory system is responsible for breathing (ventilation) and gaseous exchange in
humans.
 Respiratory organs are body parts involved in respiratory system (fig.1.3.1) and they are:
o Nose and nasal cavity

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o Pharynx
o Larynx
o Trachea
o Bronchi
o Lungs
o Alveoli (Air sacs)
Fig.1.3.1:
The human respiratory system

Nose And Nasal Cavity
o Air enters the respiratory system through nose and channeled towards the trachea
through the nasal cavities.
o The nose is made up of two nostrils.
o Nostrils contain nasal hairs that filter the air.
o The nasal cavity secretes mucus that traps and prevents the entry of pathogens and
dust particles into the lungs.
o Nostrils and nasal cavity also warm the cold air and moistens the dry air entering the
body.
Pharynx
o It lies behind mouth, nose and larynx.
o Pharynx helps in passage of air from nose to trachea.
o The air is further warmed and moistened as it passes through pharynx.
Larynx
o It links the pharynx with the trachea, thus allowing passage of air.
o It also moistens (add moisture), filters and warms the air.
Trachea/Wind Pipe
o The pipe provides a channel for inhaled air from the nose to the lungs and for
exhaled air from the lung to the nose.
o It is supported by rings of cartilage which prevent the trachea from collapsing due to
continuous relaxation when pressure inside drops.

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o Trachea wall cells secrete mucus that keeps the walls of the pipe moist and traps
dust particles.
Bronchi
o The trachea divides into two narrower pipes called the bronchi (singular is called
bronchus).
o Bronchi provides passage of air to enter or exit the lungs.
o These bronchi further subdivide into smaller tubes called bronchioles.
o Bronchioles have similar structure to trachea except that they are narrower in
diameter.
o The bronchioles continue to branch and lead into alveoli (air sacs).
o Bronchi connect the trachea to the lungs, thus allowing air from outside into the
lungs.
Alveoli (Air Sacs)
o The alveolus is the site of gaseous exchange.
o Allow exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs.
o Oxygen diffuses across alveolar and capillary membranes from alveolus into blood
whilst carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveolus.
Lungs
 There is one pair of lungs, the right lung and the left lung.
 Each lung is connected to the trachea by a bronchus.
 The lungs contain numerous bronchioles and alveoli.
Mechanism of breathing
 Breathing is the process of taking in air and forcing it out of lungs.
 The process is made up of two stages which are inhalation and exhalation.
Inhalation (Breathing in)
 The volume inside lungs increases when the chest cavity expands.
 Expansion of the chest cavity (fig.1.3.2) is achieved through the:
 contraction and flattening of the diaphragm increases the volume of the chest cavity and;
 contraction of the intercoastal muscles (muscles between ribs) which pull the rib cage
upwards and outwards.
 The pressure inside the lungs decreases lower than the atmospheric pressure and air flows
into the lungs.

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Fig.1.3.2:
Breathing in
Exhalation (Breathing out)
 The volume inside lungs decreases when the chest cavity compresses.
 Compression of the chest cavity (fig.1.3.3) is achieved when:
 the diaphragm relaxes and assumes a dome shape, which decreases the volume of the chest
cavity;
 intercostals muscles relax and;
 relaxing of the intercoastal muscles drops the position of the rib cage and reduces the size of
the chest cavity.
 The pressure inside the lungs increases higher than the atmospheric pressure and air is
forced out of the lungs into the atmosphere.

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Fig.1.3.3:
During exhalation
Gaseous exchange at the alveolus
 Alveoli are located at the ends of the bronchioles in the lungs.
 Alveoli are adapted for their gaseous exchange function because:
 they have very thin walls, which are one cell thick so that gases travel a short distance during
diffusion;
 their walls are moist (wet) to be able to absorb gases and;
 they are surrounded by a network of small blood vessels, or capillaries that brings
deoxygenated blood and takes away oxygenated blood.
 This allows gases to diffuse, or move across, the surface of the alveolus.

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Fig.1.3.4:
The alveolus and the association with blood
Respiratory-systems-Exercise 1
1) What happens to the intercostal muscles during inhalation? They contract.

They relax.
The are pushed upwards.
They are pushed downwards.
2) Which of the following statements describe what happens during exhalation?

The diaphragm relaxes and assumes a dome shape.
Intercostal muscles relax.
The volume of the chest increases.
I and II only.
I, II and III.
II and III only.
I and III only.
3) Which action decreases the pressure inside the chest cavity? Diaphragm relaxing.
Intercostal muscles relaxing.
Diaphragm becoming dome-shaped.
Ribcage moving upwards.
4) Which of the following takes place during breathing in? The diaphragm expands and the rib
cage contracts.
The rib cage expands and the diaphragm does not move.

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The diaphragm contracts and the rib cage expands.

The rib cage does not move and the diaphragm expands.
5) The tranchea is further divided into two tubes. The tubes are referred to as _________ .
brinchioles
wind pipes
bronchi
gut
6) The other name for the wind pipe is ________ . larynx

pharynx
trachea
bronchus
7) Which of the following defines the respiratory system? The body's breathing and gaseous
exchange system.
The body's system of nerves and response to environment.
The body's food-processing and growth system.
The body's system that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood.
8) What happens to the pressure inside the chest cavity if the volume increases? Increases
Remains the same.
Decreases
Fluctuates
9) Which of the following body parts has air carrying tubes and tiny air sacs? Diaphragm
Lungs
Trachea
Liver
10) Which of these respiratory tubes has the largest diameter? Bronchus
Diaphragm
Bronchiole
Trachea
Respiratory-systems-Exercise 2
1) The diagram below shows an alveolus. Name the gas that passes in the direction shown by the
arrow.

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2) The act of bringing air into and out of the lungs is called ________.
3) Name the process that is used by gases to move across the walls of the alveolus.
4) The structures in the lungs where gas exchange occurs are called ________.
5) The trachea is further divided into two tubes. The tubes are referred to as ________.
6) Besides the nasal hair, which other substance traps dust particles in the nostrils?
7) How many lungs do human beings have? (Write your answer in words.)
8) Two diagrams P and Q show different stages in the process of breathing.
Which one of them represents exhaling?
9) Which part of a seed develops into the shoot system?
10) The other name for the wind pipe is ________.
Transport Systems

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1. Outline the internal structures of a root and stem;

2. Describe water and ion uptake by plants;
3. Draw and label the structure of the heart;
4. Name the blood vessels to and from the heart;
5. State the functions of the heart.
Transport in plants
Root and Stem structure
 Plant stems and roots have special tissues which perform different functions in the plant.
Fig 1.4.1:
Internal structure of dicotyledonous stem

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Fig 1.4.2:
Internal structure of dicotyledonous root

 Epidermis: the outer layer of the skin of both stem and root.
 Vascular bundle: consists of xylem vessels, phloem vessels and cambium.
 Xylem vessels: long thin tubes which transport water from the roots to the stem.
 Phloem vessels: smaller tubes which transport food from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
 Cambium: a layer of cells (meristematic) between phloem and xylem.
 Cortex: protective layer of less specialised cells where the vascular bundle is found.
 Pith: centre of stems composed of parenchyma cells.
 Endodermis: the outer layer that protects the vascular bundle in roots.
 Root hair cells: elongated outgrowths found at the tips of roots which absorb water and
mineral salts.
NB: There is a difference in the position of the xylem vessels and the phloem vessels in roots and the
stems.
 In roots the xylem and phloem are found separate while in the stems they are found
attached.
Experiment 1.4.1: Transport system of a plant
Aim: To investigate arrangement of vascular tissue using dye
Materials
 Young plants (onion or maize)
 Water
 Food colouring
 Hand lenses
 Scarpel blades
 Food colouring
 Containers
Procedure
1. Pour water into a container and add drops of food colouring.
2. Place the maize seedlings or onion shoots into the water.

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3. Leave the plants for a few days.

4. Check the leaves for any change in colour.
5. Using the blades, carefully cut across the stem and root to identify the exact position of the
colouring.
6. Examine the root tips and stem with a hand lens.
7. Draw your findings.
 Where exactly was the food colouring found?
 Was it spread over all parts of the inside of the stem? Was it in certain areas only?
Osmosis and Active uptake
 Water movement in plants is important for survival.
 Water moves by diffusion, osmosis and/or active transport.
Diffusion
 Movement of liquid or gas molecules from areas of their high concentration to areas of their
lower concentration (down a concentration) is called diffusion.
 Water vapour molecules inside leaves move by diffusion.
Osmosis
 Diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher water molecules to a region of lower
water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis.
 Semi-permeable (or selectively permeable) means it allows some substances to pass through
while others are not allowed to depending on some properties.
 Water enters cells by osmosis until all cells are full of water.
 Plant cells have cell walls made up of cellulose and these prevent the cells of bursting.
 When the cells are full of water and firm, they are said to be turgid (fig 1.4.2).
Fig 1.4.3:
A turgid cell
 When the cells are placed in a sugar or salt solution (a solution with less water
concentration), water will move out of the cell to the solution.

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 The cells will become soft due to cell walls sagging inwards and are said to be flaccid (fig
1.4.4).
Fig 1.4.4:
A plasmolysed/flaccid cell
 This movement of water out of the cells is known as plasmolysis.
 A solution with more solute than solvent is known as hypertonic.
 A hypotonic solution has more solute than solvent: it is more dilute than the surrounding
cells.Plants absorb water by osmosis through the root hair cells and the water moves up the
plant to the leaves.
 Roots hairs increase the surface area for water and mineral absorption.
 The minerals are in the form of dissolved ions, and are absorbed actively.
Experiment 1.4.2: Osmosis in living plant tissue
Aim: To investigate osmosis in potatoes.
Materials
 Potatoes
 Knife or blade
 Distilled water
 Sugar or salt
 Beakers
 Weighing balance
Procedure
1. Cut two small cubes of peeled potatoes.
2. Prepare a 5% salt or sugar solution and a 10% salt or sugar solution.
3. Measure and record the length of each potato piece. Add one to each solution and leave
them for a day, as shown below.
4. On day 2 record the size of each potato size.
5. Record all measurements in a table.
6. Calculate the average percentage increase.

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Fig 1.4.5:
Setup to show osmosis in potato strips

 How does the pieces of potato feel? Are they hard or soft?
 Where are the partially permeable membranes in the pieces of potato?
 After two days, is the potato piece in 5% solution similar to that left in 10% solution? Suggest
a reason for your answer.
Active transport
 Mineral ions are absorbed actively.
 Concentration of ions in the roots is higher than that in the soil.
 However, energy from the root hair cells is used to pull the ions in.
 The ions in the soil are too low to move by diffusion, hence active uptake occurs.
 Active uptake is the absorption of ions into cells using energy, against a concentration
gradient.
Transport in animals
Heart structure and Associated blood vessels

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Fig 1.4.6:
The structure of the heart

 The heart together with the blood vessels make up the circulatory system.
 The heart has four chambers;
o two atria (left atrium and right atrium) and
o two ventricles (left ventricle and right ventricle).
 There are valves in between the atria and the ventricles which prevent back flow of blood.
 The septum, a wall of muscle separates the right side of the heart from the left side.
 Blood on the left side of the heart is oxygenated.
 It comes from the lungs, and is passed through the valve and out through the aorta to all
parts of the body.
 Blood on the right side is de-oxygenated.
 It comes from the rest of the body and contains a lot of carbon dioxide released during
respiration.
 The muscular walls on the left side are much thicker than that of the right side.
 This is because the blood from the left side will be pumped to the body at high pressure, for
longer distances, to the rest of the body.
Blood vessels
 There are three main types of blood vessels.
 These are arteries, veins and capillaries.
Arteries
 These are vessels that carry blood away from the heart.
 The largest artery is aorta.
 It carries blood to the rest of the body.
 The pulmonary artery carries blood to the lungs.
 Arteries carry oxygenated blood with the exception of the pulmonary artery which carries
de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
Veins
 These are vessels that carry blood back to the heart.

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 They are thin walled.

 They have valves which close to prevent backflow of blood.
 The vena cava is the largest vein.
 The pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood from the lungs.
Capillaries
 Arteries branch into small vessels called arterioles, which then further branch into thinner
microscopic vessels called capillaries (fig 1.4.6).
 They are a network of vessels which can reach all parts of the body.
 Veins also branch into venules which then form into capillaries.
 Capillaries allow exchange of substances to take place with some tissues and them.
 Example of substances exchange between capillaries and surrounding tissues include
oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.
Fig 1.4.7:
Capillary network
Functions of the circulatory system.
 The heart’s primary function is to pump blood through the blood vessels to all parts of our
body.
 The circulatory system transports heat to all parts of the body.
 It delivers oxygen to all body cells, to enable the body to stay alive.
o The heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs
where it becomes oxygenated and is passed back to the body.
 Blood transports messages to the brain through the nervous system.
 Nutrients are transported to the rest of the body from the digestive system by blood. Waste
substances such as urea and toxins are removed by the blood.
 Hormones circulate in the blood stream.
 White blood cells which fight against infections are transported by circulatory system.
Transport-systems-Exercise 1

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1) Blood that enters the heart from the lungs is ________ . de-oxygenated and on the left atrium
oxygenated and on the righ atrium
de-oxygenated and on the right atrium
oxygenated and on the left atrium
2) Which vessel carries blood from the body?
2
3
4
3) Xylem vessels transport ________ and phloem transport ________. food; water
water; food
ions, water
food; ions
4) Blood on the left side of the heart is ________, whilst that on the right is ________.
oxygenated; oxygenated
oxygenated; deoxygenated
deoxygenated; deoxygenated
deoxygenated; oxygenated
5) Which valve prevents deoxygenated blood from flowing back into the right ventricle? Tricuspid
valve
Semilunar valve
Bicuspid valve
Septum
6) A layer of meristematic cells inside the cirtes in a stem and root is ________ . xylem
phloem

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endodermis
cambium
7) What is the centre of the stem which comprises of parenchyma cells called? Cortex
Cambium
Endodermis
Pith
8) Why does active transport of ions require energy? It occurs against a concentration gradient.
It occurs down a concentration gradient.
It occurs across a concentration gradient.
It occurs in the soil.
9) Firm cells impregnated by water which would have entered by osmosis are said to be ________ .
10) The diagram below shows a cross section of the heart.
Which chamber pumps blood to the lungs? A

B
C
D
Transport-systems-Exercise 2
1) The movement of water out of the cell by osmosis is known as ________.
2) The muscle wall called the ________ prevents the mixing of oxygenated blood with
deoxygenated blood.
3) Xylem vessels transport ________.

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4) When a plant cell becomes filled with water through osmosis, it is said to be ________.
5) Name the outer layer that protects the vascular bundle in roots.
6) A plasmolysed plant cell is also described as ________.
7) What is the absorption of ions and water into cells using energy, against a concentration
gradient?
8) The vascular bundle is made up of the cambium, xylem and ________.
9) Which vessel carries blood to the lungs?
10) The process in which a plant cell loses water by osmosis is known as ________.
Reproductive Systems
1. Distinguish between monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant seeds;

2. Describe functions of cotyledon and endosperm;
3. State the functions of the female and male reproductive systems.
Reproduction in flowering plants

 A seed is the unit of reproduction of a flowering plant.
 It is capable of developing into another plant similar to the parent plant in a process known
as germination (fig.1.5.1).

