CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

The students industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is a skill acquisition

program initiated in 1973/1974 by the industrial training fund (ITF) with the aim of
making education more relevant and to bridge the yawning gap between theory and
practice of engineering technology and science related discipline in high institution
in Nigeria. It forms part of the approved minimum academic standard in high
institution. It is a core academic requirement and must be met by all science related
discipline and engineering student before graduation. It is a tripartite program
involving the students, university and the industries. It is funded by the federal
government of Nigeria and jointly coordinated by the ITF and the National
University Commission (NUC). It was designed to expose and prepare students of
tertiary institution for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after
graduation.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK

EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill training program

designed to expose and prepare students of university, polytechnics/technical
collage etc. for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after
graduation. The scheme also affords students the opportunity of familiarizing and
exposing themselves to the needed experience in branding equipment and
machinery that are usually not available in their institution.

Before the establishment of the scheme, there was a growing concern among our
industrialist that graduates of our institution of higher learning lacked adequate
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practical background studies preparatory for employment in industries. Thus, the
employers were of the opinion that the theoretical education going on in higher
institution was not responsive to the needs of the employers of labor. It is against
this background that the rationale for initiating and designing the scheme by the
fund during its formative years in 1973/74 to acquaint students with the skills of
handing employers’ equipment and machinery. The Industrial Training Fund (ITF)
solely funded the scheme during its formative years. But as the financial
involvement became unbearable to fund, it withdrew from the scheme in 1978.

The Federal Government handed over the scheme in 1979 to both the National
Universities Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE). Later the Federal Government in November 1984 reverted the
management and implementation of SIWES program to ITF and it was effectively
taken over by the Industrial Training Fund on July 1985 with the funding being
solely borne by the Federal Government.

1.3AIM AND OJECTIVES OF SIWES

The Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is aimed to expose

students of higher institutions in Nigeria that are offering both professional and other
science and technology related courses to machines and equipments, professional
work method and the methods or ways of safe- guarding the work areas and workers
in the industries or organizations where the students were attached to undertake
training exercise. The objectives of the SIWES include:

 To prepare the students with the working experience they are likely going to
meet after graduation.

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  To provide the students with an opportunity to apply the theoretical
knowledge into practical work method in order to bridge the gap between the
university work or theoretical aspect and the actual practice.
 To expose students to the methods and techniques in handling the equipments
and machineries with may not be available in their institutions.

1.4 About Industrial Training Fund (ITF)

The Industrial Training Fund was established in 1971, the Industrial Training
Fund has operated consistently within the context of its enabling laws Decree 47 of
1971 as amended in the 2011 ITF act. The objective for which the Fund was
established has been pursued vigorously and efficaciously in the four decades of its
existence, the ITF has not only raised training consciousness in the economy, but
has also helped in generating a corps of skilled indigenous manpower which has
been manning and managing various sectors of the national economy.

Over the years, pursuant to its statutory responsibility, the ITF has expanded its
operations and structures, developed training programmers, reviewed its strategies,
operations and services in order to meet the expanding, and the changing demands
for skilled manpower in the economy. Beginning as a parastatal ‘’B’’ in 1971,
headed by a Director, the ITF became a parastatal ‘’A’’ in 1981, with a Director-
General as the Chief Executive under the aegis of the Ministry of Industry. The
Fund has a 13 member Governing Council and operates with 6 Departments and 3
Units at the Headquarters, 32 Area Offices, 3 Skills Training Centre and a Centre
for Industrial Training Excellence.

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1.5 The Industrial Training Fund is to:

 Formulate policies and guidelines on SIWES for distribution to all the

SIWES participating bodies, institutions and companies involved in the
scheme.
 Regulatory organize orientation programs for students prior to their
attachment,
 Receive and process Master and Placement lists from the Institution and
Supervising Agencies, i.e. (NUC, NBTE, NCCE);
 Supervise students on Industrial Attachment
 Disburse Supervisory and Students allowances
 Organize biennial SIWES National Conference and Annual SIWES review
meetings

1.6 Brief history of cooperation

The Kaduna state water cooperation(KADWAC) Area office is a government
agency operating under the Kaduna state ministry of water resources and ensures
the provision of clean, potable water at sustainable rate across the state.
Kaduna state water cooperation which is situated at Obasanjo house,Yakubu
Gowon Way Kaduna was initially founded in 1971(Edict No.2 of 1971)under an
official order issued by the person in authority then. Then on july 1,2004, the state
House of Assembly passed the Kaduna state water cooperation law
No.6,establishing the Kaduna state water cooperation under the ministry of water
resources in Kaduna.

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The Kaduna state water cooperation comprises of nine (9) key departments, which
include the following

MD

ADMINISTRATION FINAMCE

COPORATE
OPERATION COMERCIAL PROJECT AUDIT
PLANNING

SPECIAL DUTIES QUALITY CONTROL

1.7 ACTIVITIES OF THE COPERATION (KADWAC)

 Clean Water supply to the Kaduna metropolitan and industry layout of Kaduna
state.
 Awarding of Borehole Rehabilitation and drilling project
 Water quality analysis
 Awarding of Geophysical investigation for groundwater project
 Installation of ground water pipe in Kaduna state metropolitan

CHAPTER TWO
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2.1 GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF KADUNA STATE

Kaduna State occupies part of the central position of Northern Nigeria, with
Kaduna as its capital. The state shares common borders with Kano, Katsina,
Zamfara, and Niger states. It also shares border with Bauchi and Plateau states. To
the South-West, the state shares a border with the Federal capital territory, Abuja.
The state covers a land mass area of about 48473.2 square kilometres and has a
population of more than six million ( Census, 2006), It is bound by latitudes 09
03’N to 11 00’N and extends from the upper River Mariga on Longitude 6 05’E to
8 48’E on the foot slopes of the scarp of Jos Plateau (KADGIS, 2011).

