DUROID SUBSTRATE MICROSTRIP PATCH

ANTENNA & DIPOLE ANTENNA DESIGN FOR

WIRELESS CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

LITHANYA P (18EC034)
MYTHURIKADEVI S (18EC043)
YAMUNA DEVI K (18EC080)
In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE-52

(Autonomous)

(Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

May 2022
 NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)
(Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “DUROID SUBSTRATE MICROSTRIP
PATCH ANTENNA & DIPOLE ANTENNA DESIGN FOR WIRELESS
CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY” is the bonafide work of “LITHANYA P
(18EC034), MYTHURIKADEVI S (18EC043), YAMUNA DEVI K
(18EC080)” who carried out the project work-II under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr.S.Kavitha, M.E., Ph.D. Ms.V.Logeswari, M.E.

PROFESSOR & DEAN SUPERVISOR

Department of ECE Assistant Professor
Nandha Engineering College Department of ECE
Erode -638052 Nandha Engineering College
Erode -638052

Submitted for the End semester Project work-II Viva-Voce Examination held on ………………

Internal Examiner I Internal Examiner II

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success of a work depends on team effort and co-operation of various people
involved either directly or indirectly.

We express our sincere thanks to our beloved Chairman of Sri Nandha Educational
Trust Thiru.V.Shanmugan, and our beloved Secretary, Thiru.S.Thirumoorthi, of Nandha
Engineering College for providing us all the basic amenities to complete the course
successfully.

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude and thanks to our beloved Principal
Dr.N.Rengarajan & our beloved Director Dr.J.Senthil, for the excellent facilities provided
during the course study and project work.

We wish to express our hearty thanks to Dr.S.Kavitha, Professor & Dean,

Dr.C.N.Marimuthu, Professor & Dean (R&D), Department of ECE for providing continuous
support during the project work.

We are highly indebted to our project guide Ms.V.Logeswari, Assistant Professor,

Department of ECE, for her guidance and motivation in completing the project. We thank the
Centre of Excellence for Advanced Communication Technologies (CEACT) for providing
us the facilities to carry out the project successfully.

We would like to express our special thanks and gratitude to the Project Coordinators
Mr.P.Premkumar, Assistant Professor, Department of ECE & Ms.P.Kokila, Assistant
Professor, Department of ECE, for providing effective suggestions and necessary information
throughout the project work.

We thank all the Teaching and Non-Teaching staff members of Electronics and
Communication Engineering Department for their support to our project work. We also express
our thanks to our family members and friends for their encouragement, timely help and
suggestions.
 ABSTRACT

Wireless network is the fast-growing technology. The world is moving towards

the wireless technology and it is used each and everywhere. Wireless network is
used in many ways and one of the applications is medical application. In wireless
technology, Antennas play an important role in data transmission. Antennas are
electronic eyes and ears of humans in the modern world. There are many
applications of antenna in medical field. One of the applications is data
transmission in wireless capsule endoscopy. Wireless capsule endoscopy is the
advancement of wired endoscopy. Wireless capsule endoscopy is used to
diagnose the problems in the gastro intestinal tract, stomach and intestines which
cannot be identified from outer observation or through x-rays or any other tests.
The doctors watch the travel of capsule in the display and diagnose the problems
which will be easier for the treatment. The types of antennas in medical field are
Ingestible antennas, On body wearable Antennas, Implantable antennas, Antenna
for MRI, Microwave Imaging, Thermal Ablation. For wireless data transmission
in wireless capsule endoscopy, Microstrip patch (MSP) antenna is designed using
Duroid as substrate in the frequency of 2.45 GHz with efficiency of 88% and gain
of 4.86 dB. Microstrip patch antenna is selected as it is smaller in size which is
most important characteristic of capsule endoscopy. In MSP antenna, copper is
used for ground and patch, Duroid is used as the dielectric medium for the
substrate as it gives higher efficiency, higher gain and higher directivity. A
Microstrip Antenna in its simplest form consists of a radiating patch on one side
of Dielectric substrate and a ground plane on the other side. The dipole antenna
is also designed for wireless capsule endoscopy which gives lower radiated and
accepted power compared to Microstrip patch antenna.