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Fig.1.5.1a:
Germination of a bean seed

Fig.1.5.1b:
Germination of a maize
Seed structure
 The basic structure of a seed is made up of:
Embryo

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 An immature plant made up of radicle (young root), plumule (young shoot) and one or two
cotyledons (seed leaves).
Cotyledon
 It is part of a seed that provide food nutrients to a newly emerging plant mainly in
dicotyledons.
Endosperm
 It is part of a seed that provide food nutrients to newly emerging plant mainly in
monocotyledons.
Testa (Seed Coat)
 Thick hardened outer coat that protects the seed from drying out and from disease causing
organisms (pathogens).
Types of flowering plants
 Flowering plants can be classified as monocotyledons or dicotyledons, according to the
number of cotyledons present in a seed.
Monocotyledons
 These are plants containing one seed leaf (mono –cotyledon).
 Examples are grasses, onion and cereal crops such as maize.
Dicotyledons
 These are plants containing two seed leaves (di-cotyledon).
 Examples are beans and mango.
Fig 1.5.2:
The structure of a dicotyledonous and a monocotyledonous seed.
Human reproductive system

 It is made up of male (fig.1.5.3) and the female (fig.1.5.4) reproductive systems.
Male reproductive system
 It is made of different organs that help to:
o produce, maintain and transport the male sex cells (sperms);

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o release sperm into the female reproductive system and;

o produce and secrete male sex hormone, testosterone, necessary for sexual
development beginning at puberty.
Fig 1.5.3:
Structure of the male reproductive system

Table 1.5.1: Functions of the parts of the male reproductive system
Part Function
Testis (plural = testes)  Produce sperms.

 Produce and secrete testosterone.
Sperm duct  Passage of sperms from the testes to the penis during the release
of sperms (ejaculation).
Prostate glands  Produces part of seminal fluid (protective fluid) which carries
sperms producing semen.
 Muscles help propel the semen into the urethra during ejaculation.
Penis  Deposits semen into the vagina.
Urethra  Passage of the semen out of the penis.
Female reproductive system

 It is made of different organs that function to:
o produce female egg cells (ova; singular = ovum);

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o receive sperm from penis for reproduction;

o allow the fusion of egg and sperm (fertilisation);
o allow the growth and development of fertilised egg and;
o produce and secrete female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone which
control sexual development in females.
Fig 1.5.4:
Structure of the female reproductive system

Table 1.5.2: Functions of parts of the female reproductive system
Part Function
Ovary  Produce ova.

 Produce and secrete oestrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct or fallopian  Site of fertilisation.

tube  Passage of eggs from the ovary to the uterus.
Uterus  Site where a developing fertilised egg (embryo) is attached and

grows.
Cervix  Allows passage of menstrual flow from the uterus into the vagina.
 Directs the sperms into the uterus during intercourse.
 Opens during birth to allow passage of the baby.

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Vagina  Receives the penis during sexual intercourse and is where semen is
deposited.
 Serves as a channel for menstrual flow from the uterus.
 During childbirth, the baby passes through the vagina (birth canal).
Reproductive-systems-Exercise 1
Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.
1) Which part must first open up for the baby to come out during birth? Uterus
Cervix
Fallopian tube
Vagina
2) What is produced by the testes and the ovaries which controls the sexual characteristics in
humans? Eggs
Sperms
Semen
Hormones
3) Which of the following has seeds with one cotyledon? Beans

Peas
Maize
Sunflower
4) In which part of the reproductive system does the fertilised egg grow? Urethra
Vagina
Uterus
Ovary
5) Which of the following describes the pathway following describes the pathway followed by the
sperm from the time it enters the female reproductive system until it fertilises the egg? Cervix →
Uterus→ Fallopian tube→ Ovary
Vagina→ Uterus → Oviduct→ Ovary
Vagina → Cervix → Uterus → Fallopian tube
Ovary → oviduct → Uterus→ Cervix → Vagina
6) Which of the following is the function of the prostate gland? Release sperms into the vagina
during ejaculation.
Store semen before ejaculation.
Help move the semen into the penis during ejaculation.
Produce sperm for ejaculation.
7) Which list describes the components of a seed embryo? Plumule, testa and cotyledon.
Cotyledon, radicle and plumule.
Testa, radicle and plumule.
Radicle, testa and cotyledon.
8) Which of following plants is not a monocot? Maize

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Beans
Bananas
Grass
9) What is the function of the oviduct? It produces the female sex cells.
It is where sperms are deposited during intercourse.
It is where fertilisation takes place.
It provides food for the growing baby.
10) The vagina is the area in which ________. eggs are made
fertilisation occurs
sperm is deposited
all of the above are correct
Reproductive-systems-Exercise 2
1) Which other name is used to refer to the fallopian tube?
2) The diagram below shows the female reproductive system.
Using the letter A, B or C, name the part also known as the 'womb'.
3) Which organ receives the penis during sexual intercourse?
4) The ________ develops into the shoot system.
5) Name the part of the female reproductive system which opens at birth to allow a baby to pass
through.
6) Name the part of a bean seed develops into the root system.
7) What is the name given to a seed-bearing plant that has two seed leaves?
8) The diagram below shows the female reproductive system.

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Using the letters A, B or C, name the part where fertilisation takes place
9) Name the process in which a seed develops into a new plant.
10) Apart from the cotyledon which other part stores food in a maize seed?
Health And Diseases
1. state causes of diseases;

2. describe causes of bilharzia;
3. describe the life cycle of bilharzia parasite.
Causes of diseases
 Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being.
 It is not just the absence of disease.
 A disease is an illness.
 There are four main causes of diseases, these are:
 Pathogens (disease causing organisms)
 Chemicals and poisons
 Poor nutrition
 Inherited factors
Pathogens
 Pathogens are disease-causing organisms which live as parasites in the person’s body.
 They can be bacteria, virus, fungi, worms and protozoa.
 Some pathogens like bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses cannot be seen with an unaided
(naked) eye but through the use of a microscope.
 Pathogens can be transmitted through contaminated food, water, air and contact as
represented in table 1.6.1

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Table 1.6.1: Pathogens

Pathogen type Disease caused Medium of transmission
Bacteria Cholera, Typhoid Water and food

Tuberculosis (TB), Leprosy Air
Gonorrhoea, Syphilis Sexual contact
Fungi Ringworm Contact
Protozoa Malaria Anopheles mosquito
Virus Influenza, Measles, Smallpox Air
Worm Bilharzia Water
Chemicals and poison

 Hazardous substances are released into the environment every day.
 These mostly come from factories, industries, vehicles and power stations.
 Smoke produced contains poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide.
 The poisonous gases can cause diseases especially respiratory diseases.
 Some chemicals can be found in the food we eat and cause infection.
 Some chemicals and poisons can cause cancer.
 Nuclear radiations cause disease, for example nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
1946 in Japan cause injuries and handicaps to date.
Malnutrition (Wrong nutrition)
 Malnutrition is when the body has too much nutrients or lacks enough nutrients to sustain a
healthy body.
 Good nutrition is obtained from eating healthy food.
 A balanced diet helps prevent diseases.
 There is imbalance of nutrients required by the body.
 It is caused by not having enough to eat, not eating enough of the right things, or being
unable to use the food that one does eat.
 If one or more of the foods are missing from the diet, one may suffer from a disease (table
1.6.2).
 A deficiency disease is one which is caused by the lack of a nutrient in the diet.
Table 1.6.2: Deficiency Diseases
Nutrient lacked Disease caused Examples of food where nutrient is
obtained from
Vitamin D Rickets Bananas, spinach, milk, sunlight
Vitamin C Scurvy Citrus fruits
Vitamin A Night blindness Carrots and leafy vegetables

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Vitamin B1 Beri-beri Meat, eggs, dried beans
Vitamin B7 Depression Poultry items, dairy products
Iodine Goitre Iodised salt, saltwater fish
Protein Kwashiorkor Beans, eggs, lentils
Carbohydrates and protein Marasmus
Calcium Brittle bone and teeth Milk, okra

(osteoporosis)
Iron Anaemia Spinach, mushrooms, liver, nuts
Fig 1.6.1:
A child with Kwashiorkor

 Excessive (too much) nutrients in the body especially carbohydrates and fats can lead to
overweight.
 Prolonged and unchecked overweight can lead to obesity.
 When one has obesity, the body size increases abnormally.

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Fig 1.6.2:
An obese adult person

Inherited factors
 Certain characteristics are passed on from parents to their children through the genes in the
nuclei of sex cells.
 When unfavourable characteristics are passed on from generation to generation they are
referred to as genetic defects.
 These defects can cause disease.
 For example colour blindness and sickle cell anaemia are inherited diseases.
 Some genes result in defects in skin colour, height and impairment of the brain.
 Examples are albinism, whereby there is a lack of colour in the skin.
 Dwarfism is as a result of a defect in limb bones.
 Down’s syndrome is caused by abnormal cell division, which results in extra genetic material
being produced.
Bilharzia
 Bilharzia is caused by parasitic worms called Schistosoma.
 The worms live, feed and develop on snail and human hosts.
 In an infected person, it is usually found in the blood, intestines and bladder.
 It is transmitted by urinating and defecating in stagnant water bodies.
 Contact with contaminated water causes the bilharzia parasite to penetrate through one’s
skin.
 An infected person passes out painful urine with blood.
 A rash or itchy skin may develop together with a fever.
Lifecycle Of Bilharzia Parasite

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Fig 1.6.2:
Lifecycle of the bilharzia parasite

 Eggs are passed into the water when an infected person passes out urine or faeces into the
water.
 Eggs will hatch into a ciliated larvae.
 The larvae will get into another host, a water snail for further development.
 Inside the snail the larvae will develop a tail.
 It will then leave the snail and enters the water.
 If it does not find a human host within 48 hours it dies.
 It then penetrates the human host through the skin.
 It continues its development into an adult worm.
 The female adult worm lays eggs inside the intestines of the human host.
 In the human host, the parasite (eggs) lives, feeds and grows in any part of the body.
 If it reaches the heart or brain, the human host dies.
Prevention Of Bilharzia
 Spread of bilharzia can be controlled by treating water with chemicals.
 Water from untrusted sources must be filtered and boiled before use.
 Avoid fishing with feet in water.
 Washing, bathing and swimming in rivers must be avoided to reduce contact with parasites.
 People should not pass urine and stools in rivers or close to water bodies.
 Killing bilharzia snails helps reduce disease prevalence.
 Improve sanitation
Health-and-diseases-Exercise 1

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1) It is very easy to get bilharzia when fishing in a river with your feet in water because ________.
the larvae enters into the fish
the water is stagnant and the larva do not get washed away
the bilharzia larva can come into contact with human skin
one will catch the infected fish
2) Which group of diseases cannot be prevented? Hereditary

Pathogenic
Infectious
Nutritional
3) Which of the following is a water borne disease? Influenza

HIV/AIDS
Tuberculosis
Bilharzia
4) Which method of separation can be used to separate metals from garbage during recycling of
metals? Winnowing
Evaporation
Magnetism
Filtration
5) Where does the female bilharzia parasite lay its eggs inside the human host? Bladder
Stomach
Intestines
Leg
6) A disease which occurs as a result of malnutrition is referred to as a ________ disease.

deficiency
infectious
hereditary
viral
7) Marasmus is caused by lacking _______. carbohydrates only

vitamins, proteins and carbohydrates
proteins and carbohydrates
carbohydrates only
8) Which of the following is not a genetic disease? Dwarfism

Albinism
Colour blindness
Rickets
9) Which of the following combination can be transmitted by water? Influenza, Protozoa, Typhoid
Tuberculosis, Ringworm, Virus
Worm, Bacteria, Protozoa
Dysentery, Leprosy, Fungi
10) Cholera is an example of which kind of disease? Nutritional

Pathogenic
Genetic

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Chemical
Health-and-diseases-Exercise 2
1) Which type of pathogen causes dysentery?
2) Inherited factors can also be known as ________ .
3) Goitre is caused by a lack of ________.
4) A state of physical, mental and social well-being is known as ________
5) Rickets is a deficiency disease caused by a lack of vitamin ________.
6) A deficiency in protein causes ________.
7) In which host does the bilharzia parasite live in when in water?
8) Which type of pathogen causes dysentery?
9) Eating citrus fruits will help prevent lack of vitamin ________.
10) An organism which is used as a source of food and shelter by another organism is called a
________.
Form 2
Combined Science
Physics Section
Data Representation
1. Construct a straight line from appropriate data;

2. Interpret straight line graphs.
Construction Of Straight Line Graphs

 A table has two sets of numerical data in two rows these values can be values obtained
through experiment or by direct measurement of existing values.
 The graph has two axes a vertical axis/also called the y axis and a horizontal axis /also called
the x axis
 The difference between maximum and minimum values of a particular data in the table is
termed the range of the tabulated values.

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 Similarly, the difference between maximum and minimum values of a data set on the graph
axis is the range of that particular axis.
 One of the tabulated values is plotted on a particular graphs axis according to a particular
relation.
 The relation between a division on a particular axis of the graph and a particular variable
from the table is called the scale of the graph.
 The graph paper we use is like the one in the figure 3.1.1.
Fig 3.1.1:
Graph Paper
Example 1
Construction Of A Straight Line Graph (Mass Against Volume)
 The following example will illustrate the construction of the straight line graph step by step
and help you better understand the terms mentioned above.
 Students measured the volume of water and they also measured its mass.
 The students then entered the data into the table as shown below.
Table 3.1.1
Mass of water / g 10 20 30 40 50
Volume of water/ cm3 11.1 22.2 33.3 44.4 55.5

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Fig 3.1.2:
Drawing axes and marking

Answer
1 .Constructing the graph
 Set the scale on each axis and check if the range of the graph on that axis allows us to
represent all the values that are to be represented on that axis
 For the x axis 10cm3 = 10 squares on the graph
 For the y axis we set a scale of 10g = 10 squares on the graph
 We then label both the respective axes and mark the mass
From 0 to 60 g and volume values from 0 to 60cm3according to the scale making sure that all the
values on the table are represented on each axis .The result is shown on the figure fig 3.2 to the left
of fig 3.1.
 We then mark the values according to the tabulated values as shown on the graph below
fig3.3 and we completely draw the graph in fig 3.4

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Fig 3.1.3:
Marking points
Fig 3.1.4:
line graph of mass against volume

Construction Of Straight Line Graphs (Important Notes)

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 If the table has a quantity like mass and volume you must put volume on the horizontal axis
so that you can interpret it easily this will be shown in the next section on interpretation of
straight line graphs.
 If there is time and a quantity like distance or speed in the table you must put time on the
horizontal axis and distance on the vertical axis, unless you have been told by the question
to put time in the vertical axis by the question.
 When drawing a graph use as much space as possible that is you must make sure your scale
allows you to use all length provided for the x axis and y axis.
 Sometimes drawing the line is an approximation and you have to ignore some points which
you will have marked as you will see in example 5.
Example 2
Construction Of A Straight Line Graph Distance Time
 Spectators at Gifford High School watched the form six wonder boy run a 50 metre race to
take first place and recorded his distance and time, the recordings were entered into a table
as shown below:
Time /s 0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance/m 0 10 20 30 40 50
 Question: Draw a distance time graph for the student using a scale of 1s = 10 divisions (by
simple proportion this means I division on the graph paper is equal to 0.1s) on the graph
paper horizontal axis and 10m = 10 divisions (by simple proportion this means I division on
the graph paper is equal to 1meter) on the graph paper vertical axis.
 We mark out the values on the axes as shown in fig 3.5 according to the axes scale.
Fig 3.1.5:
making values on axes

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Fig 3.1.6
final plot distance - time graph

 Finally we draw the line connecting all the marked out points as shown above to get the final
graph.
Construction of other types of straight line graphs
 With some types of straight line graphs one value the one on the y axis can begin at a high
amount and decrease as the horizontal value increases this is shown by the graph that is to
the left of the diagram fig 3.1.7.
 In other graphs the value can start at a high value then increase further a plot of this kind of
graph is shown to the right side of the diagram fig 3.1.7.

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Fig 3.1.7
two other types of graphs

Example 3
Given the following tabulated values draw the speed time graph using a scale of 1m/s = 1 division on
graph paper for the vertical axis and 1 s = 10 divisions on graph paper for the horizontal axis.
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Speed m/s 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Answer
 We draw the axes then mark them according to the scale as shown in figure 3.9

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Fig 3.1.8
marking axes
Fig 3.1.9
plotting the points

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Fig 3.1.10
plotting the graph of speed against time

 We then plot the points as shown by the diagram fig 3.1.10 above this is a typical graph of a
car that is decelerating.
Construction of approximate graphs
 In real lab experiments you will obtain results of two measured quantities and tabulate them
as previously shown.
 The previous graphs constructed in examples 1 to 3 were accurate constructions because all
the points were exactly on the line.
 However as you will notice in a typical experiment some or most of the values do not meet
along a straight line and an approximation has to be made the following example will
illustrate this.
Example 4
 Using a suitable scale plot the graph with voltage on the x axis and current on the y axis
Voltage (v) 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
Current (a) 3.2 6.2 8.9 12.1 15.2 18.4 22.3 30 27.6 31
The graph is now plotted as below the scale is as follows 4a=10 divisions and 1v =10divisions

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Fig 3.1.11:
a graph of voltage current approximation

Interpretation of straight line graphs
Gradient
 You can find the Gradient of a straight line graph is constant by applying the formula below
Gradient = Change in Y/vertical value
Change in X/horizontal value
Example 5 will demonstrate this
The diagram below shows how the gradient is found.