The geology is predominantly metamorphic rocks of the Nigerian Basement

Complex consisting of Biotite, gneiss and older granites. In the southern-eastern
corner, younger granites and Batholiths are evident. Deep chemical weathering and
fluvial erosion, influenced by the bioclimatic nature of the environment have
developed the characteristics high undulating plains with subdued interfluves
(Rahman, 1988). In some places, the interfluves are capped by high grade lateritic
iron-stones especially in the northwest.

However, rocky granitic residuals form inselbergs of varying sizes and shapes
constitute the main local relief here and there with Kufena, Kagoro hills and
Dutsen-wai Kudaru ring complex standing out very prominently . The valleys are
shallow but wide, stretching several tens of kilometres into the headwater areas
with gentle sloping valley sides; imperceptibly grading into flat moist to marshy
alluvial bottom lands or flood plains called “Fadamas” in Hausa. Although, stream
valley incisions and dissections of the high plains are evident in several areas,
especially in Zaria region, they are due to more anthropogenic influences and

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climatic factors than regional geologic instability (Rahman, 1988).In kadwac we
deal with the surface water and underground water.

Groundwater is described as water which exists below the earth surface within
saturated layers of sand, gravel and pore space in sedimentary as well as crystalline
rocks (Oseji and Ofomola, 2002). Todd (2004) explain groundwater to mean the
water occupying all the empty space within a geologic stratum. It is among the
natural resources of prime importance to man throughout the world. Oseji, et al.,
(2005) note that groundwater occurs in many types of geologic formations. Those
known as aquifer are the most important and are defined as formations containing
sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to
wells and spring (Abiolaet al., 2009).

Groundwater accounts for about one third of one percent of the earth’s water or
about 20times more than the total found in the rivers and lakes (Fadhil, 2009).
Very deep lying groundwater can remain undisturbed for thousands or millions of
years. Groundwater is of major importance to civilization because it is the largest
reserve of drinkable water in regions where human live. Groundwater may appear
at the surface in the form of springs, or it may be tapped by boreholes. During the
dry periods, it can also sustain the flow of surface water and even where the latter
is readily available; groundwater is often preferable because it tends to be less
contaminated by waste and organisms. The rate of movement of groundwater
depends on the types of subsurface material in a given Area.

The resistivity of rocks is strongly influenced by the presence of groundwater,

which act as an electrolyte. This is especially important in sedimentary rocks
containing pore spaces in metallic ores in which the resistivity can be very low, but
in igneous rocks that contain no water, the resistivity can be very high.

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The minerals that form the matrix of a rock are generally poor conductors than
groundwater so the conductivity of the rocks depends on the fraction of rock that
consist of pore space which is quite variable because it depends on concentration
and types of dissolved mineral and salt it contains (Aboh,2001).

Groundwater can be explored using many methods which include the Electrical
Resistivity method (Alileet al., 2008). According to Emekemeet al., (2004),
electrical resistivity of rock is a property which depends on lithology and fluid
content.

The present water hardship experienced by inhabitant of Babban Saura is as a

result of increase in the population due to the rapid development of the millennium
city, Kaduna, and this have put high demand on water, assessment and
management. In a bid to ameliorate this present condition, it has become
imperative to carry out a geophysical survey which will provide information to the
people on the water bearing formation and groundwater potential of the area. It is
therefore expected that the results obtained from this work would produce detailed
information on the groundwater condition and recommend areas where boreholes
could be located within the study area. The present research is aimed at
investigating the groundwater potential of the study area through the application of
Electrical resistivity method to delineate zones of high groundwater potential.

Surface water is water located on top of land,forming terrestrial(surrounding by

land on all sides)water bodies,and may also be referred to as blue water ,opposed
to the seawater and water bodies like the ocean.The vast majority of surface water
is produced by precipitation .As the climate warms in the spring,snowmelt runs off
toward nearby streams and rivers contributing towards a large portion of human
drinking water .level of surface water lessen as a result of evaporation as well as

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water moving in to ground becoming ground water .Alongside being used for
drinking water ,surface water is also used for irrigation waste water treatment,
livestock, industrial uses. hydropower and recreation .For USGS water-use reports,
surface water is consider freshwater when it contains less than 1000milligrams per
liter(mg/L) of dissolved solids.