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT IV

LIST OF FIGURES VIII

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS X

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 COMMUNICATION 1

1.2 WIRED COMMUNICATION 1

1.3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 1

1.4 ANTENNA 2

1.4.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS 2

1.4.2 WIRE ANTENNAS 3

1.4.3 APERTURE ANTENNAS 5

1.4.4 REFLECTOR ANTENNAS 6

1.4.5 LENS ANTENNAS 7

1.4.6 TRAVELLING ANTENNAS 7

1.4.7 ARRAY ANTENNAS 8

1.5 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF 8

ANTENNA (CHARACTERISTICS)

1.6 ENDOSCOPY 10

1.7 CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY 11

1.8 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA 12

1.8.1 ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP 12

PATCH ANTENNA

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 13

V
3 SOFTWARE USED 19

3.1 SOFTWARE USED 19

3.2 ANSYS HFSS 19

3.3 IMPORTANT ASPECTS IN ANSYS HFSS 19

4 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA 21

& DIPOLE ANTENNA

4.1 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA 21

4.2 MATERIAL CONSIDERATION OF MSP 21

4.3 FEED METHODS FOR THE SINGLE 22

ELEMENT

4.4 SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES AND 26

DISADVANTAGES OF FEEDING METHODS

4.5 DESIGNING MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS 27

4.6 ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP 28

PATCH ANTENNAS

4.7 DESIGN EQUATION OF MSP ANTENNA 28

4.8 DESIGN OF MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA 29

4.9 DIPOLE ANTENNA 30

4.10 DIPOLE TYPES 30

4.11 FEEDING A DIPOLE ANTENNA 30

4.12 DESIGN EQUATION OF DIPOLE ANTENNA 32

4.13 DESIGN OF DIPOLE ANTENNA 33

VI
5 RESULT & DISCUSSION 34

5.1 RESULTS OF DIELECTRIC MEDIUM USED 34

IN SUBSTRATE OF MSP

5.1.1 DUROID 34

5.1.2 FR4 EPOXY 35

5.1.3 BAKELITE 36

5.1.4 ROGERS R04003 37

5.1.5 TACONIC TLC 38

5.2 COMPARISON 40

5.3 RESULTS OF DIPOLE ANTENNA USED IN WCE 41

5.4 TABLE OF DIPOLE ANTENNA PARAMETERS 46

6 CONCLUSION 46

6.1 CONCLUSION 46

REFERENCES 47

VII
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Short Dipole 3

1.2 Dipole antenna 4
1.3 Loop antenna 5
1.4 Horn antenna 6
1.5 Field Radiation Pattern for Dipole
Antennas with half wavelength and 9
one wavelength
1.6 Block diagram of capsule endoscopy 12
4.1 Four common feeding methods 22
of microstrip patch antenna

4.2 The geometry of coaxial probe 22

feed microstrip patch antenna

4.3 The geometry of a direct microstrip 23

feed microstrip patch antenna

4.4 The geometry of a recessed microstrip 23

line feed microstrip patch antenna

4.5 The geometry of a proximity coupled microstrip 24

feed microstrip patch antenna

4.6 The geometry of a patch antenna fed by 24

an adjacent microstrip line

4.7 The geometry of an aperture coupled feed 25

microstrip patch antenna

4.8 Flowchart of number of commercial electromagnetic 27

simulation software in MSP antenna

4.9 Design of MSP antenna 29

4.10 Three half wavelength wave dipole antenna showing feed point 31
4.11 The basic half wave dipole antenna with centre feed point 31
4.12 The patterns show the distribution and strength of the 32
voltage (V) and current (I) on a dipole antenna

4.13 Design of Dipole antenna 33

VIII
5.1 to 5.3 Results of Duroid dielectric medium used in substrate 34
5.4 to 5.6 Results of FR4 Epoxy dielectric medium used in substrate 35
5.7 to 5.9 Results of Bakelite dielectric medium used in substrate 36
5.10 to 5.12 Results of Rogers R04003 dielectric medium used in substrate 37
5.13 to 5.15 Results of Taconic TLC dielectric medium used in substrate 38
5.16 to 5.23 Results of dipole antenna used in WCE 41

IX
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACRONYMS ABBREVIATIONS

IoT Internet of Things

EM Electro Magnetic

AM Amplitude Modulation

FPA Focal Plane Array

SINR Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio

IBD Inflammatory Bowel Disease

PCB Printed Circuit Board

GPS Global Positioning Satellite

RFID Radio Frequency Identification

WCE Wireless Capsule Endoscopy

CE Capsule Endoscopy

UWB Ultra-Wide Band

FIT Finite Integration Technique

HFSS High Frequency Structure Simulator

ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance Systems

MSP MicroStrip Patch

GI Gastro Intestinal

X
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMMUNICATION:

The communication system is a very important part of human lives. Electronic communication
is the meaningful exchange of information at a distance by technological means, particularly
through electrical signals or electromagnetic waves. Depending on the mode of transmission
of signals, the communication system can be divided into two categories-wired communication
system and wireless communication system.