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Fig 3.1.12:
gradient of the graph

 You mark a point A on the line then extend lines to the vetical and horizontal axes and find
the initial x and y values you call these values x1 and y1.
 Then move some considerable distance upwards and locate a point B which is on the line
and note it x and y values you then call these values y2 and x2.
 So you get the values as follows the change in x value = x2-x1 this is equal to the line AP fig
3.1.12 and the change in the y value given = y2-y1 this is equal to the line PB fig 3.1.12
 Gradient is important in graphs. It gives us the speed in the distance - time graph and it gives
us aresistance in a voltage- current graph. In physics the gradient must have units.
 The gradient of a horizontal line is zero eg a constant speed graph.
Important Concepts On Graphs
 Extending a graph to find values that are out of range can be done on a straight line graph
(see example 6).
 Using the graph drawn in a particular situation we can locate values on one axis and find
them on the other axis see example 6.
 The concept of the intercept is the vertical value when the horizontal value is equal to zero
this is demonstrated in example 6.
 Area under a speed time graph gives us the distance travelled this being an important
concept example 6.
 The equation of the graph is y = mx +c, were c is the intercept and m is the gradient example
6 gives a work through on this.
Example 5
Question Consider the voltage current graph plotted in example 4 find the gradient of this graph and
then find the resistance from this gradient.
Answer we proceed as follows, we reconstruct the graph as below:

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Fig 3.1.13
how to finding the gradient of the graph

 We find the gradient using formula as below previously mentioned using the formula below
 By the vertical value that is Gradient = Change in vertical ÷Change in horizontal
For the graph illustrated below you find gradient by considering any two points A and C on the graph
and find the change in x (horizontal)AB and the change in y (vertical) CB value as shown above fig
3.1.13 :
 Gradient = Change in y(vertical) ÷ Change in x(horizontal) = 5.4 a/v
 The gradient in this case is the reciprocal of the resistance this means that the resistance is
therefore
Resistance = 15,415,4
= 0.18ohm
Example 6
Question: From the distance time graph constructed in the example 2 find the distance travelled at
time t = 5.5s.

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Fig 3.1.14:
speed - time graph (finding distance)

 From the graph as shown above we go to the horizontal axis we count 5 divisions from the 5
second mark and we are at t = 5.5s then we draw a line from here this is the line shown in
green drawn to where it meets the extension of the graph P
 We draw horizontal line from P to the vertical axis were it meets is the distance covered
after 5.5 seconds from the graph we find that this distance is 55m
Hence the answer for the distance covered after 5.5 seconds is 55m. (Any distance like 54m or 56m
is accurate enough since we are using the graph).
Data-presentation-Exercise 1
1) Find the area under the graph shown below.

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50m2
70m2
100m2
200m2
2) A straight line graph has been plotted and its gradient gives the density. Which of these is the
correct labelling of axes? Volume on y axis and mass on x axis.
Density on y axis and force on x axis.
Distance on y axis and time on x axis.
Mass on y axis and volume on x axis.
3) Which of the following is correct about scale when drawing a graph? The scale of the
horizontal axis must match the scale of the vertical axis.
The scale of a graph depends on the range.
The scale of a graph must be one as to one.
Scale doesn’t matter when drawing a graph.
4) What does the term range mean on a graph? The maximum value represented by a graph.
The minimum value represented by a graph.
The value represented by one division on the graph.
The difference between minimum and maximum values represented by a graph.
5) Which of the following is true when drawing a straight line graph? The graph should be as
close as possible to the plotted points.
Scale does not matter.
The plotted points must fall in line with the graph.
The x axis is vertical.
6) A student plotted a straight line graph showing voltage on the y axis, and current on the x axis.
The intercept was found to be 0,5v. What does this mean? The voltage is increasing with current.
When the current is 0 voltage is 0,5v.
Current is 0,5a when voltage is 0v.
Current is 0,5 and voltage is 0,5v.

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7) For the graph given below, what is the value of the gradient of the line L which passes through
points A and B?
3,125
2,25
3,2
2
8) The line below has the equation y=3x+2b. What is the value of b in this case?
2,5
1
5
1,5
9) In a speed-time graph the area under the graph gives us the ________. perimeter
distance travelled

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volume
speed
10) A car moves at a constant speed. Which one of following statement is true? The speed-time
graph is a horizontal line.
The distance-time graph is a horizontal line.
The speed-time graph has a gradient equal to 1.
The speed-time graph has an intercept of 1.
Measurement
1. Convert units;
2. Measure mass of a liquid;
3. Measure volume of an irregular object;
4. Determine the thickness volume and mass of small objects;
5. Calculate density.
Converting Units
 We use meters (m), centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm) to measure length the meter is
the SI unit and is used internationally.
 The diagram below shows a simple 30cm/300mm rule being used to measure the length of a
phone.
 On the same diagram is a meter rule that can be used to measure larger object s to measure
length using a meter rule should be simple.

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Fig 3.2.1:
Meter rule and smaller 30cm rule

 1 m is equal to 100cm and 1 centimeter (cm) =10millimeter (mm).
 Kilograms (kg) and grams (g) are used to measure mass 1kg =1000g.
 For volume 1cm3 = 1ml, 1m3 = 1 000 000 cm3, 1litre (l) =1millilitres (ml),
 Time is measured in seconds (s), minutes (min) and hours (h) were 1h = 60 min and 60s = 1
min a stop watch is used to measure time two types of stop watches are as shown below:

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Fig 3.2.2
Stopwatches for measuring time

Measure mass of a liquid:
Experiment: To measure mass of a liquid
An Experiment Will Show How To Measure The Mass Of A Liquid.
Material
 a beaker to contain the liquid ,
 a balance
 another container which has the liquid which is water
Procedure
1. The balance shown is a mechanical balance the beaker is initially empty and is weighed on
the balance the mass of the beaker when empty this mass is recorded.
2. The beaker then is filled with the liquid to be weighed from the other container and the
beaker is filled with water and the mass is recorded.
3. We then get the mass of the liquid by subtracting the mass of the beaker when empty from
the mass of the beaker when filled with water you should be able to read the balance.

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Fig 3.2.2:
Experiment to measure mass of a liquid

 It becomes clear to measure mass of a solid object you simply have to put it on the scale and
the mass is shown on the balance.
 The challenge is on reading the mass from the balance you need to know what the
graduation means and that there is a maximum load that a scale can take.
 Digital scales also exist like the ones found in the meat section of your TM/Pick and pay
supermarkets.
Reading Balances
 Here is how to read the balances both mechanical and digital balances and find some masses
as you would do in real life in particular you must know how to interpret scales on
measuring instruments so to speak
 The diagram below shows two readings of the part of the scale of what is called the
mechanical balance for measuring mass that we used in the experiment to measure mass of
a liquid
 The reading to the left is taken with the empty beaker on the scale and the reading to the
right shows the reading after some water is put into the beaker
 This will give you practice on reading the balance

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Fig 3.2.3:
Reading of the balance with empty beaker and with beaker filled with water
 First we note the scale has 10 divisions between 0 and 25 that means one division is
= final reading-initial reading/number of divisions
= (25-0)/10
= 2.5g
 Now we can then take the reading to the left it’s on the 75 g mark so the reading to the left
is 75g
 Then for the reading at the right we note that its above 225g plus a single division , the
pointer is above the first division but within the second division so we are sure the reading is
225 + 2.5g so the reading is 227.5grams for the second reading
 It then follows that the mass of water is given as mass of beaker with water-mass of empty
beaker this then gives = 227.5 - 75
= 152.5g
 Therefore the mass of the water is 152.5 g.
Measuring the volume of an irregular object
 Now we look at how you would measure the volume of an irregular object like say a stone. It
is clear there is no formula to measure a stone’s volume because it is irregular.
 We conduct the following experiment to measure the volume of an irregular object. A stone
is used as an example.
Experiment: To measure volume of an irregular object using measuring cylinder.
Materials:
 stone,
 measuring cylinder,
 thread or string, water
Procedure
1. A measuring cylinder that is graduated in cm3 is half filled with water. The initial level of the
liquid is noted and is recorded.

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2. Take the object itself tied it to a string and slowly lower it into the measuring cylinder taking
care not to splash the water.
3. Once the irregular object is entirely into the measuring cylinder and submerged in the liquid
we wait for the water level to settle and then we take the volume reading.
4. Find the volume as follows: volume of irregular object = Volume of water level after object is
completely submerged in water - Volume indicated by the water level before the object is
immersed in water.
5. The figure 3.2.4 below shows the experiment being carried out you can use it to visualize the
experiment.
Expected Results
Fig 3.2.4
measuring volume of irregular object

 The volume of the stone as illustrated in the diagram is given by the equation below :
Volume of stone = Volume after immersing stone – Volume before immersing stone
Example 3.2.1
This example will show you how to use the measuring cylinder and it will also help you appreciate
that volume is measured in cubic centimeters abbreviated as cm3and also milliliters abbreviated as
ml\ were 1ml = 1 cm3cylinders can be graduated in cm3 of ml.
Two measuring cylinders are shown one is graduated in milliliters the other one is graduated in cubic
centimeters as below.

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Fig 3.2.6
measuring cylinders showing milliliters and cubic centimeters

 What does one division stand for on the measuring cylinder A and on the measuring cylinder
B
 Which of these is more accurate
Answer
On measuring cylinder A we have by simple proportion
One Division = Change in Length/number of Divisions
Change in length = 65-50 = 5ml
Number of divisions =10
Thus One Division = (5/10)
= 0.5ml/division
Hence it follows for measuring cylinder A, one division is equal 0.5ml
On measuring cylinder B we have to calculate by simple proportion too
One Division = Change in length/number of Divisions
Change in length = 70-60 = 10cm3
Number of Divisions = 10
Thus One Division = 10/10
= 1cm3/division
Hence it follows that for the measuring cylinder B, one division is equal 1cm3
Cylinder A is more accurate because it shows the smallest reading
Differences of Mass Experiment
If given two or more objects of the same material and you have the mass and volume of the other
but you only know the mass of the other it follows you can using simple proportion find the find the
volume of the other object, an experiment will illustrate this.
Example 3.2.3
A nugget of irregular metal is weighed in an experiment found to be having a volume of 5cm3 and
mass 37g this result is tabulated below in the table, fill in the other results for the table below for
the samples B and C:

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Mass Volume
A 37g 5cm3
B 5g .67cm3
C 18.5g 10cm3
B the volume is required we know that 37g = 5cm3

Therefore 5g occupies less volume = 5 (5/37)
Mass of sample = 0.67cm3
C the mass is required the we know from A that 5cm3 = 37g

So it follows that 10cm3 = 37 (5/10)
Mass of sample C = 18.5g
Volume, mass and thickness of several small objects
Three experiments will be described for you to see how each of these is done.
Experiment: To Measure The Volume Of Several Small Solid Metal Balls Using The Overflow Can
And Measuring Cylinder.
Materials:
Procedure
 The overflow can is poured with water until it overflows the can must be level and on a
stand as shown in the diagram fig 3.2.6
Fig 3.2.6
Experiment to measure volume of solid metal balls

1. After the water has finished flowing out of the overflow can measuring cylinder that is
empty placed as shown in the diagram such that the mouth of the overflow can empties into
the measuring cylinder.

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2. Place the solid metal balls bit by bit making sure they do not splash as they enter the water
in the overflow can
3. The water will then be displaced by the solid metal balls and will flow through the spout into
the measuring cylinder.
4. Wait for the water to completely flow into the measuring cylinder from the overflow can.
5. Take the reading of how much water will have flown into the overflow can and then take the
reading this volume is the volume of the bearings in the experiment.
Results Interpretation
 Volume of all the bearings is the volume of the water indicated in the diagram = 27cm3 and
that is the volume of the four bearings.
 So the volume of the single bearing is =
274
= 6.75cm3
Experiment: To Measure The Mass Of Several Money Pins/Clips
 If you hold one money pin in your hands you just can’t feel how heavy it is but if you are
given a hand full of these then you can feel their mass
 A scale feels the same too it can’t feel anything if it is weighing one pin so you better give it
say a hundred or so pins then it will weigh them and feel their mass
 In the experiment below we take a hundred pins and weigh them on the balance and record
the mass
Fig 3.2.7
measurement of the mass of several money clips

Results Interpretation
We get the following types of results as follows:
Mass of pins = 30g
Number of pins = 100
Mass of one pin= total mass of all pins weighed /total number of the pins = 30/100
Mass of one pin = 0.3grams
C) Experiment: To Measure The Thickness Of A Page Of A Book Using A Ruler

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 Pages of most books are quite thin you can’t measure them using a ruler so what you do is
to take the whole book a put the pages to together then measure them using ruler as shown
in the following figure
 A simple 30cm/300mm ruler will work for this purpose as illustrated below.
Fig 3.2.8:
Measuring thickness of a page

 The ruler is aligned to the pages say 50 of them and the thickness of these pages is
measured and the reading is taken
 The thickness of one page is then found by simple proportion as below:
Thickness of 50 pages = 3mm
Average Thickness of one page = thickness of 50 pages/50
= 3/50
Average Thickness of one page = 0.06mm
Calculation of density
 Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance
 The formula to find density d is given as follows let mass of a substance be m and then its
volume be V then it will follow that density is d = m/v were the units of density depend on
the units of mass an volume use to calculate the density.
 If Volume v is in m3 and mass in kg then density is in kg/m3.
 If Volume v is in ml and mass in grams then density is in g/ml or simply in g/cm3 then it
follows that:
1g/cm3 = 1g/ml (remember that 1cm3 = 1ml).
 You should be able to calculate the density in the proper units to match the units of volume
and mass used.
 Two main experiments to find density as illustrated below.