There are three major types of surface water ;Permanent (perennial)surface waters
are present year round,and include lakes ,rivers and wetlands(marshes and
swamps).Semipermanent (ephemeral)surface water refers to bodies of water that
are only present at a certain times of the year including seasonally dry channel
such as creeks,lagoons and water holes. Human made surface water is a water that
can be continued by infrastructure that humans have assembled. This will be
dammed artificial lakes ,canals and artificial ponds or swamps. The surface water
held by dams can be used for renewable energy in the form hydropower. Hydro
power is the forcing of surface water sourced from rivers and streams to produce
energy. And the term borehole drilling or water well drilling is simply refer to as
the process of making a shaft hole for the purpose of extracting groundwater from
the subsurface which is commonly carried out by mechanical means. The water
well or borehole is also refer to as a hydraulic structure of which when properly
design or constructed will permit the economical withdrawal of groundwater from
the water-bearing geologic formation.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 DISCUSSION, ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

A geophysical investigation of the earth’s interior we undertake during my ten

months SIWES period involve taking some measurements at or near the surface of
the earth that are influenced by internal distribution of the earth physical properties.
The analyses of these measurements can reveal how these physical properties of the
earth’s interior may vary vertically in the subsurface. The successful exploitation of
groundwater potential areas requires this geophysical investigation for proper
understanding of the hydro geological characteristics of the earth subsurface
structures. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) of electrical resistivity method of
geophysical prospecting with the use schlumberger array configuration was
employed in groundwater investigation because of its simplicity. However, various
types of earth materials generally exhibit certain ranges of resistivity values, the
factors influencing these resistivity values of the earth subsurface materials is the
water content or dissolved mineral content within these earth materials. The
measurement of electrical resistivity method show values that vary with certain
aquifer characteristics as for example, a clean saturated sand with fresh water shows
relatively high resistivity than a dirty sand contain little clay. However in the
electrical resistivity method, the goal is to create an image of the earth subsurface in

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terms of its electrical properties based on the variations in their resistivity or its
inverse, i.e. the electrical conductivity.

3.2 GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES APPLIED TO GROUNDWATER

INVESTIGATION

Many geophysical techniques have been applied to groundwater investigation with

some showing more success than others. In the past, geophysics has either been
used as a tool for groundwater resource mapping or as tool for groundwater
character discrimination .For groundwater resource mapping, it is not the
groundwater itself that is the target by geophysics rather it is the geological
formation in which the water exists Batayneh (2009). Potential field methods,
gravity method and magnetic method, have been used to map regional aquifers and
large scale basin features. Seismic methods have been used to delineate bedrock
aquifer and fractured rock system. Electrical and electromagnetic methods have
proved particularly applicable to groundwater studies as many of the geological
formation properties that are critical to hydrogeology such as the porosity and
permeability of rocks can be correlated with electrical conductivity signatures. Mac
Donaleeta.l.., (2002) point out, situation with complex geology and hydrogeology
do not lend themselves to the general approach and require a specific targeting of
methods for particular problems.

3.3 PROCEDURE FOR VES

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The field procedure that was employed in carrying out the vertical electrical
sounding (VES) operation involves the use of direct current (DC) which is injected
to the ground through pairs of electrodes which are fixed at the surface of the earth,
two of which are used in sending the current to the ground commonly refer to as
‘’current electrodes’’ which are named as ‘’C 1 and C2’’, and the other two electrodes
are used in measuring the potential difference which are also refer to as ‘’potential
electrodes’’ and are also named as ‘’P 1 and P2’’. The Terrameter or resistivity meter
we used in is OhmegaTerrameter system and ABEM SAS 4000. The electrodes
used are made of iron nail. During the data acquisition, the Terrameter or resistivity
meter is usually placed at the point where the borehole is expected to be drilled after
the successful geophysical investigation if there is groundwater potential in the said
location. In this process, the resistivity meter is placed at the center in-between the
electrodes and the electrodes are thereby driven into the subsurface of the earth for
few centimeters with the aid of using hammer in order to get good electrical contact
between the electrode and the subsurface material. The electrodes are connected to
the electronic wire cables (both the current and potential electrodes P 1, P2 and C1, C2)
and are fixed at different space interval.In this process, the electrodes are put on a
line, and the equipments setup is symmetric around the center. The pairs of potential
electrodes (P1 and P2) are fixed closed to the center, while the other pairs of current
electrodes (C1 and C2) are gradually moved away from the center. This was
subsequently done by changing the distance of separation between the current
electrodes so that the depth range to which the current penetrates also changes and
the higher the distance to which the current electrodes were increased, the higher the
depth of the current penetrates within the subsurface and the more information will
be acquired. Both the current and potential electrodes were commonly increased in
near-logarithmic steps until the scheduled maximum separation has been reached.

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During the vertical electrical sounding (VES) operation, we commonly use to take
the following precautions:

 We always ensured that the electrodes are fixed firmly into the ground by
good hammering in order to get good electrical contact so as to avoid error in
taking the readings.
 We also usually use to ensure that the current circuit for both the current wire
sockets on the resistivity meter and the potential wire sockets were connected
in series with the respective wires for C 1 and C2, P1and P2 so as to avoid
parallax error when taking the readings.

All other safety measures were usually taken for accurate operation among which
include; wearing of safety wears such as boots, hand gloves, reflective jackets, etc.

3.4 VES DATA ACQUISITION IN PROGRESS.

The vertical electrical sounding (VES) reasonably gives a good resolution of the
lithologic variation and the thickness of the subsurface materials. However this
method resolves:

 Lithological variation of the subsurface materials.

 Thickness of the lithological units.
 Variation in the degree of saturation.
 Depth to fresh rock.

3.5 VES DATA INTERPRETATION

After successful acquisition of the geophysical data from the field, the resistivity
data acquired from the field will then be subjected to interpretation. The field data
acquired gives the resistance of the earth subsurface materials but not the true
resistivity of which the values acquired is then multiplied by their respective

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geometric factors to get the apparent resistivity. The apparent resistivity values are
used in the interpretation.