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Fig 3.2.9:
density measurement of a regular object

Experiment to measure the density of a regular object
Materials:
 ruler, balance,
 the regular object (brick),
 brick is measured length, width and height.
 After measuring the length width and height we then calculate the volume.
 Weigh the brick on the balance and we record the reading of the mass of the brick.
The procedure is as shown above and the sample results displayed in the read letters repeated
below:
Mass of object recorded from the scale as below is = 140g
The dimensions as measured are length =27mm,
width = 8mm
height = 13mm
Volume of regular object = length x width x height
= 27x8x13
= 2808mm3
Density then is given by the formula = mass/volume
= 140/2808
= 0.05g
Experiment: to find the density of an irregular object
 First we weigh the object on the balance and then we record its mass.
 Then we fill a measuring cylinder with water and record its initial volume and tie the
irregular object to a string and dip it into the measuring cylinder
 We record the final volume level in the measuring cylinder after the solid is inside the water
the procedure is as shown below in figure.
 The figure below illustrates the experiment:

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Fig 3.2.10
density measurement of a regular object

We then calculate the density as follows:
Mass of the irregular object after weighing it = 160g
Initial volume in measuring cylinder = 42cm3
Final volume after dropping stone (irregular object) = 54cm3
Volume of irregular object = final volume-initial volume
= (54-42) cm3
= 12cm3
Density of irregular object = mass of irregular object/Volume
= 160/12
Density = 13.33cm3
Important points
 Make sure that you read the water level below the meniscus
 Weigh the stone first before you measure the volume because if you weight it after dipping
in water it would have gotten wet and you will get a wrong result.
 Use a thin string so that the volume is not distorted.
 A thick string might do if it absorbs water.
Measurement-Exercise 1
1) Which of the following is the SI unit of mass? Kilometre

Second
Kilogram
Square metre

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2) The reading in the diagram below shows the mass of a 100 hollow plastic balls. What is the
average mass of one ball?
0,2g
2g
0,02g
20g
3) The mass of a solid material increases if its volume ________. remains constant
is reduced
is zero
is increased
4) A regular material specimen measures 6cm x 7cm x 8cm and weighs 50 grams. An irregular
sample of the same material was found to be weighing 40 grams. What was the volume of the
irregular material? 1886cm3
268,8cm3
336cm3
200cm3
5) A volume of 4mm 3 is equal to ________. 0,004m 3

0,4cm 3
0,004cm 3
0,0004m 3
6) For the instrument below, one division on the time scale is equal to ________.
1 minute

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1 hour
1 second
5 seconds
7) A sample 1m3 of plastic weighed 5kg and 1m3 of water was 1000kg this means ________.
plastic’s density is less than water’s density
mass of water is less than that of water
both have a density of zero
volume of 1kg plastic is less than volume of 1kg water
8) The volume of water in a measuring cylinder is measured ________. above the meniscus
below the meniscus
at the meniscus
in between the meniscus
9) Which of these is used to measure length? Overflow can

Measuring cylinder
Ruler
Stopwatch
10) What is the reading on the instrument below?
40cm3
42cm3
45cm3
44cm3
Forces

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1. Calculate the resultant of a pair of inline forces;

2. Define moment of a force;
3. Calculate moment of a force;
4. State principle of moments;
5. Apply the principle of moments in calculations;
6. Define friction;
7. Measure friction;
8. State the applications of frictional force.
Force
 A force makes an object move or change shape. You push a car it moves because of the
force that you use to push it on it.
 When you pull something it moves because you are putting a force on it.
 Force is measured in Newton abbreviated as N and when looking at forces the direction in
which they act also matters.
3.3.1 Calculate the resultant of a pair of inline forces
 Consider two forces acting in line (this means forces acting in oneline) as below we call them
f1 and f2.
Fig3.3.1:
Resultant of forces acting

 These two forces acting have a result what is called the resultant
 The resultant depends on whether the forces are in the same direction or they are opposing
each other.

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 Some examples will help you calculate resultant forces for different pair of forces.
 The resultant is that single force that produces the same effect as two forces that act
together.
Example 1
 Each force is represented by an arrow and its value in Newton in the example indicated in
the figure below we look at solving the resultant of two forces as
Below, problems a and b are about finding the resultant while we have been given two pairs of
forces while problem c is the reverse we are given the resultant.
We must now find one of the pair of forces
Fig3.3.2
solving forces
Answer
 f1 = 4N an f2 = 5N these are in the same direction so it should follow that
they are simply added and the resultant is
f1+ f2 = 5+4
=9N which is represented as below:

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Fig 3.3.3
Final Answer (Example 3.3.1a)

Since it is a force in your answer you must also draw arrow to show the
Direction as shown above.
 f1 = 5N and f2 = 7N the resultant is given by subtracting f1 from f2 this results
in the following calculation as below:
f2-f1 = 7-5
= 2N
The resultant force is two new tons and the direction is to the right as below 2N

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Fig 3.3.4
Answer for (Example 3.3.1a)

 Here we subtract the other force from the resultant as shown below since 20N is pointing to
the left is given a negative sign and is -20N
so we have
f1+ f2 = R but we want f1 so we make it subject and we have
f1 = R- f2….were R = -20N and f2 =7 N
= -20-7
= -27N

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Fig 3.3.5
 Example 3.3.1 emphasizes that the force is represented by a the units in Newton and an
arrow to give the direction it is also important to take forces to the left as negative and
those to the right as positive like we did in this example and in this chapter.
 In general when finding the resultant force it follows that forces in the opposite directions
have different signs.
 Below are examples of inline forces for a car and human example given by the figure below

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Fig 3.3.6:
inline forces real life examples

Experiments on measuring forces
 A force meter which is a spring balance graduated in the unit of force that is the Newton is
used to measure force.
 Mass can also be measured by a spring balance
Equal forces:

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Fig 3.3.7
Experiment to measure equilibrium inline forces

Moment of a force
 A force can act about a point as shown below this force will cause something to turn about a
point this could be say turning a bolt with a spanner you apply a force.
 The force causes the bolt to turn about its center this turning effect of the force is called the
moment of the force.
 We then define the moment of a force as the turning effect of a force (N) given by the value
of the force multiplied by its perpendicular distance(m) from the pivot this is shown in the
diagram below:

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Fig3.3.8:
Moment of a force
Calculation of moment of a force
 We use the formula just described previously that is force x distance from pivot/fulcrum.
 The trick is always to make sure we understand which is the distance from pivot it can be
confusing the following example will clarify this.
Example

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Fig 3.3.9
Calculation of moment
Given in the diagram above the distance from the pivot is given by d = 5m the force in newtons is
20N calculate the moment of the force
Moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot
= 20 × 5
= 100Nm
 The pivot is the point were turning occurs (identify the pivot examples of pivots could be
human joints, door hinges and axle of a wheel barrow.
 When calculating the moment make sure that the Distance from the pivot is the distance
between the straight line drawn from the force direction to the parallel line drawn from the
pivot
 The units of the force are Newton and the units of the distance are meters then the units of
the moment is Newton meters
Principle of moments
 The principle of moments states that at equilibrium clockwise moments are equal to
anticlockwise moments
Consider the diagram below.

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Fig 3.3.10:
Clockwise anti clockwise moment

 The load at A makes the beam rotate with a moment anticlockwise and that at B makes the
load rotate clockwise.
 So it becomes clear there are two moments opposing each other.
 Clockwise moments = FB x LB and the Anticlockwise moments = FALa now it follows for the
beam not to rotate the following principle applies Clockwise moments equal to
anticlockwise moments.
 In the diagram above it will follow that for the beam to stop rotating about the pivot then it
follows FB*LB= FALA from the principle of moments this can be applied in calculations.
Applying Principle of moments in calculations
Consider the figure below we have examples of calculation of principle of moments
Example

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Fig 3.3.11:
Example 3.3.3 load diagram

Example
Find the weight of load B if it is 5m from the pivot and given that weight of load A is 10N and is 10m
from the pivot.
Solution
Clockwise moments = Anticlockwise moments
Load B x distance of from fulcrum = load A x distance of A from fulcrum
Where from the question Load A = 10N
Distance of A from fulcrum = 10m
Distance of B from Pivot = (load A x distance A from fulcrum) / (distance of B from
fulcrum)
= 10 × 105
= 20N
Example
Consider the diagram below.

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Fig 3.3.12:
moments in equilibrium
Find the load C in the diagram above using the principle of moments from the diagram above.
Solution
Anticlockwise moments = load A x distance from fulcrum + load B x Distance from Pivot
= 10 x 10+10 x 5
= 150Nm
Clockwise moments = load C x distance from fulcrum
= Load C x 5
Applying the principle of moments
Anticlockwise moments = clockwise moments
150Nm = Load C x 5
Load C = 150/5
= 30N
Friction
 Friction is defined as a force that opposes motion.

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Fig 3.3.16:
Friction Introduction
 As shown in the diagram above the lady pushes a box she experiences the opposing friction
of the box
 The frictional force is between the box and the surface of the floor as shown below
 As soon as someone try to push the box friction begins to act.
 Friction is maximum when the surface is horizontal
 In the diagram below the box will move if the pushing force is more than the frictional force.
 The frictional force will always act in a direction that is opposite to the pushing force.

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Fig 3.3.17:
Friction and pushing force

 The minimal force that just starts an object in motion is equal to the frictional force between
a surface and the surface of the object we look at a situation where frictional force can be
measured.
Experiment: to measure frictional force
Materials: Spring Balance, 5 Kg Block

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Fig 3.3.18:
a force pulling a load

Procedure
1. A block which is about 5kg is on a rough surface as above the force meter is attached to it.
2. block is slowly pulled you can observe that the frictional force is stopping the object from
moving
3. Continue to pull the block and note the value on the force meter at which it just starts to
move this is the value of the frictional force.
Applications of frictional force
 Car tyres are designed to maximize frictional force. They have a large surface to make
contact with the road.
 Tyre treads scoop water and displaces sand particles to also maximize friction on wet
surfaces.
 Shoe soles they are made of soft rubbers and rough surfaces to maximize grip
 Road surface the road surface is made of rough particles bound together with bitumen this
increases contact area. The road surface is also curved so that it will scoop away water. A dry
rough tarred road is safest for a car to move on.
 It should be notable that sometimes friction is needed and sometimes it is not needed like in
stopping a car we need friction but when you want something to move friction is not needed
in that case.
 Friction generates heat and it can help us make a fire sometimes it is a problem especially in
a car engine heat can destroy parts.
Force-Exercise 1
1) A force of one Newton acts at a perpendicular distance of 5cm .What is the moment of the
force? 0,05Nm

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0,05m
5Nm
5N
2) In the diagram below, what is the value of the resultant force?
0N
1kg
1N
2kg
3) Which of these has the most grip and is safest for a car to move on? A dust with many loose
stones road.
A wet tarred road.
A dry rough tarred road.
A dry smooth tarred road.
4) What is the unit of force? Newton

Kilogram
Metre
Moment
5) What is the value of the moment in the figure below, given that, the force is vertical and the
spanner is horizontal?

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10N
10m
3Nm
10Nm
6) The principle of moments state that at equilibrium ________. all moments is equal
clockwise moments are equal
anticlockwise moments are equal to clockwise moments
anticlockwise moments are equal
7) Why car tyres are not made of metal but are made of rubber? A metal is not strong.
A metal rusts.
Rubber lasts longer than metal.
Metal has less frictional grip than rubber.
8) Two forces A and B, act in the same direction. The resultant force is equal to ________. B+A
A-B
B
A
9) Which of these is an example of a force in action? Water boiling.

An empty bench.
A stationary ball in an empty field.
A car moving.
10) The state of equilibrium is reached when ________. forces are balanced
an object is moving at a uniform speed
there is no force acting on an object
there is no opposing force

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Energy
1. State the law of conservation of energy;

2. Define work and energy;
3. State the SI unit of work and energy;
4. Calculate the work done or energy used by forces;
5. List sources of light energy;
6. Show that light travels in a straight line;
7. State the production and transmission of sound;
8. Demonstrate the need for a medium in the transmission of sound.
Law Of Conservation Of Energy

 The law states that: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it is always conserved.
 Energy can, however, be converted from one form to another.
 For example, when a brick falls from a height above the ground, its potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.
 As the brick hits the ground, its temperature rises and the impact makes a noise, thus heat
and sound are produced, and, possibly, some particles carry away kinetic energy after
impact (these are the energy forms to which the kinetic energy of the brick is converted).
 In energy conversions, some energy is converted into non – useful forms. Such energy often
referred to as being ‘lost’.
 The usefulness of an energy form depends on the context. For a car head lamp, for example,
all other energy forms produced other than light are not useful (therefore, energy is lost as
heat by a car head lamp). Contrasting with the car headlamp example, the heat produced by
a heater is not lost.
 Energy loses occur in almost all energy conversions.
Work and Energy
Work
 Work is the product of force applied and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
 In other words, work is done when a force produces a motion or movement to an object.
 A force is a push or pull.
 Force is measured in Newton (N).
 This can either be horizontal or vertical.
Examples Of Doing Work:
 Picking up a brick from the ground.
 Applying pressure to move the accelerator on a vehicle.
 Mopping the floor
 Lifting up a box.
 Climbing up the stairs.
 Lifting a bucket full of water through a height.
Examples Of No Work Being Done:
 A man carrying a 50kg bag of fertilizer standing still.
 Pressing on a huge rock for an hour and it does not move.

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 Holding a 20kg of maize meal up without moving.

Fig 2.5.1:
pushing a wall
 Work is done on an object when energy is transferred to that object.
 When doing work energy is used and changed, e.g. from potential to kinetic energy.
 Work is measured in Newton-metres.
 The SI unit for work is the Joule (J).
Energy
 Energy is the capacity or ability to do work.
 Energy is measured in joules (J).
 We get energy from the food that we eat.
Energy used = work done
 Relationship between work done and energy
 The SI unit for work is the Joule.
1 Joule = 1Nm
Also 1000Joules = 1kJ
Worked examples
Example 1
A box of 400N is being lifted through a height of 0,8m. Calculate the work being done.
Solution:
Work = Force distance
Force = 400N and distance = 0,8m.
Work = 400N 0,8m = 320Nm
320Nm = 320J (Recalling that 1Joule = 1Nm)
Example 2
What is the work done when a girl pulls a box by applying a force of 350N over a distance of 7m?
Solution:
Work done = Force distance
Force = 350N and distance moved = 7m

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Work = 350N 7m = 2450J

=2,45kJ (1000J = 1kJ)
Example 3
A man lifts 4 boxes of 60N each through a height of 2,8m. Find how much work is done by the man.
Solution:
Work = Force distance
Total force = 60N 4 boxes = 240N and the height is = 2,8m
Work = 240N 2,8m = 672J
Example 4
A boy climbs stairs of 10m. Calculate the energy used if the boy is of mass 50kg.
Solution:
10N = 1kg
The boy’s weight is given as 50kg 10 = 500N
Energy used = Weight Distance or height moved
Weight = 500N and height = 10m
Energy used = 500N 10m = 5000J = 5kJ
Light
 Light is a form of energy.
 We can see light with our eyes.
 Light travels in waves in a straight line (rectilinear propagation of light).
 Light travels fastest.
 The sun is the most important natural source of light (energy).
 The stars are also natural forms of energy.
 Artificial light is light made by humans through converting other forms of energy, for
example the chemical potential energy in candles.
Uses of light energy
 Helps us to see.
 Used in the process of photosynthesis.
 Used by cameras.
 Used in x-rays.
Sources of light energy
 There are two main sources of light.
 There are natural and artificial/man-made sources of light.
Natural sources of light
 Sun
 Moon
 Stars
 Glow worm
 The sun is the major source of energy.
 All things depend on the sun.
 The sun gives us both light and heat energy.
 Energy from sun is also called solar energy.
 These forms of energy travel to the earth in waves.
 The sun is a renewable source of energy.
Artificial / man-made sources of light
 Fire
 Torch
 Lamp
 Candle
 Light bulb
 Gas lamp

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Some characteristics of light

 Light travels in a straight line
 When light travels it produces a beam.
 A beam is made up of rays.
 A ray is a narrow stream of light.
 A beam can be seen from a lit car head lamp at night.
Experiment 1: To show that light travels in straight line.
Materials
Three similar boards, light source (candle or torch), screen
Procedure
1. Pierce a hole in the middle of each board
2. Put the boards in a straight line with the holes also in a straight line.
3. Stand the lighted candle in front of the first board, such that its flame is in line with
the holes.
4. Peep through the last board to see the lighted candle.
Fig 2.5.2:
set up to show that light travels in a straight line

1. Shift any board slightly up, sideways or down out of line and try to peek through the holes
again.
2. Can you see the light anymore?
Observations
 Light can be seen through the three holes when they are in a straight line.
 We cannot see the light when a board has been moved out of line.
 This means that light travels in a straight line and cannot bend to follow holes.
Light can be transmitted
 Some materials allow light to pass through them, e.g. a window pane / glass, some plastics,
water, etc.
 These are called transparent materials. They transmit light.
 When a material is transparent, it means that one can see through them.

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Light is reflected
 Light can be reflected by shiny objects.
 An example of a shiny object that reflects light is a mirror.
 Water can also reflect light.
Light moves at a very high speed
Light Produces Shadows
 A shadow is produced when light has been blocked by an object.
 Objects that does not allow light to pass through are called opaque objects.
 These shadows are also evidence that light travels in a straight line.
 Shadows normally maintain the shape of the original object.
Experiment 2: To show that light produces shadows.
Materials
Light source, screen and opaque object.
Procedure:
1. Put on the light source and put it on a stable or fixed position.
2. Hold an opaque object near the light.
3. Observe the shadow.
Fig 2.5.4:
light makes shadows

Expected Observations / Results
A shadow is produced when light is blocked.
Shadows vary in sizes depending on the distance at which the light source is.

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Fig 2.5.5:
light makes shadows

 If the light source is moved closer to the object a larger shadow is formed.
 This is because more light is blocked by the object.
 If the light source is moved further away from the object a smaller shadow is formed
because less light is blocked.
Sound Energy
 Sound energy is produced through vibration.
 Vibrations create sound waves which move through media such as air and water before
reaching our ears.
 The vibrations are the small and very fast forward and backward movements.
 The sound changes when the vibration waves of the medium changes.
 Sound energy can be transferred through gases, liquids and solids but it cannot pass through
a vacuum.
 It is measured in decibels and Pascal.
 Sound is produced differently in different mediums: some produce sound by blowing,
stroking, plucking, hitting and twanging.
Examples Of How Sound Are Produced In Different Mediums:
 Whistle and bottle produces sound when blown.
 When you hit marimba, tambourine or drums they produce sound.
 Mbira and guitar make sound by plucking.
 Violin is stroked to produce sound.
The voice box

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Fig 2.5.6:
human voice box

 The larynx is the voice box.
 It is the organ responsible for producing voice.
 When air from the lungs pass over the stretched vocal cords and the vibrations are modified
by the tongue and the lips, speech is produced.
Sound Transmission
 Sound travels through solids, liquids and gases but it cannot pass through a vacuum or
space.
Experiment 3: To test if sound can travel through a solid material (string).
Material: Two Tins, A 10m String
Procedure
1. Make holes at the centre of the bottom of each tin.
2. Make string to pass through the holes of the tins and tie knots at each end of the string as
shown on the diagram below.
3. Hold the tins in such a way that the string is kept tight and talk to each other.

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Fig 2.5.7:
demonstrating how sound travels

Observation:
 People can hear each other when they talk through the tins.
Conclusion:
o Sound can travel through solid materials (string).
Experiment 3: To show that sound requires a material medium for transmission
Materials:
electric bell, bell jar, cork, battery, switch, vacuum pump

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Fig 2.5.8:
sound does not travel in a vacuum

Procedure
1. Place an electric bell inside the bell jar.
2. Air is pumped out of the sealed bell jar.
3. The sound from the bell fades away gradually.
4. At a particular vacuum point no more sound is heard from the bell.
Observations
 The hammer continues hitting the gong and sound is produced.
 Sound is not audible to the ears because of the vacuum.
Conclusion
 Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
 Sound wave needs a material medium for its transmission (travel).
Energy-Exercise 1
1) Which of these reflects light energy? Dull surface

Polished surface
Rough surface
Smooth surface
2) Why does blowing into a trumpet make sound? The trumpet heats the air.
The trumpet reflects the air.
The air in the trumpet is cooled.
The trumpet causes the air to vibrate.

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3) Which of these statements is true? Sound travels in a straight line.

Sound travels through air only.
Sound travels through vibrations.
Sound travels through a vacuum
4) The sun provides ________ and ________ energy. light; sound

sound; heat
heat; light
light; electric
5) Which of the following does not involve work being done? A grocery bag being lifted up.
A crane moving dirt.
Pushing a box along the floor.
A girl sitting on a bench.
6) How is a shadow formed? Turning off the light.

Through vibrations.
Shining light on a dark area.
Blocking the path of light.
7) Which of these statements about energy is true? Energy can be created.

Work is a form of energy.
Energy travels through vibrations.
Energy moves from one form to another.
8) Most light energy on earth comes from ________. electricity

fire
the sun
the moon
9) Sound can be produced by all except ________. plucking a guitar

striking a drum
mouthing a sentence
ringing a doorbell
10) Suppose you want to calculate how much work it takes to lift a 160N barbell. Besides the mass
of the barbell, what other information do you need to know? The shape of the weights.
How high the barbell is being lifted.
The strength of the person doing the lifting.
None of the above.
Machines
 A machine is a device that reduces human effort (force) in doing work.
 Machines enable people to apply small force to move or lift heavy objects.
 This means that machines make a job easier and / or faster.
 There are different types of machines used to do different types of work.
 There are simple and complex machines.
 Examples of big machines include vehicles, cranes, generators, etc.
 Examples of simple machines are tin opener, wheelbarrow, claw hammer, scissors, etc.
 Machines use one form of energy and convert it into another form of energy.
 Some machines use fuel.

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Types of machines
 The basic types of machines include levers and inclined planes.
Lever
Fig 2.4.1:
A lever machine lifting a load

 A lever consists of a rigid bar, which is free to turn about a fixed point called a fulcrum.
 The fulcrum is a pivot point.
 The effort force (push or pull) is exerted at a point on the lever arm.
 The load is another force on the lever which tends to resist the action of the effort.
 In Fig 2.4.1, the weight of the brown box is the load.
 The closer the fulcrum to the load, the less the effort needed, and vice versa.
 Of the two forces (load and effort), the one closer to the fulcrum is the greater one, it moves
the smaller distance, and with less speed. If the forces are equidistant from the pivot, the
size of the forces, the distance they move, and their speeds are equal.
 With no energy losses, the work done by the effort always equals the work done on the
load.
 Levers are divided into three classes, classified according to the way the load, the effort and
the fulcrum are positioned relative to each other.
 First class levers: When the fulcrum lies between the effort and the load, the lever is
described as a first class lever.
 Other first class levers include: a car jack, a pair of pliers, a pair of scissors, a water pump, a
balance or pair of weigh scales, a crowbar, a claw of a hammer taking out a nail, or a lever
with a rock as its fulcrum trying to lift another rock.
 Second class levers: In the second class lever, the load is between the fulcrum and the effort.
 A good example of this type of lever is the wheelbarrow. The axle of the wheel acts as the
fulcrum, the effort is applied at the handles and the load is between the two in the bucket of
the wheel barrow.
 Some other examples of the second class lever are: a pair of nutcrackers, and a bottle
opener.

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 Third class levers: In this class of levers, the effort is between the fulcrum and the load.
Because of this arrangement, the effort is larger than the load. Consequently, the load
moves a greater distance with a greater speed.
 The human forearm (when the arm is being folded) is an example of a third class lever. The
pivot is the elbow joint. The effort is applied by a muscle attached just inside the elbow. The
load is placed on the hand or at some point along the forearm. Some consideration of a
folding arm shows that the effort is always in between.
 Examples of third class levers are: a fishing pole, a pair of tweezers, a pair of callipers, a
spade, or a shovel.
Examples of levers
Class 1
Fig 2.4.2:
class 1 levers and examples

Class 2

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Fig 2.4.3:

Class 3
Fig 2.4.4:

How to construct a simple lever machine
Project: How To Construct A Simple Machine

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Materials:
broom handle, 2 pencils, plank, 4 text books, box full of books
Fig 2.4.5:
A simple lever
Procedure:
1. Fill an empty box with books.
2. Make a pile of text books on the floor next to box as shown in the diagram.
3. Place one end of the broom stick under the box (see diagram).
4. Decide where the pivot should be in order to use the least force.
5. Use the broom stick to make a lever to lift the box.
Machines-Exercise 1
1) In the human body, the elbow joint may act as a ________. fulcrum
gear
ramp
screw
2) When one stands on their toes, the foot acts as a ________. gear
lever
fulcrum
ramp
3) What type of a machine is found on a door handle? Screw

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Inclined plane
Lever
Pulley
4) Which of the following is a machine? Broom

Chair
Desk
Carpet
5) A simple machine can multiply ________. forces and energy

energy
forces
forces and power
6) Which of these is a characteristic of simple machines? They always run on electricity.

They can multiply energy.
They have no moving parts.
They can multiply a force.
7) In a simple machine, if the distance increases, the force will ________. remain the same
increase
decrease
cease
8) Study the diagram below of a simple lever machine and answer questions 9 and 10.
In the picture above of a crow bar, letter B represents the ________. effort
fulcrum
load
efficiency
9) In the diagram above of the crowbar, the letter C represents the ________. effort
fulcrum
load
efficiency
10) For a lever to be a 1st class lever, the fulcrum must be ________. on the axle
on the same side as the load
between the load and effort

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on one side and the load and effort on the other side
Electricity And Magnetism
1. Describe properties of magnets;

2. State the law of magnetism;
3. Draw magnetic lines;
4. Define current and voltage;
5. State the SI units of current and voltage;
6. Measure current and voltage;
7. Determine electrical power.
Magnetism
 Magnets attract objects of iron, steel, cobalt and nickel.
 The force of attraction of a magnet is greater at its poles than in the middle.
 Like poles of two magnets repel each other.
 Opposite poles of two magnets attract each other.
 The closer together the two opposite poles the greater the magnetic force between them.
 If a bar magnet is suspended by a thread and if it is left to rotate, its North Pole will point
towards the North Pole of the earth and vice versa.
 All magnets have two types of poles: north-seeking poles or north poles and south seeking
poles or south poles.
Law of magnetism
 Every magnet, whether large or small, has exactly two poles.
 Each pole is either north-seeking or south-seeking. The most basic law in magnetism states
that:
Unlike poles of magnets attract each other and like poles of magnets repel.

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Fig 3.6.1.
Bar magnets demonstrating the law of magnetism

 Consider Fig 3.6.1.
 The two bar magnets shown.
 One is hung so that it swings freely.
 The poles of a second magnet are, in turn, brought near a pole of the hanging magnet.
 In A, the pole of the hanging magnet is attracted. This demonstrates the attraction that
exists between unlike poles.
 In B, the pole of the hanging magnet is repelled. This demonstrates the repulsion existing
between like poles.
Magnetic field lines
 Magnetic lines of force start from the North Pole and end at the South Pole.
 They are continuous.
 Two magnetic lines of force cannot intersect each other.

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Fig 3.6.2.
Diagrams showing magnetic field lines

Fig 3.6.3.
Field lines of a magnet as shown by iron fillings.

Current and voltage (potential difference)
 An electric current is a flow of an electric charge.

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 Voltage between two points is basically the work done for each charge moved between
those points.
 Alternatively, voltage between two points can be taken as the difference in electric potential
between those points. Voltage is also known as potential difference.
 Electric current can only flow through a material that can conduct electricity.
 Current is measured in amperes (amps, A).
 Voltage is measured in volts (V).
Voltmeter
 A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage in volts.
Fig 3.6.4.
A voltmeter
Ammeter
 An ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current.

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Fig 3.6.5.
An ammeter
Experiment: To measure the potential difference (voltage) across a bulb.
Materials:
 A torch bulb
 Crocodile clips
 Ammeter
 A voltage
 Battery holder
 Three 1,5V cells
 Electric cables
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram above.
2. Turn the switch on.
3. Record the current and the voltage.
4. Add a second cell and record the current and voltage.
5. Add the third cell and record the current and voltage.
6. Fill the results of in a table like the one below and observe the brightness of the bulb.

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Table: measure of current and voltage

Number of cells Voltmeter reading (V) Am
3
Conclusion
 As you add a cell the voltage adds up.
 The value (reading) of current increases as the number of cells increases.
 The brightness of the bulb increases as the number of cells increases.
Electrical Power
 Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred or converted in a circuit.
 Electrical power is measured in watts (W).
 Power = current voltage
Units of power = amps (A) volts (V)
Examples 1
Calculate the power of an electric iron which uses 300 volts and takes a current of 15A.
Power = volts × amps
= 300V × 15A
= 4500 Watts
Example 2
What is the power of an electric jug which uses 260 volts and takes a current of 13A
Power = volts × amps
= 260V × 13A
= 3380W
Example 3

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How much current will 75W bulb draw from 250V mains supply?
Power = voltage current
Current = PowerVoltageCurrent = PowerVoltage
Current = 75W250VCurrent = 75W250V
Current = 0,3A
Electricity-and-magnetism-Exercise 1
1) If magnet A can hold 3 steel paperclips and magnet B can hold 5 steel paperclips, which one is
stronger? Magnet A
Magnet B
They are equally strong.
None of the two.
2) Where is the magnetic force of a bar magnet the strongest? In the center of the magnet.
At either end or pole of the magnet.
Midway between each side of the magnet.
The magnetic force is uniform throughout the magnet.
3) What is the best evidence that the earth has a magnetic field? All things fall towards the
Earth’s centre.
A compass needle always lines up with it.
Winds blow from east to west.
Earth’s oceans all have currents.
4) All of these metals are non-magnetic (not attracted to a magnet) except ________. steel
gold
aluminum
copper
5) Poles that are not alike, ________ each other. demagnetise

magnetise
attract
repel
6) Which of the following substances is attracted by magnet? Water

Soil
Iron
Carbon
7) The south end of a bar magnet always points to the ________ when the magnet is left to hang
freely. north
east
west
south
8) The north end of a bar magnet always points to the ________ when the magnet is left to hang
freely. north

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east
west
south
9) How does increasing distance affect a magnet's ability to attract a steel object? It depends
which pole is facing the steel object.
It weakens it.
It strengthens it.
It has no effect.
10) What would you detect by using a compass, iron filings, and iron objects? Directions
Gravity
Electricity
Magnetic field
Form 2
Combined Science
Chemistry
Separation
Separation
1. State the applications of filtration, winnowing, magnetism and evaporation.
Separation
 Filtration, winnowing, magnetism and evaporation are used to separate mixtures of
substances; they are called methods of separation.
 Applications means uses, applications give us how a method of separation is used in our
daily lives.
 The following are applications of filtration, evaporation, magnetism and winnowing.
Applications of filtration
 Filtration is used to separate suspensions or insoluble solids from liquids or gases.
 Suspensions are mixtures of fluids (liquids or gases) and insoluble, suspended solids.
 One application of filtration is in the treatment of water for drinking and for pools.

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Figure 2.1.1:
Filtration method is used in cleaning water in pools.

 Water is made purer by separating it from dirty insoluble solids using filtration.
 Air can also be filtered in a car engine to remove dust using air filters so that the car runs
smoothly.
Figure 2.1.2:
An air filter used to clean air in a car engine.

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 Vacuum cleaners are used to clean carpets, they use filtration; filters in vacuum cleaners
remove dust trapped from carpets and indoors.
 In the kitchen a strainer is used to filter off water from food like rice, and pasta.
 Medical personnel and miners use face mask to filter the air they breathe so that it is clean
from infection and dust.
 Filtration is used to filter tea leaves when preparing tea, tea bags are special filters.
 Filtration is also used when someone has a kidney failure, the kidneys will no longer be able
to filter blood. Artificial filtration machines are used in hospitals to clean the blood for the
patients.
Applications of evaporation
 Evaporation is used to separate a soluble substance from a liquid solution e.g. salt from
water in a salt solution, sugar from water in a sugar solution.
 The diagram in Figure 2.1. 4 below shows how a mixture of a liquid solution can be
separated in the laboratory; the solution mixture is gently heated until all the liquid
evaporates to leave a solid in the evaporating dish.
Figure 2.1.3:
Evaporation.
 Applications of evaporation include separating water from ammonium nitrate solution in
fertilizer production.
 Ammonium nitrate is a fertilizer, ammonium nitrate solution is heated so that the water
evaporates and the solid ammonium nitrate fertilizer is obtained.
 Evaporation is also applied in sugar production to separate sugar from water.
 Sugarcane juice is made up of sugar and water. The sugarcane juice is heated so that the
water evaporates to leave solid sugar.
 Food like vegetables and, biltong, is preserved by drying, drying also involve evaporation.
Evaporation is used in preparing dried foods.
Experiment 2.1.1: Formation of ammonium nitrate crystals from ammonium nitrate solution.
Materials:
 Ammonium nitrate (a fertilizer salt)

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 Sugar
 Burner
 a burner stand,
 Gauze
 an evaporating dish
 filter papers
 a stirrer
Figure 2.1.4:
Formation of ammonium nitrate crystals from ammonium nitrate solution.