3.6 CURVE OF THE INTERPRETED DATA (CURVE TYPE HQ)

However, during the iteration of the curve, it must be ensure that the curve matched
with either of the three or four layer master curves of geophysics namely; A,Q,H and
K-Type which are as shown below:

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Fig. 6: Three Layer Master Curves.

Moreover, it is from the curve obtained that the depth of the groundwater potential
zones can thereby be inferred using geophysical scenario which indicated that the
areas of low resistivity and high thickness from the result is indicating the saturated
zone of which possible a water-bearing formation, whereas the layer which possess
high resistivity and high or low thickness is an indication of non-saturated zone and
vice versa.

However, after the successful interpretation of the geophysical data, subsequent

recommendation was usually made on the subsurface information of the area
investigated as well as inferring the depth of the borehole to be drilled if there is
groundwater potential in the area and subsequent drilling of the borehole if the
contract has been awarded to the organization I’ am carrying out the SIWES with.
Below are some rock types with their respective resistivity values which we usually
used as a guide after the interpretation in other to compare the values of the
resistivity data acquired during interpretation with their resistivity standard given on
the chart.

ROCK TYPE RESISTIVITY ()

Top soil 280-1000

Dry sand 1000-2000

Clay 1-20

Weathered crystalline 10-180

Fresh sand 50-1000

Saline water sand 0.1-4

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 Fresh water limestone 100-1000

Fresh crystalline rock 100-106

Dry limestone 1012

Table 1: Electrical Resistivity of some rocks (After Keys and Maccary, 1971)

However, the objective of carrying out the geophysical survey for groundwater
investigation was basically to:
 To determine the depth to resistive bedrock.
 To select the most suitable site for drilling of productive borehole.
 To estimate the approximate depth of the borehole to be drilled.

3.7 KADUNA STATE WATER COOPERATION (KADWAC)

3.7.1 Geophysical Survey for Vertical Electrical Sounding (Schlumberger

method)
DATA SHEET

DATE: - 13-SEP,2022

LOCATION: KAKURI(BARNAWA)

STATE: - KADUNA

S/N AB/2 (m) MN/2 (m) K R1(Ω) R2 (Ω) VES (01) VES (02)

1 1.5 0.5 6.28 8.164 51.000

2 2.5 0.5 18.8 1.909 36.000
3 4 0.5 49.5 0.605 30.000
4 6 0.5 112 0.245 27.000
5 8 0.5 200 0.126 25.000
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 6 10 0.5 313 0.100 31.000
7 15 0.5 706 0.060 42.000
8 15 2.5 137 0.306 38.000
9 20 2.5 247 0.205 51.000
10 25 2.5 389 0.150 58.000
11 32 2.5 639 0.109 70.000
12 40 2.5 1001 0.081 81.000
Data Sheets Used for Recording Readings in The Field

3.7.2 VES DATA ACQUISATION EQUIPMENT

During the geophysical survey for groundwater investigation, different

materials/equipments were used in the geophysical data acquisition using
schlumberger array configuration, the materials commonly used include:

 Terrameter (resistivity meter).

 Electrodes (both current and potential electrodes) of at least 20 pieces.
 Measuring tape (200 m lenght).
 Hand gloves
 Geologic hammer.
 Electronic wire cables.
 Clips.
 Battery (electric power source)
 Global positioning system (GPS).
 Compass clinometer.
 Data recording sheet.
 Biro and pencil.
 Log-log graph for manual interpretation.
 Safety wears such as reflective jacket, safety boots etc.

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 The materials are shown below:

Plate 2: Electric Wire Cables Ohmega Terrameter system

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Geological Hammers

3.7.3 WATER TREATMENT

Water treatment is the process by which surface water is collected and pass
through different stages of treatment to final intend use. And the stages
include ;intake-screen-abtraction-coaggluation-flocculation-sedimentation-
aeration-filtration-disinfection-reservoir-highglift-boosterstation-consumer.

3.7.3.1 Water treatment equipment

 GP tank
 Alum dispenser
 Alum mixer
 Clarifier

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 Post clorination tank
 Phyton pump
 Pressure machine
 Alum

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Page 21 of 47
3.8 GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION

Groundwater exploration is gaining more and more importance in Nigeria owing to

the ever increasing demand for water supplies, especially in areas with inadequate
surface water supplies. Though ten percent (10%) of the world population is said to
be affected by chronic water scarcity which is likely said to rise up to one-third by
about 2025 (WHO, 1996).Despite the reported favourable groundwater situations all
over the world, the Nigerian situation appears to be restricted by the fact that more
than half of the country is underlain by sedimentary formations which are mainly
sandstones, shales, clays, as well as crystalline impervious rocks which may be
either igneous or metamorphic rocks (Offodile, 1983). The first alternative opened to
man is the groundwater which may be defined as the water in the saturated zone and
from which wells, springs and underground run-off are supplied and this water is
said to be trapped by geologic formation (Palackyet al., 1981).