Procedure
1. Dissolve a lot of solid ammonium nitrate in water inside a beaker by stirring to form
ammonium nitrate solution.
2. Pour the ammonium nitrate solution into the evaporating dish.
3. Set up the burner as shown in the diagram and heat gently the solution in the evaporating
dish.
4. Continue to heat the solution until most of the water has evaporated.
5. Remove the evaporating dish from heat; allow it to cool slowly by setting it aside for days.
6. Pour off the solution and remove the solid crystals formed inside the evaporating dish.
7. Press the solid between sheets of filter papers.
8. Repeat the same experiment using sugar instead of ammonium nitrate.
Observation Questions
 What do you notice when ammonium nitrate is stirred in water.
 What is formed when the solid disappears in a liquid?
 What is observed when the solutions are heated using a burner?
 What is noticed when the solution is allowed to cool down slowly?
 The ammonium nitrate will dissolve in water to form a solution.
 The water will be seen to evaporate when the solution is heated.
 Solid crystals of ammonium nitrate will appear again when the solution cools.

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 The experiment show that solid/solutes can be obtained from solutions by evaporation.
Applications of Magnetism
 Magnetism is used to separate magnetic metals from waste materials in metal recycling.
 A magnetic separator is used to pick magnetic metals such iron, cobalt and nickel from
waste so that they are used again (recycled).
Figure 2.1.5:
A magnetic separator is used in metal recycling.

 Magnetism can also be used to remove some metals objects from food stuffs.
 When food is contaminated with metals like iron, cobalt and nickel, magnetism is used to
remove the metals for example iron filings are removed from grain in a grinding meal using a
magnet.
Applications of winnowing
 Winnowing is used to separate heavy objects from lighter objects using a winnower
 Winnowing is applied when grain is separated from chaff, weevils and pest for instance;
wheat grain is separated from chaff using winnowing.

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Figure 2.1.6:
A lady using a winnower to separate grain from chaff.

 The above are some of the applications of filtration, winnowing, magnetism and
evaporation.
 The main application of the given methods of separation is to separate substances so that
we are left with the most useful purer substance.
Table 2.1.1: Applications of different methods of separation.
Method of Mixtures separated Applications/uses
separation
Filtration  Suspensions  Treatment of water.

 Insoluble solids and liquids  In vacuum cleaners
 Dust and air  Treatment of air for smooth running
of engines.
 Cleaning blood for patients with
kidney failure in hospitals.
 Removing tea leaves from tea.
 Removing water from food like rice
and pasta.

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Winnowing  A mixture of heavy solids  Separating grain from chaff during

and very light solids. grain harvesting.
 Removing weevils or pest from grain.
Magnetism  Magnetic metals from solids  Separating metallic objects from

or liquids grain during grinding.
 Metal recycling.
Evaporation  Liquid Solutions e.g.  Separating ammonium nitrate

salts/fertilizers solution and fertilizer salts from water in fertilizer
sugar solutions. production.
 A mixture of solids, when  Separation sugar from sugarcane
the other easily vapours juice in sugar production.
 Salting of food
 Preserving vegetables and food.
Experiment 2.1.2: Salting of peanuts

Materials
 100g Peanuts
 salt,
 water
 two evaporating dishes ,
 two burners
 two burner stands
 gauze
 balance

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Figure 2.1.7:
Salting peanuts using evaporation

Procedure
1. Measure 50g of peanuts using a balance and put them in an evaporating dish.
2. Soak them using water in an evaporating dish, label it dish A.
3. Measure another 50g of peanuts and put them in the other evaporating dish, add half a
spatula of salt without adding some water -label it dish B.
4. Add half a spatula of salt to the mixture in the evaporating dish A, shake to mix.
5. Evaporate the water in dish A by placing the evaporating dish on a burner set as in Figure
2.1.7 above.
6. Heat also the peanuts in the evaporating dish B on the burner so that they do not burn.
7. Remove the evaporating dishes from the burners and compare the colour of the peanuts in
the two dishes.
8. Separately taste the peanuts from the two dishes.
Observations Questions
 How does the colour of the peanuts in dish A compare to the colour of the peanuts in dish?
 Which peanuts tasted more salty
 Peanuts in dish A will be looking whiter than peanuts in dish B
 Peanuts in dish A tasted more salty than in B, this shows that evaporation improves salting.
Experiment 2.1.2 shows that evaporating can be used to improve food salting; food salting is
another application of evaporation.
Separation-Exercise 1
Answer the following questions. For each question there are four possible answers. Choose the one
you consider correct.
1) Which of these metals is attracted to a magnet? Nickel

Copper

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Zinc
Aluminium
2) Which of the following cannot be separated by winnowing? Heavy objects from lighter objects.
Grain from chaff.
Metals objects from food stuffs.
Maize from weevils and pest.
3) A magnet uses the ________ to separate metals from non-metals. solubility of substance
density of substance
force of attraction
differences in mass
4) Which of the following would you use to separate sand from iron filings? Bar magnet
Filter paper
Distillation apparatus
Chromatography paper
5) Which of the following method of separation matches its application?
Method
Application
Winnowing
Extraction of copper from sand.
Filtration
Production of fertilizers.
Magnetism
Removing Iron bearings from wheat grain.
Evaporation
Removing dust from air in car engines.

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A
B
C
D
6) Magnetism is used to separate objects that are _______. insoluble
radioactive
soluble
metallic
7) Which of these applications does not involve filtration? Water treatment

Removing tea from tea leaves.
Preserving vegetables by drying.
Cleaning blood of a patient with kidney failure.
8) Winnowing helps to separate a ________ from a ________ depending on their relative masses.
solid; liquid
solid; solid
liquid; solid
liquid; liquid
9) Which of these elements increases the effectiveness of winnowing when separating substances?
Rain
Wind
Heat
Light
10) Which one of the following laboratory apparatus is not used during evaporation process?
Evaporating basin
Bunsen burner
Wire gauze
Filter funnel
Separation-Exercise 2
1) Evaporation is used to separate a ________ substance from a liquid.
2) Food like vegetables and biltong is preserved by drying. Drying involves the process of ________
.
3) Medical personnel and miners use face masks to ________ the air they breathe so that it is
clean from infection and dust.
4) When food is contaminated with metals like iron, a ________ is used to remove the metals.
5) Artificial filtration machines are used in hospitals to clean the blood for the patients with
________ failure.
6) A ________ attracts iron objects to itself.

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7) State the form of energy needed for evaporation to take place.
8) Water is made purer by separating it from dirty insoluble solids using ________ .
9) Sugar production involves removing water from sugar. Water is removed from the sugar
through ________ .
10) ________ method is used to filter tea leaves when preparing tea.
Matter
1. Determine the concentrations by colour intensities of dissolved substances.
Concentration
 A solvent is a substance that allows other substances to dissolve in it, for example water.
Solutes dissolve in solvents. They disappear in solvents.
 A solute is a substance that dissolves in another substance; examples of solutes include table
salt, sugar, copper sulphate, potassium permanganate, ammonium dichromate and
ammonium nitrate.
 Concentration is defined as the mass of solute dissolved per given volume of solvent
Solute (solid salt) + Solvent (water) = solution (salt solution)
 If more mass of a solute is dissolved we will have a higher concentration, 20 grams of salt
dissolved in 100ml of water will give a greater concentration than 5 grams of salt dissolved
in the same 100ml of water.

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Fig 2.1.1:
Dissolving more mass of solute increases concentration.

 Some solutes form coloured solutions when dissolved in water.
 Potassium permanganate form purple solutions, copper sulphate form blue solutions
ammonium dichromate solution is orange in colour as shown below.
Figure 2.2.2:
Coloured solutions

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 The colour of the solution is used to determine the concentration of the solution.
 If more mass of a solute is dissolved in a solution we will have a greater concentration, the
colour of the solution will become darker.
 Less mass dissolved in a solution will give less concentration and the colour of the solution
will be lighter.
 A dilute solution has less concentration and the colour of the solution is faint or lighter;
dilute Mazowe orange crush will have a low concentration and lighter colour than
concentrated orange crush.
 Mazowe drink with low concentration is dilute and faint in colour it has less mass of sugar
than concentrated Mazowe. Concentrated drinks taste too sweet because they have more
mass of sugar (solute) and the colour will be dark.
 Concentrated solutions have more mass and are darker than solutions with low
concentration.
Figure 2.2.3:
From low to high concentration

 The colour of the solution becomes darker when more mass of solute is added; the colour
becomes darker when concentration increases.
Experiment 2.2.: Determining the concentration using colour of solutions.
Materials:
 Powdered potassium permanganate
 Four 150ml beakers
 Water
 Spatula
 Stirrer
 Electronic balance
 Four evaporating dishes

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Figure 2.2.4:
Determining the concentration of coloured solutions

Procedure:
1. Measure 150ml of water into four beakers.
2. Label the four beakers P, Q, R and S.
3. Use an electronic balance to measure masses of 60mg, 20mg, 5mg and 1,5mg of potassium
permanganate in four different evaporating dishes.
4. Add the masses to beakers P, Q, R and S respectively and stir.
5. Record the colour intensity and masses added in a table
6. Empty and wash the beakers and Repeat the steps 1-5 using, ammonium dichromate,
copper sulphate or brown sugar.
7. For brown sugar put four spatulas of sugar in P, three in Q, and two in R and one in S
respectively.
Observation Questions:
 Which beaker had the darkest solution?
 Which beaker had the greatest mass added and greatest concentration?
 How was the colour of the solution changing as the mass of solute added decreased?
 What happened to the concentration as the mass of solute added decreased?
 Which beaker had the lightest colour?
Table2.2.1: Results for potassium permanganate
Solution Mass of potassium permanganate per 150ml Colour intensity
water(concentration)/mg
P 60.0 Very dark purple
Q 20.0 Dark purple

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R 5.0 Light purple
S 1.5 Very light
Short Questions
1. Which solution has the highest concentration?
2. Which solution is the darkest?
3. Which solution has the lowest amount of potassium permanganate or the lowest
concentration?
4. What is the relationship between the colour of the solution and the concentration?
 Solutions of different concentrations can be made by dissolving different amounts of
solutes.
 Solutions with more mass of solute dissolved give high concentration and a dark colour
 Solutions with less mass of solute dissolved give less concentration and light colours.
Experiment 2.2.2: Making copper sulphate solutions and determining their concentrations
Figure 2.2.5:
preparing copper sulphate solutions

Materials:
 copper sulphate
 3 beakers
 electronic balance
 stirrer
 measuring cylinder
 water
 marker
 3 evaporating dishes.
Procedure:
1. Measure 100ml of water using a measuring cylinder.
2. Pour the 100ml of water into one beaker and label it beaker A using a delete able marker.

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3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the other two beakers and label them beaker B and beaker C.
4. Place an evaporating dish on an electronic balance and press the tare function so that it
reads zero.
5. Add some copper sulphate into the evaporating dish using a spatula until it reads 10g.
6. Pour the 10g of copper sulphate into 100ml of water in beaker A and stir.
7. Use clean evaporating dishes and repeat steps 4 and 5 so that you measure 20g, and 30g of
copper sulphate.
8. Add the 20g and 30g of copper sulphate to 100ml of water in beaker B and beaker C
respectively and stir.
Observation Questions:
 How does the colour of the solutions change when more mass of copper sulphate is added?
 Which solution is the darkest?
 Which solution had more copper sulphate?
Results And Calculations:
 Concentration can be calculated as follows:
Concentration= mass of solute ÷ volume of solvent
Concentration of solution in beaker A
Concentration of the solution in beaker A = Mass of solute volume of solvent
= mass of copper sulphate÷volume of water
= 10g ÷100ml
= 0.1 g/ml
Concentration of solution in beaker B
Concentration of solution in beaker B = mass of solute volume of solvent
= mass of copper sulphate ÷ volume of water
= 20g ÷ 100ml
= 0.2 g/ml
Concentration of solution in beaker C
Concentration of solution in beaker C = Mass of solute volume of solvent
= mass of copper sulphate ÷ volume of water
= 30g÷100 ml
= 0.3 g/ml
Table 2.2.2: Results
Solution Mass of copper Volume of water in the Concentration in Colour of
sulphate in the solution[solvent] in ml g/ml solution
solution[solute] in g
A 10 100 0.1 Light blue
B 20 100 0.2 Blue
C 30 100 0.3 Dark blue
 Concentration is determined by dividing mass of the solute into the volume of the solvent.
 Solution C had more mass of the solute (copper sulphate).
 Solution C had the highest concentration
 The concentration increases when more solute is added and the colour becomes darker.
Matter-Exercise 1

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1) The colour of a copper sulphate (II) solution becomes ________ when more mass of copper (II)
sulphate is added. lighter
unchanged
orange
darker
2) From the following list, which solution has the highest concentration? 3g of brown sugar in
100ml of water.
4g of brown sugar in 50ml of water.
1,5g of brown sugar in 18ml of water.
3) Which of the solutions in the image below has the highest concentration of potassium
permanganate?
B
C
D
4) Which of these must be added to a light blue solution of copper (II) sulphate to give a dark blue
colour? Water
Potassium permanganate
Copper (II) sulphate
Ammonium dichromate
5) A student dissolved the following masses of orange ammonium dichromate in different volumes
of solvent to form solutions. Which of the solutions would give the darkest colour? 10g of
ammonium dichromate in 100ml of water.
20g of ammonium dichromate in 50ml of water.
6) From the following list, which solution has the lowest concentration? 2g of brown sugar in
100ml of water.
7) Concentration can be described as mass of ________. solvent per mass of solute

solute per volume of solvent

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solution per volume of solvent

solvent per volume of solute
8) The following equation shows a neutralisation reaction.
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → P + Water
What type of a substance is P? An acid.

A base.
A salt.
A sugar.
9) What can be increased to give a high solute concentration in a solution? Solvent

Solute
Volume of the container.
Colour intensity
10) Solutions with less mass of solute dissolved give ________. more concentration and dark
colours
less concentration and dark colours
more concentration and light colours
less concentration and light colours
Matter-Exercise 2
Answer the following questions by filling in each space with the suitable word(s).
1) If more mass of copper sulphate is added to copper sulphate solution, the colour of the solution
will change from light blue to ________ .
2) Concentration is determined by dividing mass of the solute by the volume of the ________ .
3) ________ is defined as the mass of solute dissolved per given volume of solvent.
4) Calculate the mass of copper sulphate needed to make a concentration of 0,5gml in 50ml of
water. (Write your answer in figures and use a comma if required. Do not include the units.)
5) The table below shows how two solutions were diluted to give different concentrations.
Container A B
Volume of solvent in millilitres. 2 10
Mass of solute in grams. 10 2
By using letter A or B, which of the two solutions is more concentrated?
6) The concentration of a substance increases when more ________ is added and the colour
becomes darker.
7) What colour are potassium permanganate solutions?
8) State the volume of water is required to make a 0,1 gml solution from a solute that has a mass
of 15g? (Write your answer in figures and use a comma if required. Do not include the units.)

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9) Concentration is determined by dividing ________ of the solute by the volume of the solvent.
10) Complete the following formula for determining concentration of a solution.
Concentration = mass of solute ÷ volume of a ________ .
Acids, Bases And Salts
1. Describe an acid-base reaction.
Acid-base reaction
 An acid is a substance that turns blue litmus paper red, and a base is a substance that turns
red litmus to blue.
 Examples of acids are: hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, citric acid, vinegar and many more.
 Bases include sodium hydroxide solution and ammonia.
Figure 2.3.1:
acids and bases.

 When an acid and a base are placed together, they react to neutralise (remove) the acid and
base properties.
 An acid and a base combine/react when they are mixed to produce salt and water
 An acid-base reaction is a reaction that occurs when an acid and a base combine to form a
salt and water. It is also called neutralisation.
 Neutralisation is a reaction when an acid and a base react to form a salt and water

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Figure 2.3.2:
Acids and bases combine to give salt and water

The following shows an acid-base reaction:
 Hydrochloric acid (acid) + Sodium hydroxide (base)→ Sodium Chloride (salt) + Water
 Sulphuric acid (acid) + Sodium hydroxide (base)→ Sodium sulphate (salt) + Water
Experiment 2.3.1: To demonstrate acid and base reaction.
Materials:
 1 molar hydrochloric dilute acid(acid)
 1 molar sodium hydroxide solution(base)
 two beakers
 3 litmus papers
 2 measuring cylinders
 burner
 tripod stand
 filter paper
 stirring rod

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Figure 2.3.3:
Reaction of acid and base

Procedure:
1. NB: Concentration can also determine using molars .All the solutions have the same
concentration of 1molar
2. Precaution: quickly rinse the acid or base with water as soon as it gets on your skin.
o Measure 20cm3 of hydrochloric acid into a beaker using a measuring cylinder, and
dip in a litmus paper.
o Use the other measuring cylinder to pour another 20cm3 of sodium hydroxide into
the acid, dip the second litmus paper.
o Mix the hydrochloric acid and the sodium hydroxide solutions, be careful not to spill
the solutions, dip in the third litmus paper.
o Heat the solution in the beaker using a burner until the volume is less than one
quarter.
o Put the heated solution near a window until the few days
o Remove the liquid from the beaker to leave some solid crystals
o Dry the crystals between two filter papers.
 What is the colour change on the litmus paper dipped in the hydrochloric acid?
 What is the colour change on the litmus paper dipped in sodium hydroxide solution?
 What happened to the colour of the litmus paper dipped in the mixture of the acid and the
base?
 Describe the appearance of the solid crystals.
 The experiment above demonstrates that when an acid reacts with a base they both lose
their properties.
 The blue litmus paper in an acid changes colour to red while a red litmus paper in a base
change colour to blue
 When both the acid and the base are mixed they both lose their properties, they will not
change the colour of the litmus paper.

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 The solid crystals formed are a salt; a salt does not change the colour of the litmus paper.
 The liquid that was evaporated was water; water does not change the colour of the litmus
paper.
 Some salts formed from reaction of acids and bases are not soluble, they can be removed by
filtration.
 The word equation for the reaction is:
 Hydrochloric acid (acid) + Sodium hydroxide (base) → Sodium Chloride (salt) + Water
 The name of the salt is given from the acid and the base used for example:
 Hydrochloric acid forms chloride salts:
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide→ Sodium chloride + water
 Sulphuric acid forms sulphate salts:
Sulphuric acid + Sodium hydroxide→ Sodium sulphate + water
 Nitric acid forms nitrate salts:
Nitric acid + Sodium hydroxide→ Sodium nitrate + water
Acids-bases-and-salts-Exercise 1
1) The following equation shows a neutralisation reaction.
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → P + Water Sodium chloride

Sodium sulphate
Sodium nitrate
Sodium carbonate
2) What is formed when sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid? Sodium chloride and
water.
Sodium hydroxide and water.
Sodium chloride and hydrogen.
Sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.
3) An acid and base were reacted together. A litmus paper was dipped inside the solution. What is
the expected colour change? Red to blue.
Blue to red.
No change.
Red to yellow.
4) Some salts formed from reaction of acids and bases are not soluble. Which is the best way to
remove these salts from the solution? Filtration
Evaporation
Crystalisation
Magnetism
5) A substance that turn the colour of a litmus paper from red to blue is ________ . an acid
a base
water
a salt

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6) The heated solution of an acid and base is left for days and some solid crystals are formed. The
solid crystals that are formed after the days are _________ crystals. sugar
water
salt
sulphur
7) An acid changes the colour of litmus paper from blue to ________ . black
red
white
yellow
8) An acid and a base are reacted to form a solution. The solution is then heated on a burner. Why
is the solution heated? To remove acid.
To remove the base.
To mix the acid and the base.
To remove water.
9) Which of the following is correct for an acid-base reaction? Acid + Salt → Base + Water
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Acid + Water → Base + Salt
Base + Salt → Acid + Water
10) What should be done when an acid gets in contact with the skin? Quickly neutralise it with a
base.
Quickly rinse the acid with water.
Quickly add some salt.
Wipe it off with a clean cloth.
Acids-bases-and-salts-Exercise 2
1) A ________ is used to neutralise an acid.
2) An acid changes the colour of litmus paper from blue to ________.
3) A substance that turns the colour of a litmus paper from red to blue is a (an) ________.
4) An acid reacts with a base to form salt and ________.
5) An acid and a base react to form water and ________.
6) A substance that turns the colour of a litmus paper from blue to red is a(an) ________.
7) When nitric acid is neutralised with ________ the salt formed is called sodium nitrate.
8) An acid-base reaction can also be called a ________ reaction.
9) Study the diagram below and use it to answer questions 9, 10, 11 and 12.

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The name given to the paper X shown above is ________.
10) The substance in A is a (an) __________.
11) The substance in B is a (an) _________.
12) When liquid A and liquid B are mixed salt and ________ are formed.
Industrial Processes
1. Outline the manufacture of soap.
Introduction
 Soap is produced by a process called saponification.
 In simple terms, saponification is the name for a chemical reaction between an acid and a
base to form a salt.
 In soap making, an oil or fat is the acid, lye (sodium hydroxide) is the base and the soap
made is the salt.
 Therefore soap making is an acid-base reaction.
 The base must always be composed of one hydroxide ion.
 The sodium ion does not take part in the reaction at all, therefore other bases like potassium
hydroxide can be used because it is also made up of one hydroxide ion.
 Potassium hydroxide is more prominently used for liquid soap making.
The Saponification process.

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 Manufacturing of soap is one of the most interesting activities to do in a laboratory because

if all safety precautions are practised and the procedure is done properly, one can walk out
with a bar of soap.
 Soap manufacturing can also be done at industrial scale.
Soap making in the laboratory
Materials
 Safety equipment ( rubber gloves and goggles)
 Scale
 Stainless steel sauce pan
 Stainless steel pot or mixing bowl
 Silicone or wood utensils
 1 litre canning container
 Soap making thermometers
 Soap moulds
 Wax Paper
 Soap Cutter
Procedure:
Step 1: Prepare your working area, wear protective clothing and mix lye with water
1. Weigh about 350 grams of lye and add into the 1 litre canning container and fill it with cold
water because the reaction is highly exothermic.
2. Stir slowly as you pour the lye into the container.
3. Avoid the fumes by wearing a mask or standing back.
4. Stir until a clear solution is achieved and let it settle.
Step 2: Heat the oils or fats
1. Pour the oils together in the stainless steel sauce pans.
2. Heat the oils in a microwave to about.
3. Use oils from sunflower, soya bean, or fats such as tallow, etc.
Step 3: Mix the lye and oils together
1. Check the temperature of the lye and of the oils until they are in the range of and using the
thermometers.
2. Once both lye and the oils are in the optimum temperatures pour the oils first into a mixing
bowl and slowly stir in the lye by hand for about 5 minutes.
3. Continue mixing using the silicone utensils until the soap is thick and light in colour.
4. The soap is ready for essential herbs and essential oils.
Step 4: Add essential herbs and essential oils and mould the soap
1. Add the essential herbs and oils and thoroughly stir until a homogenous mixture is attained.
2. Pour the mixture into soap moulds and cover with an old towel.
3. The old towel allows residual heat to keep the mixture warm and start the saponification
process.
4. A good saponification process ensures all the base material has been converted to soap.
Step 5: Mature the soap
1. Allow the soap to spend at least one full day (24 hours) in the soap moulds.
2. If the soap is still soft or warm, let it spend another 12-24 hours in the moulds.
3. Once the soap is cold and firm, remove the soap from the moulds, cut into desired block
sizes and place onto a parchment paper to start the curing process.
4. Allow the soap to cure for about 4 weeks
Step 6: Store the soap safely using wax paper
1. Once cured, wrap the soap in wax paper because hand-made soap creates glycerin, which
pulls moisture from the air.
2. Moisture may attract debris and dust so keeping the soap covered will keep them clean and
pure.

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Industrial saponification
 There are basically two methods of soap manufacturing in industries batch process and the
continuous process
Batch process manufacturing of soap in industry
 Below is a simplified batch process of manufacturing soap
Fig 2.4.1:
Batch industrial process of manufacturing soap

 Oil is extracted from the seeds of plants such as soya bean, sunflowers.
 Seeds are crushed, steamed and crushed again to produce oil.
 The oil and sodium hydroxide solution are fed into a sealed reaction vessel.
 The mixture is then heated under pressure for a few minutes.
 The liquid containing soap and glycerol is allowed to cool, and concentrated brine is added.
Perfume may be added.
 The solid soap separates out and removed.
 The soap is then dried and formed into bars.
Continuous process
 The continuous process is the most practised method in industry.
 The basic block flow diagram for the manufacture of soap using the continuous process is
shown below:

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Figure 2.4.2:
Continuous block flow diagram for soap manufacturing.

Saponification
 The correct blend of fat/oil and sodium hydroxide (lye) are fed into the saponification
reactor where it mixes with unreacted products of the precious saponification.
 The fat/oil blend and the lye are heated by means of equipment called heat exchangers.
Cooling Mixer
 The saponification reactor is connected to another equipment known as the cooling mixer
where the soap/lye mixture is cooled down to graining temperature, thus being prepared for
static separation.
Static Separator
 In the static separator, products are separated according to their densities.
 Soap being lighter than lye floats on top of the lye.
 Remember not all the lye in the mixture fully reacts.
Wash Column And Centrifugation
 The soap from the static separator is then pumped into the washing column where a
washing solution (obtained by combining caustic soda, concentrated sodium chloride and
water) is added.
 The washing solution gets enriched in glycerin and settles at the bottom.
 The soap from the washing column overflow is pumped into the centrifugal separators.
Neutralisation
 The soap leaving the centrifugal separators usually contains an excess sodium hydroxide and
has to be neutralised before the soap is dried and packaged.
 To neutralise the soap a neutralising agent such as coconut oil is fed into the neutralising
mixers until the desired product is achieved.
The soap
 There are two types of soaps namely: hard soap and soft soap
 Hard soap is difficult to dissolve in water hence used as laundry soap.
 Soft soap release more lather hence used as toilet and shaving soap.

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Fig 2.4.3:
Pictorial view of hard and soft soaps.

 Soaps are less effective in hard water
 Hard water is water that contains a significant concentration of magnesium and calcium
ions.
 Ions form precipitates with soap molecules (soap scum)
 Soaps forms micelles in water, where the polar ends align along the circumference and non-
polar component remain at the centre.
 Non-polar ends of the soap which is repelled by water interacts with the non-polar grease.
Polar ends are attracted towards hydrophilic molecules. Dirt is removed in the process.
 Soft water contains very few or no ions that precipitate with soap. Soap is much more
effective in soft water than in hard water.
Uses of glycerol
 manufacture of paints
 manufacture of cosmetics
 making drugs and explosives
 Processing of tobacco.
Uses of soap
 washing of laundry
 cleaning of dishes
 bathing
 keep garden bugs off plant leaves by mixing it with water and spraying the leaves
 detect gas leaks by mixing it with water and rubbing on the joint
 temporary seal for oil leaks
 Relieve pain/itchy from bug bites
Industrial-processes-Exercise 1

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1) The word equation below shows the reaction for making soap.
X + Alkali → Soap + Glycerol
What is substance X? Acid

Ethanol
Fat
Starch
2) Select a physical change from the following. Melting ice.

Rusting of iron.
Heating mealie-meal.
Burning magnesium ribbon.
3) Besides fats and water, which other substances are needed in the manufacture of soap?
Glycerol and sodium chloride.
Sodium carbonate and sodium chloride.
Sodium hydroxide and sodium chloride.
Sodium hydroxide and glycerol.
4) Soaps cannot be used in hard water because they ________. form a precipitate
contain oil
contain lipids
are pollutants
5) Soap is more effective in ________water than ________ water. strong; weak

soft; hard
hard; soft
acid; base
6) Lye is a concentrated solution of which ionic compound? NaCl

NaOH
KCl
KOH
7) When handling sodium hydroxide, it is important to wear protective clothing because the
chemical is ________. corrosive
reducing
hot
dehydrating
8) What is the function of brine (sodium chloride) in the manufacture of soap? To act as a
catalyst.
To dissolve the soap.
To precipitate the soap.
To react with fat to form soap.
9) Which of the following is not a use of soap? Blocking oil leaks.

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Reducing itching after bug bites.

Removing dirt from clothing.
Purifying water.
10) Which of the following is not a function of glycerol? Manufacture of paints.

Making of drugs.
Manufacture of explosives.
Manufacture of ammonia.
Industrial-processes-Exercise 2
1) Which parts of plants is oil for soap production extracted from?
2) Any combination of substances that has uniform composition and properties is referred to as a
________ substance.
3) The non-polar tail of a soap molecule consists carbon and hydrogen atoms. This is called a
________ tail.
4) State the alkali used in the preparation of soft soap.
5) Glycerol belongs to a homologous group of ________.
6) ________ is the process of precipitation of soap by adding sodium chloride.
7) In terms of polarity, a soap molecule has a ________ head.
8) Water which contains very few or no magnesium and calcium ions is called ________ water.
9) A substance which repels water is known as ________.
10) The role of sodium chloride in saponification is to favour the ________ of soap.
o
Oxidation And Reduction
1. Write simple word equations;

2. Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen;
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical changes.
Word equations
 Word equations show what happens in a chemical reaction.
 In a word equation they are reactant and products.

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 Reactants are the chemicals that combine or react together, products are the new chemicals
formed.
How to write a word equation
 Write down the chemicals which reacted or combined on the left side (reactants go on the
left side).
 Put a + sign between the reactants.
 When all the reactants have been written in addition format, insert a forward arrow before
writing in any product (the arrow goes in between reactants and products).
 Write down the new chemicals formed on the right side, these are the products, (products
go on the right side).
 If there are more than one product put + signs in between the products.
 A word equation is presented as shown below;
upfu+mvura → sadzaupfu+mvura → sadza
 Note the arrow is between what we started with (reactants) and what we ended with
(products).
 There are no subtraction signs in the word equation.
 In the example hupfu and mvura reacted under controlled environments of temperature and
pressure.
 Another popular chemical equation involves the formation of water from its hydrogen and
oxygen.
 The equation for the formation of water is shown below:
Hydrogen + Oxygen → WaterHydrogen + Oxygen → Water
 The above chemical equation shows that hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are the reactants;
they combine to form the new product, water.
Example:
From the equation below, identify the reactants and the products.
Sodium+Chlorine → Sodium ChlorideSodium+Chlorine → Sodium Chloride
Answer:
Reactants: sodium and chlorine
Product: sodium chloride
Oxidation and reduction

 There are many ways to define oxidation and reduction but the easiest way to remember it
is the use of addition or removal of oxygen.
Oxidation
 Oxidation reactions are reactions that involve addition of oxygen.
 Oxygen is a gas that is found in air, when materials burn in air we say oxidation has occurred,
respiration process also involves breathing which make use of oxygen, so respiration is a
type of oxidation reaction.
 Rusting also involves exposing iron to air (oxygen) and moisture so that it rusts; rusting also
uses oxygen, it adds oxygen to iron and is another type of oxidation reaction.
 Oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen.
 Oxidation reactions include reactions such as combustion (burning in air), rusting and
respiration they all involve the addition of oxygen.
Examples of oxidation reactions are as follows:
Combustion (burning in air):

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 Burning of a candle in air- a candle is made up of carbon, so carbon reacts/ combines with
oxygen when a candle burns in air, so burning is an oxidation reaction.
Fig 2.5.1:
Burning a candle (oxidation)

 The word equation for the burning of a candle is:
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxideCarbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide
 Burning of a candle involves oxygen so it is an oxidation reaction.
 Burning food in air such as sugar and mealie meal is also oxidation.
 Food is made up of carbon, burning of sugar and mealie- meal in air also involves adding
oxygen to carbon, they are oxidation reactions.
Experiment2.5.1: Burning food (carbohydrates) in air [oxidation].
Materials:
 mealie meal
 sugar
 2 test tubes
 Burner
 a pair of tongs
 lighter
 spatula

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Fig 2.5.2:
Burning carbohydrates in air (oxidation)

Procedure
1. Use a spatula to put less than a quarter of a test tube of sugar into a test tube.
2. Hold the test tube using a tong and burn contents of the test tube using a lighted burner as
shown in Fig 2.5.2.
3. Hold the test tube in such a way that the open end faces away from you
4. Thoroughly burn the sugar until it melts and becomes solid again.
5. Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 using mealiemeal instead of sugar.
 What is the colour of the sugar and the mealie-meal before burning? (white)
 What is the colour of the sugar and the mealie-meal after burning? (black)
 Are the colours the same before and after burning? (No)
 Is there any gas released when sugar burns? (Yes, carbon dioxide and steam)
 When carbohydrates burn in air, oxygen from the air is added, oxidation will occur.
 Water, carbon dioxide and energy are produced when carbohydrates burn.
 Water and carbon dioxide are released as gases.
 The word equation of the oxidation of sugar or mealie-meal(carbohydrates) is as follows:
Carbohydrates + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water Carbohydrates + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + W
ater
 Burning of metals in air is another good example of oxidation reaction.
 Metals like magnesium can be burned in air; this is oxidation because air contains oxygen
which reacts with the metals.
 Magnesium burn in air with a very bright flame, the reaction is vigorous (fast).
Experiment 2.5.2: Burning of magnesium in air (oxidation).
Materials:
 A pair of tongs
 Benson burner
 Magnesium ribbon

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 light
Fig 2.5.3:
Burning magnesium in air (oxidation).