In groundwater exploration, certain clues were helpful in locating the groundwater

potential zones. For instance, an aquifer is best described as a geologic formation,
group of formations, or part of the formation that is porous, permeable and saturated
that contain sufficient water and can transmit an appreciable quantity of water to
productive wells and springs which can be used for the industrial, agricultural and
domestic purposes. An aquifer however performs two important functions; the
storage function and a conduit function. It stores water serving as a reservoir, and
transmit water just like a pipeline. The opening or pore spaces in the water-bearing
formations serves both as a storage spaces and as a network of conduits. Moreover,
the groundwater is constantly moving over extensive distances from areas of
recharge to discharge areas with slow movement and velocity which is measured in
feet per day or even feet per year. As a consequence of these and of the great volume
represented by its porosity, an aquifer detains enormous quantities of water in

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transient storage. However the subsurface openings within the geological formations
where groundwater is believed to occur are of three (3) general classes, these are;

 Openings between the individual particles as in the sandy formations.

 Crevices, joints, or fractures in crystalline rocks.
 Solution channels and caverns in limestone, and openings resulting from the
evolution of gas in lava.

However, the occurrence of groundwater is believed to occur in two zones; the zone
of aeration which contains interstices occupied by air and partially by water; and the
zone of saturation which is occupied by water under high static pressure. This
groundwater can only be accessed through exploring it by a process called drilling
which is commonly refer to as borehole drilling. Moreover, the geologic materials
that form potential aquifer include:

 Sandstones.
 Alluvium.
 Partly dissolved or cavernous limestone.
 Highly fracture/ weathered basement rocks.
 Sand and gravels. Etc.

3.9 BOREHOLE DRILLING

The term borehole drilling or water well drilling is simply refer to as the process of
making a shaft hole for the purpose of extracting groundwater from the subsurface
which is commonly carried out by mechanical means. The water well or borehole is
also refer to as a hydraulic structure of which when properly design or constructed
will permit the economical withdrawal of groundwater from the water-bearing
geologic formation. The borehole can be drilled in a number of ways and with

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different drilling techniques or methods depending on the subsurface condition, i.e.
the geology of the environment where the borehole is to be drilled.

The materials/equipments used in drilling water well or boreholes include:

 Drilling rig.
 Drilling bit.
 Air compressor engine.
 Drilling pipe/rod.
 Overburden pipe.
 Hanging spanner.
 Flushing hose.
 Additives such as benthonite, CMC.
 Sampling box/bag.
 Qualified driller (drilling rig operator)
 Lithologic log data sheet.
 Etc.

The above listed equipments or materials are commonly used in drilling of water
wells or borehole and are usually kept intact to avoid some probable errors while
drilling by servicing all the machine parts and keeping the other equipments safe in
order to avoid obstacles during drilling.

Different methods are used to construct water well, depending on the geologic
conditions and the intended use of the well. Two general types of the well
construction are used by most of the award company. One consists of extending
casing down the borehole through the upper loose sediment or rocks, but leaving the
bottom portion of the borehole uncased. This type of well construction is usually
used in hard, fractured rock. The other type consists of extending casing down the

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borehole through sediments or rocks and placing the well screen in the aquifer. This
type of well construction is commonly used in unconsolidated sediment, such as
sand and gravel.

Well construction has five or six separated steps. These include drilling,
installing the casing installing the well screen, installing the filter pack, grouting,
well development, and installing the permanent pump. Two or more of these steps
may be done simultaneously. For example, installing the casing and screen may be
done in one step. For some wells a pump may not be needed because the water will
flow to the surface. These are called flowing wells. Listed below is a typical well
construction procedure.

3.10 DRILLING OPERATION.

Drilling methods vary widely and range from digging by hand to the use of
very technical and expensive drilling rigs. All drilling methods accomplish the
same task, creating a borehole. Most drilling operations are completed by the use
of some sort of rig. The rig is set up over the prospective well location and drilling
continues until the desired depth has been reached.

The two methods of drilling commonly used are: direct circulation method (Mud
Drilling) and direct Air rotary drilling method (Air Drilling).

3.10.1 Direct circulation method (Mud Drilling).

The direct circulation rotary drilling fluid (water or water with additives –
mud) is mixed in a mud pit and pumped by the mud pump through the Kelly hose
to a water swivel at the top of the Kelly. The swivel is the unit from which the
entire drilling string is suspended, and allows the mud to pass while the drilling
string rotates. The mud passes down the drill string and out through the ports in the

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drill bit. The fluid then flows up the annular space between the hole and the drill
string carrying cuttings in suspension to the mud pit. A mud pit often has at least
two chambers, the first and the largest allows cuttings to settle from the mud before
passes to the second chamber which act as a sump for the mud – pump. The first
chamber, the settling pit, should be twice as long as it wide, and be at least three
times the volume of the hole to be drill. The drilling fluid is then re-circulated
down the hole. The process is repeated until drilling is completed.

Fig.1
2. Mud Drilling

Function of drilling fluid

1. Lift rock cuttings from the bottom of the borehole and carry them to settling pit.

2. Allow cuttings to drop out in mud pit so that they are not re – circulated
(influence by mud thickness, flow rate in the settling pits and shape / size of the
pits).

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3. Prevent cuttings from rapidly settling while another length of drill pipe is being
added (if cuttings drop too fast they can build up on top of the bit and seize in the
hole).

4. Create a film of small particles on the borehole wall to prevent caving and to
ensure that the upward – flowing stream of drilling fluid does not erode the
adjacent formation.

5. Seal the borehole wall to reduce fluid loss (minimizing volumes of drilling fluid
is especially important in dry areas where water must be carried from far away).

6. Coal and clean the drill bit.

7. Lubricate the bit bearing, mud pump and drill pipe (life water Canada 2004)

3.10.2 Direct air rotary drilling method (Air Drilling).

In air rotary drilling, air along lifts the cuttings from the borehole. A large
compressor provides air that is piped to the swivel connected to the top of the
Kelly or drill pipe. The air forced down through the drill pipe, escapes through
small ports at the bottom of the drill bit, thereby lifting the cuttings and cooling the
bit. The cuttings are blown out the top of the hole and collected at the surface
around the borehole.

Air is low density. It is also low viscosity, having a viscosity approximately 2%

that of water. Therefore the up hole or bailing velocity must be at least 20 times as
high as the velocity required when using water. Air drilling has many advantages:

1. Good hole clearing.

2. Excellent information on what’s happening down the hole.

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3. Immediate indication of water shows with opportunity to determine quantity and
quality of water encountered.

4. Low pollution risk.

5. Fast penetration.

6. High bit life.

7. Air is readily available.

Air drilling can be done only in semi – consolidated or consolidated materials.

Roller – type rock bits, similar those design for drilling based fluid, can be used
when drilling with air. Tricone rock bits are commonly used successfully. Field
test have shown faster penetration rates and longer bit life when using air and
compared with water base drilling fluids.

The path for fluid circulation when drilling using direct rotary air is somewhat the
same as for mud rotary drilling: Air travel from compressor through host to the
Kelly or swivel down the drill pipe through nozzles in the bits and exist along the
borehole walls outside the drill pipe.

3.11 INSTALLING THE CASING AND SCREEN.

Once the desired depth of the borehole has been reached, the drill crew can
then install the casing and screen. Casing can be made of different materials, such
as steel or plastic, and comes in various materials types, diameters and length and
have slots and holes cut in them. The slots or holes are sized to allow water to flow
into the well and deep unwanted materials, such as sand out. Well screens are
usually attached to the first piece of casing to be put down the borehole and
successive pieces of casing are then added until the entire length of the borehole

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has screened or cased.

Fig.13. Casing

3.12 INSTALLING AN ARTIFICIAL FILTER PACK

For some well designs, it is necessary for the artificial filter pack to be
placed around the screen. This operation takes place before grouting or sealing the
well. The filter pack consists of graded sand or gravel, which is placed around the
well screen. The filter pack removes or filters unwanted fine particles from the
formation that would otherwise find a way into the well. These fine particles could

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cause the water to appear cloudily.

Fig.14. Gravel Packing

3.13 GROUTING THE WELL

Grouting involves filling the space between casing and borehole wall with
slurry of cement and clay. This is done to seal the area between the casing and
borehole wall to prevent downward leakage of contaminants from the surface, or to
prevent intermixing of groundwater between water bearing zone encountered while
drilling.

Grouting can be accomplished by several methods, but all involve mixing and
placement of either bentonite clay slurry or neat cement slurry in the annular space
borehole and the casing. The most common type of grout used in the water well
industry today is neat cement. The section of the borehole to be grouted vary

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according to geologic conditions, the type of water well being constructed, and
water well code. Once the grouting process is completed, the well is ready to be
developed for its intended use.

3.14 DEVELOPING THE WELL

Well development is a procedure intended to maximize the well yield.

During the drilling operation, damage to the formation or aquifer occurs. This
happens when the drill bit cuts through the rock or sediment that may plug the well
screen and reduce the yield of the well. Also, during the drilling operation,
different fluids may be introduced in the borehole to remove cutting and to prevent
it from collapsing.

These are two main reasons for well development:

﴾1﴿ repair damage done to the formation during drilling, and to remove unwanted
fluid, so that the natural properties of the aquifer are restored.

﴾2﴿ change the physical properties ﴾porosity and permeability﴿ of the aquifer near
the borehole so that water will flow more freely into the well﴾Driscoll, 1986﴿.

Different techniques are used to develop wells. Some are simple as bailing
the well, and may involve a complex operation of high capacity pumping and
jetting. The screened area of the well, or the uncased unscreened portion of a
borehole, is where the development takes place because this area where water will
enter the well. All of the techniques have their advantages and achieve the same
goal. This is to increase the amount of water that can be delivered to the surface for
use. With development complete, a permanent pump can be installed, if necessary,
and the well can be put to use.

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3.15 PUMPING TEST

Pumping test of a borehole is carried out for three main reasons

i. To measure the borehole performance

ii. To measure the well efficiency or variation of well performance with the
discharge rate.
iii. To measure the aquifer characteristics of storativity, hydraulic conductivity
and transmissivity.

What is pumping test? Under natural conditions, ground water flows through
aquifers, from area of high hydraulic head to areas of low head where water
discharges to the surface. Natural flow is disturbed when water well is pumped,
and a pumping test is designed to cause such a disturbance under control
conditions so that the effects can be analyze to obtain values of well performance,
well efficiency or the aquifer characteristics. Pumping test comprises the pump of a
borehole at known discharge rate Q and observing the drawdown induce of
pumping in both the pumped borehole and aquifer around it.

During the pumping test, water levels in pumped borehole are monitored
using an electronic sensing device called water level indicator and discharge is
measured in litres per second.

Different types of test are used but the most common types are:

i. Step drawdown test to measure the well efficiency, to measure the well
performance and to measure the variation of well performance with
discharge rate.
ii. Constant discharge tests to measure the well performance and to measure the
aquifer characteristic.