Procedure
Precaution: wear shady goggles to protect your eye sight from bright light
1. Light a burner using a lighter.
2. Hold the magnesium ribbon using a pair of tongs.
3. Burn the magnesium ribbon in air by putting it on the naked burner flame.
4. Observe what happens.
5. Observe the substance that remains.
 What form of energy is given off when magnesium burns? (light)
 What is the appearance of the substance that remains after burning the magnesium? (white
solids)
 Does the substance that remains after burning look the same as the magnesium ribbon. (No)
 Magnesium burns in air and reacts with the oxygen in the air to form a new substance
Magnesium oxide.
 Magnesium is shiny ,the new substance formed after burning, magnesium oxide is white

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Fig 2.5.3: Magnesium and

magnesium oxide
 Oxygen is added to the magnesium to form magnesium oxide, so the reaction is an oxidation
reaction.
 The word equation for the oxidation reaction is
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxideMagnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
 When metals burn in air, oxidation occurs; oxygen is added to the metals to form metal
oxides.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxideMetal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
Respiration
 Respiration is also an oxidation reaction. It is like burning of food in air, oxygen is added to
food (carbohydrates) during respiration so that we get energy from the food we eat.
 The word equation for respiration also shows oxygen being added to carbohydrates as
follows:
Carbohydrate+Oxygen → Carbon dioxide+water+energyCarbohydrate+Oxygen → Carbon dioxide+w
ater+energy
Reduction
o Reduction is the opposite of oxidation.
o Reduction means removal of oxygen.
o Carbon, hydrogen and very reactive metals remove oxygen from oxides of metals,
they reverse the oxidation process.
o Reduction occurs when removing oxygen from magnesium oxide using hydrogen.
Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen → Magnesium + waterMagnesium oxide + Hydrogen → Magnesium +
water

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Fig 2.5.4: Magnesium

oxide is reduced to magnesium using hydrogen gas
 Carbon can also be used to remove oxygen from metal oxides, for example:
Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen → Magnesium + waterMagnesium oxide + Hydrogen → Magnesium +
water
 Oxygen is removed from copper oxide to leave copper on its own (reduction) when copper
oxide and carbon are heated together as in Fig 2.5.5.
 When oxygen has been removed from copper oxide we say copper oxide had been reduced.
Fig 2.5.5: copper oxide

being reduced to copper using carbon.

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Example:
Consider the following equation and answer the following questions
Copper oxide+magnesium→copper+magnesium oxideCopper oxide+magnesium→copper+magne
sium oxide
 Which reactant goes through oxidation?
Answer: magnesium
 Which reactant goes through reduction?
Answer: copper oxide
Chemical and physical changes

Chemical changes
 Chemical changes form new and completely different substances from the ones combined.
 Burning of mealie meal in air is a good example of a chemical change, because a new
substance is formed.
 Mealie meal is white, a new substance which is black is formed after the mealie meal has
combined with oxygen in air when it burns.
Fig 2.5.6:
Chemical changes form new irreversible substances.
 Chemical changes can be represented using chemical equations.
 When a change forms something different and new it is a chemical change.
 A chemical change is not easily reversible; burning is a clear example of a chemical change,
when a paper burns it is not easy to reverse the ashes back to the paper again; therefore
burning is a chemical reaction.

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Fig 2.5.7: Burning

of a paper is not easy to reverse.
A Chemical change is a change which is not easily reversible and forms a completely new substance.
 Chemical changes take in energy from the outside or give out energy to the outside
environment when they happen. They involve some energy changes.
Fig 2.5.8:
Chemical changes give out heat.

 When magnesium was burning a lot of heat and light energy was given out, this shows that it
is a chemical reaction.

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Fig 2.5.9
Burning of magnesium in air gives out energy.
 Cooking an egg is an example of a chemical change which takes in energy and forms a new
substance which is not easy to reverse.
Fig 2.5.10: Frying

an egg is irreversible-chemical change.
Physical changes
 A physical change involves only changes in physical properties but does not change the
substance into something new.

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 Melting ice just changes the physical properties of the water from solid to a liquid but does
not change the ice into something new, it remains water. This is an example of a physical
change.
A physical change is a change that is easy to reverse.
 Change in state such as evaporation, melting, freezing, condensation and sublimation are all
physical changes. The substance just changes state but does not form something new.
Fig 2.5.11: Melting

ice is easy to reverse-a physical change.
 Formation of mixtures and solutions are also easily reversible. We can easily get sugar from
a sugar solution by evaporation, and we can easily separate Iron from its mixture using a
magnet. These are examples of physical changes because they are easy to reverse.
 The table below gives a summary of physical and chemical changes:
Physical changes Chemical changes
No new substance formed New different substance formed.
Little or no energy changes Involves energy changes, more energy is

taken in or given out.
Are reversible Are not easily reversed.
Examples include; change of state, Examples include chemical reactions such

formation of solutions, and formation of as oxidation and reduction.
mixtures.
Oxidation-and-reduction-Exercise 1
1) Which of the following is a reactant in the chemical reaction below?

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Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

Water
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
2) When magnesium burns in air the following reaction occurs:
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
What is the name given to this type of reaction?

Reduction
Rusting
Oxidation
Respiration
3) Coal is a fuel that contains carbon. Which of the following is the correct word equation for the
burning of coal? Carbon + Water → Carbon dioxide + Oxygen + Energy
Carbon dioxide + Oxygen → Carbon + Water + Energy
Carbon dioxide + Water → Carbon + Oxygen + Energy
Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
4) Rust can be described as ________ of iron. reduction

oxidation
decay
decomposition
5) Reduction is the ________. breaking down of oxygen

increase of oxygen
addition of oxygen
removal of oxygen
6) Which of the following reactions show a reduction reaction? Magnesium + Oxygen →

magnesium oxide
Iron + Water + Oxygen → Iron (III) oxide + Hydrogen
Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen → Magnesium + Water
Carbon dioxide + Water → Carbon + Oxygen + Energy
7) Which of the following statements describes a chemical change? It is easy to reverse.

Nothing new is formed.
It is hard to reverse.
It involves all change of states.
8) The following changes are physical changes except ________. a burning candle
candle wax melting
dissolving sugar in water
ice melting
9) Burning of a magnesium ribbon is a chemical change because it ________. forms a mixture

forms a new substance
happens quickly
results in change of state

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10) Select a chemical change from the list below. Heating ice.
Melting a candle.
Dissolving salt in water.
Burning a magnesium ribbon.
11) Which of the following is true about frying an egg? It is a physical change.
It is easy to reverse.
It is a chemical change.
It does not involve energy changes.
12) The reaction below summaries what happens during respiration. Use this reaction to answer
questions 11-13.
Carbohydrates + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
Which of the following is a reactant in the above reaction?

Carbon dioxide
Carbohydrates
Water
Energy
13) A chemical change is known to give out energy, or take in energy; the above chemical reaction
gives out some forms of energy.
Which of the following forms of energy is not given out by the above reaction? Sound
Heat
Light
Electricity
14) From the following, which is the product of respiration? Oxygen

Carbon dioxide
Water
Carbohydrates
15) The picture below shows a form of change occurring. Use the picture to answer questions 15
and 16.
What type of a change is shown? Physical

Chemical

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Oxidation
Reduction
16) The change in the image is ________. reversible

irreversible
oxidation
reduction
17) A chemical reaction is a change in which ________. no new substance is formed

there is no change of state
a new substance is formed
there is a change of state
18) Which type of steel is very ductile used to make rods used in reinforced concrete? Cast iron
Stainless steel
Mild steel
mixture of two non- metals
19) The chemicals that combine in a chemical reaction are called ________ . Products
Reactants
Equations
Reactions
Organic Chemistry
1. Define complete and incomplete combustion;

2. List the products of complete and incomplete combustion of fuels;
3. Describe the effects of burning fuels.
Combustion
 Combustion is the process of the burning of a fuel in the presence of oxygen.
 Fuel is a substance consumed to provide energy through combustion, or through chemical or
nuclear reaction.

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Fig 2.6.1: Fuel pump for

automobiles
 Combustion reactions are exorthemic and produce heat and sometimes light energy.
Fossil fuel+oxygen gas → carbon dioxide gas + water+energyFossil fuel+oxygen gas → carbon dioxide
gas + water+energy
 Common examples of combustion are,
 The burning of coal in a power station
 The burning of petrol in automobile engines
 The flame from spirit/ Bunsen burner
 The burning of firewood/ charcoal in a fire place
 Cellular respiration or the ‘burning’ of glucose by cells in living organisms.
Fig 2.6.2: Burning charcoal

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Fig 2.6.3: Burning firewood

 Two types of combustion are complete and incomplete combustion.
 Complete combustion is the burning of fuel in excess supply of oxygen.
 Products of complete combustion are carbon dioxide, water and energy.
For example;
Petrol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
Methane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
Fig 2.6.4: Burning gas in excess

oxygen
 Incomplete combustion is the burning of fuel in limited supply of oxygen.
For example;
o Octane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon + water + energy
o Methane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon + water + energy
 Products of incomplete combustion are carbon, carbon monoxide, water and energy.
 Carbon monoxide is poisonous to human beings

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Fig 2.6.6: Carbon

dioxide poisoning
Experiment: 2.6.1: Comparison on complete and incomplete combustion.
Materials
 Bunsen burner
 Matches
Procedure
Fig 2.6.7: Bunsen burner

1. Set up apparatus as shown in fig 2.6.7.
2. Put the burner on using matches.
3. Observe the appearance of the flame when the air hole is:
4. Open
5. Closed
6. Use your observations to complete the table below.
Observation Questions.
Complete the table.
Bunsen burner Complete combustion Incomplete combustion

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Air hole
Colour of flame
Noise
Name of flame
Bunsen burner Complete combustion Incomplete combustion
Air hole Open Closed
Colour of flame Blue Yellow
Noise Noisy Quiet
Name of flame Heating flame or non-luminous Safety flame or luminous
Fig 2.6.8: Flame zones

Effects of burning fuels
 Carbon fuels release unburnt carbon particles in the environment that cause respiratory and
skin diseases, for example, asthma.

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Fig 2.6.9: Thermal power

station
 Incompletely burnt fuel release carbon monoxide gas into the atmosphere. Carbon
monoxide is poisonous in nature.
 Combustion of fossil fuels also releases a large amount of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which is responsible for global warming.
 Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,
chloroflourocarbons, and other pollutants.
 Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas. Sulphur dioxide is extremely
corrosive and suffocating in nature. Petrol gives off oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. These
oxides dissolve in rain water to form acid rain.
 Global warming is the rise in temperature of the earth atmosphere caused by the excessive
amount of carbon dioxide in the air. Due to rise in the temperature of atmosphere, the ice in
polar region will melt very fast producing a lot of water. This water may cause a rise in the
sea level leading to floods in the coastal areas. The low lying areas may be completely
submerged under water leading to loss of life.
 Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where land is therefore converted
to a non-forest use such as agriculture, housing or mining. Reduction of trees means
reduced amount of carbon dioxide captured by these plants. This will therefore increase the
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Organic-chemistry-Exercise 1
1) One visible sign of combustion is a flame. Flames can have many different colours, but which of
these releases the most heat? Blue flame
Red flame
Yellow flame
Orange flame
2) For heating purposes the most suitable flame is ________. luminous flame
aluminous
non-luminous flame
dull flame

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3) Which statement is correct for all fuels? They are derived from fossils.
They are liquids.
They contain carbon.
They give out heat energy.
4) Combustion reaction of fuels is a(n) ________ reaction. catalytic

exothermic
endothermic
hybrid
5) The colour of flame produced with the Bunsen burner air hole closed is ________ . red
green
yellow
blue
6) Which of these fuel is used in motor vehicles? Kerosene

Petrol
Coal
Methane
7) Which of the following defines greenhouse gases? These are gases used as fuel.
These are gases that absorb and trap heat energy.
These are gases that go through complete combustion.
These are gases that are produced in landfills.
8) Which of the following is not a fuel? Water

Paraffin
Diesel
Coke
9) The colour of flame produced with the Bunsen burner air hole open is ________ . red
yellow
blue
white
10) What are the products from the complete combustion of fuels? Carbon dioxide and carbon.
Carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
Carbon monoxide and water vapour.
Organic-chemistry-Exercise 2
1) The products of complete combustion are ________, water vapour and energy.
2) The products of complete combustion are ________, water vapour and energy.
3) What is used to explain how carbon moves through the atmosphere, earth and living organisms?
[1]

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4) The most commonly used jet fuel is ________.
5) Complete the equation:

Butane gas burnt in excess air → + ________ + Water vapour + Heat
6) Luminous flames have limited access to which gas?
7) Combustion reactions give off heat and are called ________ reactions.
8) The gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere is called ________.
9) The colour of flame produced with the Bunsen burner air hole open is ________.
10) State the gas produced by humans during fossil fuel production and use, livestock and rice
farming, as well as in landfills.

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BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. State differences among living things,

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Variation in eye colour caused by genetic differences.

Fig.1.1.2: Variation in body mass can be

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 Shoe size  Leaf length

 Skin colour  Number of seeds in a pod

A bar graph of mass of people against the number of people

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Height of pupils (class) Number of pupils

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A bar graph of height of pupils against the number of pupils

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A bar graph showing discontinuous variation in human blood groups

Discontinuous variation in earlobes and tongue rolling

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Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

No distinct groups or classes Distinct groups or classes

Moderately influenced by genetic factors Strongly influenced by genetic

Strongly influenced by the environment Not influenced by the environ

2) Which type of variation is strongly affected by the environment? Genetic variation

4) Which of the following factors causes discontinuous variation? Heredity

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Number of petals on a flower.

9) The following is a list of factors that can cause variation.

Choose whether the following characteristics show continuous or discontinuous variation.

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10) Blood groups

BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Explain the importance of plants as producers;

Importance of plants as producers

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The human alimentary canal.

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Route followed by food in the human digestive system

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3) What is the process that takes place in the oesophagus? Digestion

6) In which part of the digestive system is water absorbed? Pancreas

7) Where is the juice produce by the liver stored? Bile duct

8) In which part of a plant does photosynthesis take place? Stem

9) ________ are digested in the small intestines. Proteins

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10) Chemical digestion is aided by ________. enzymes

2) ________ is used as a raw material for photosynthesis because it is abundant in the

3) Name of the digestive juice produced by the liver.

5) The digestive system can be alternatively known as the ________.

7) Animals convert chemical energy to potential and ________ energy.

10) Which substance in the digestive system emulsifies fats?

BY THE END OF THIS SUB-TOPIC, LEARNERS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1. Label parts of the respiratory system;

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The human respiratory system

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The alveolus and the association with blood

1) What happens to the intercostal muscles during inhalation? They contract.

2) Which of the following statements describe what happens during exhalation?

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The diaphragm contracts and the rib cage expands.