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3.16 STEP DRAWDOWN TEST

The main aim of a step drawdown test is to evaluate the well performance
rather than the aquifer performance. The step drawdown test involves pumping a
borehole at several different discharge rates and observing drawdown. The
procedure is to pump the borehole at 25, 50, 75 and 100% of its maximum
capacity. This is not always possible, particularly in the basement complex area
where maximum yield is generally so low. Normally the borehole is first pumped
at the lowest rate for maximum period 120 minutes and then the discharge rate is
increase without stopping pump. It is the pumped at next rate (50%) for the same
period. This procedure is repeated until the dynamic water table is reached.

The water level measurements are normally taken in accordance with following
schedule:

0.1 – 10m 1 minute

10 – 20m 2 minute

20 – 60m 5 minute

60 – 120m 10 minute

On completion of the 4 steps, the recovery measurements are taken and the
borehole is left to recharge to its water level. If it those not recharge in 1 hour the
borehole is not good.

3.17 CONSTANT DISCHARGE RATE

The aim of constant discharge test is to obtain data which can be interpreted
by comparison with the behaviour of type aquifers. The purpose of the test is to
assess the well performance, to obtain values of the aquifer transmissivity and

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storativity, and to obtain some indication of the aquifer geometry in order to
predict long – term aquifer and well performance.

The constant rate test follows the step drawdown test (i.e. 24 hours later). In
this test the borehole well is pumped at constant discharge for at least 24 hours,
while observing the drawdown, the measurement of the water level is taken at
regular interval as shown below:

Time / Period (Minutes) Measurement Frequency

0 – 10 1

10 – 20 5

60 – 240 10

240 – 480 20

480 – 1080 60

1080 – 1440 12

Discharge Q is measured at each time interval and the method employed is by

timing of bucket or drum of known volume.

3.18 RECOVERY TEST

This test involves measuring the recovery of the water level after the
cessation of pumping. It continues until the water level is reached. Its most be
recovered in one hour if not the borehole is not good one.

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3.19 BOREHOLE DESIGN

After having completed the drilling exercise blind casing and screen are
arrange to suit the Stratigraphy of the borehole. A diagrammatic representation of
the borehole showing the position of the blind casing and screen relative to the
aquifer zone is termed well or borehole design.

The design of water well depend on the type of aquifer system being exploited and
the discharge rate required. The discharge rate (or supply demand) must be decided
before water well can be designed, because it will dictate the size of pump
required.

Aquifers have been divided in to three broad classes for the purpose of water

Well design:

1. Crystalline aquifers

2. Consolidated aquifers

3. Unconsolidated aquifers.

3.19.1 Crystalline Aquifer

Crystalline aquifers are typified by the Igneous and metamorphic rocks

which underlies large area of the world but underlies small . They have no primary
porosity or permeability and have no well-defined base. Water bearing voids are
usually in the form of fissures (fractures). In an open borehole these rocks usually
do not need support.

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3.19.2 Consolidated aquifers

Consolidated aquifers are sedimentary formations that have sufficient

strength to stand in an open borehole without support. They retain some of their
initial or primary porosity and permeability, and normally have clearly defined
tops and bases. Many regional sandstone and limestone are consolidated aquifers.

3.19.3 Unconsolidated aquifers

Unconsolidated aquifers are sediments which cannot stand in an open

borehole, so that any well in such a formation will require support by casing and
screens. These aquifers include alluvial and gravel.

There are exceptions or transitional cases in such a classification sedimentary strata

may became so compacted that they loose their primary porosity and become
entirely crystalline, for example quartzite or marble.

3.20 BOREHOLE REHABILITATI0N

This involves the renovation of non-functional damage borehole systems so

as to restore normal operation. Prior to carry rehabilitation exercise an inspection
programme is usually carried out to determine the extent deterioration of the well.
From the result of the inspection, information on the present condition of the
borehole is gathered. This include borehole type, location, pump installation depth,
platform, borehole cover, casing diameter, static water level, depth pump status,
riser pipe status, pipeline from the borehole point to the storage tank etc.

Page 36 of 47
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, PROBLEM ENCOUNTER,

RECOMMENDATION, SUMMARY

4.2 SUMMARY

Geophysical survey for groundwater investigation was carried out in order to

delineate the groundwater potential aquifer zones in the area under investigation,
where electrical resistivity method using vertical electrical sounding (VES)
technique was employed with the aid of schlumberger array configuration in order to
estimate the thickness of the overburden and the weathered or fractured zones with
reasonable accuracy. However, this was basically carried out to determine the depth
to resistive bedrock, select the most suitable site for the drilling of productive
borehole and to interpret depth to which a productive borehole is to be drilled in the
area under investigation. During the vertical electrical sounding data acquisition,
different equipments were used and all necessary measures were usually taken to in
order to obtaining accurate result .The resistivity values acquired from the field was
usually multiplied with their respective geometric factors in order to obtain the
apparent resistivity of each layer penetrated by the current which was then
interpreted using computer software. The data interpreted however gives information
about the subsurface condition including lithological variation, thickness of the
lithological units as well as variation in the degree of saturation of the subsurface
materials of the earth.

In groundwater exploration, certain clues were helpful in locating the groundwater

potential zones. For instance, an aquifer is best described as a geologic formation,
group of formations, or part of the formation which is porous, permeable and
saturated which contain sufficient water and can transmit an appreciable quantity

Page 37 of 47
of water to productive wells and springs. The accessibility of the groundwater for
such purpose can only be possible with the aid of exploring it by drilling process
which is commonly carried out by a mechanical means, where by a shaft hole for
the purpose of extracting groundwater from the subsurface was made using
different drilling equipments. Moreover, the borehole or water well if properly
design or constructed will permit the economical withdrawal of groundwater from
the water-bearing geologic formation. Different drilling techniques or methods
were commonly employed depending on the subsurface condition but generally,
two methods were commonly employed which are direct hydraulic circulation
rotary drilling and air percussion rotary drilling techniques. During the drilling
process, the hole was first drilled in both the methods where by during the drilling
process, the lithologic samples penetrated while drilling were carefully taken and
recorded which is very useful during the well design. During the well design, two
different types of PVC casing pipes were commonly used .The screen casing pipe
is the one with openings and is placed at the zone where a water-bearing
formation was encountered, whereas the blind or plane casing is the one with no
openings and is commonly inserted at the non-water-bearing formation penetrated
while drilling. Gravel packing was done after designing of the well, where well-
rounded rock materials were commonly placed in-between the casing pipe and
the wall of the drilled hole which provide maximum lateral support to the casing
pipe and prevent the wall of the drilled hole from collapsing. Pump was
commonly installed into the well which serves as the water withdrawal device
from the well out to the surface for consumption. Subsequently, pumping test
operation was commonly carried out for the purpose of determining the
performance of the well using pumping test requirement.

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And during water treatment process include many stages which the water from
the river Kaduna is pumped by python pump(INTAKE) through the a large
diameter iron pipe to the screening---abstraction----coagulation, alum chamber—
flocculation—sedimentation—aeration filtration—disinfection—reservoir--- high
lift---booster station ---consumer. And we carried out pre and post chlorination to
the water enter in to plant reservoir, even when we use alum since from the
screening stage. And dislodging in the sedimentation basin to remove sand and
mud log .Backwashing of filter bed was carried out using the pressure machine for
at least 30 minute.

4.3 CONCLUSION

Geo-electrical resistivity method basically vertical electrical sounding (VES)

technique using schlumberger array configuration technique was employed in order
to determine the depth to resistive bedrock, select the most suitable site for the
drilling of productive borehole so as to infer the depth to which a productive
borehole is to be drilled in the area under investigation. This was carried out using
different data acquisition materials where certain measures were usually taken in
order to obtain accurate result. The result obtained however gives information about
the subsurface condition including lithological variation of the subsurface materials,
thickness of the lithological units, as well as the variation in the degree of saturation.
An aquifer is best described as a geologic formation, group of formations, or part of
the formation that is porous, permeable and saturated which contain sufficient water
and can transmit an appreciable quantity of water to productive wells and springs
which can be used for the industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes. This can be
accessed through drilling process which is commonly carried out by a mechanical
means, where by a shaft hole was made in order to extract the groundwater from the
subsurface using different drilling equipments.Different drilling techniques were

Page 39 of 47
commonly employed depending on the subsurface condition but the commonly
employed methods are direct hydraulic circulation rotary drilling and air percussion
rotary drilling techniques. Certain stages were involved in the drilling process of
which are duly followed in order to properly design the well so as to permit the
economical withdrawal of the groundwater from the water-bearing geological
formation. In the first drilling stage, a shaft hole was drilled which was subsequently
followed by casing, where PVC casing pipes were placed in the drilled hole with
screen casing pipe usually placed at the zone where a water-bearing formation was
encountered and the blind or plane casing which is commonly inserted at the non-
water-bearing formation penetrated while drilling. Well-rounded rock materials
commonly refer to as gravel pack materials were placed in-between the casing pipe
and the wall of the drilled hole which provide with the maximum lateral support to
the casing pipe and prevent the wall of the drilled hole from collapsing. Installation
of the Pump or withdrawal device was also subsequently done which serves as the
water pumping device that will help to withdraw the water out of the well for
consumption. The pumping test operation was lastly carried out in order to
determine the well performance with variation in its discharge rate, to evaluate the
formation constant such as transmisivity, storativity, and hydraulic conductivity of
the aquifer; to predict how will the aquifer behaves in future as well as determination
of the hydrogeological boundary of the aquifer.

4.4 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

Few or minute problems were encountered during my Ten (10) months SIWES
period In Kaduna state water cooperation, which include frequent breakdown of
machines, loss in air and water circulation as a result of pipe stuck and or loose
sediments penetrated while drilling,, lack of proper documentation of geophysical

Page 40 of 47
survey as well as borehole sample log data.problem of power supply to runs
machine such phyton pump alum stirrer ,lack of Alum and chlorine .

4.5 RECOMMENDATION

With regards to the problems I have encountered or come across during my SIWES
period in, the following recommendations were made:

 Drilling equipments/machines should be routinely serviced and broken ones

should also be repaired immediately so as to avoid some minute obstacles
commonly experienced during drilling process.
 Umbrella should be used to cover the resistivity to prevent the reflections from
sunlight which usually gives an error while taking the readings.
 The company should properly keep and document the VES data as well as the
borehole sample log data for reference purpose
 Steady power supply for constant water treatment process
 Extra machines should be provided in case of breakdown of other

Page 41 of 47
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