1.2 WIRED COMMUNICATION:

The communication system in which cables, wires, or any physical media are used to transfer
data or information using electrical or optical signals is called a wired communication system.
The early model of communication using electrical signals was a wired communication system.
Wired communication systems are used for short-distance communication. Landline
telephones, cable television, internet access using Ethernet cable, fiber-optic communication
are examples of a wired communication system. A wired communication system is mostly used
in short distance; it is also applicable in long distance. There is a massive underwater cable
system that manages an intercontinental communication system.
In wired communication systems, the transmitter and receiver are connected by a physical
cable. The message which is to be transferred is taken from the source and then is converted
into electrical signals using a transducer. Then this signal is transmitted from transmitter to
receiver using a transmission line. Transmission lines are a special kind of cables that are used
in communication to transfer electrical signals. Coaxial cables, twisted pair cables, optical
cables are examples of transmission lines.

1.3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION:

The wireless communication system can be seen everywhere in human lives. Mobile
communication systems, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth technology, IoT, satellite communication system,
are some of examples. Modern communication would not be possible without wireless
communication. In the early times, wireless communication systems were intended to
communicate with ships in the sea. Nowadays it has application in almost every aspect of
human lives.
The communication system in which there exists no wire or physical medium between
transmitter and receiver is called a wireless communication system. In a wireless
communication system, the information is transmitted with help of high-frequency
ElectroMagnetic (EM) waves as these waves do not require physical media to propagate. In a
wireless communication system, two of the most used terms are - modulation and antenna. In
this system, first, the message signal is received from the source. Then a transducer converts it
into an electrical signal. Then this signal is modulated with a high-frequency signal. This

1
process is very important to get an antenna of practical size. Then this modulated signal is
converted into EM waves and transmitted by the antenna. The antenna also acts as a receiver
that receives the EM waves and converts them into an electrical signal. Then this electrical
signal is demodulated and the message signal is extracted from it.
Both wired and wireless communication system have their advantages and disadvantages. A
wired communication system is very effective in the short range and provides a low-cost and
good quality of the transmission of data in the same range. Again, for communicating with
different areas around the globe or over a long range, wireless communication is the preferred
optimal solution. In modern communication, both systems are used side-by side.

1.4 ANTENNA:

An antenna plays a vital role in a communication system. Antennas are human’s electronic
eyes and ears on the world. They are an essential, integral part of human civilization. An
antenna is a structure that is capable of radiating electromagnetic waves or receiving them. It
is a transition device, or transducer, between a guided wave and a free space wave, or vice-
versa. It is used in both the transmission and reception of radio frequency signals. A
transmitting antenna converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves, whereas a
receiving antenna converts electromagnetic waves into electrical energy.

1.4.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANTENNAS:

Some of the common types of antennas are:

• Wire Antennas
o Short Dipole Antenna
o Dipole Antenna
o Loop Antenna
o Monopole Antenna
• Log Periodic Antennas
o Bow Tie Antennas
o Log-Periodic Antennas
o Log-Periodic Dipole Array
• Aperture Antennas
o Slot Antenna
o Horn Antenna
• Microstrip Antennas
o Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna
o Quarter-Wave Patch Antenna
• Reflector Antennas
o Plane Reflector Antenna
o Corner Reflector Antenna
o Parabolic Reflector Antenna

2
 • Lens Antennas
o Convex-plane
o Concave-plane
o Convex-convex
o Concave-concave lenses
• Travelling-wave Antennas
o Long Wire Antenna
o Yagi–Uda Antenna
o Helical Wire Antenna
o Spiral Antenna
• Array Antennas
o Two-Element Array Antenna
o Linear Array Antenna
o Phased Array Antennas

1.4.2 WIRE ANTENNAS

One of the most commonly used antennas is wire antennas. It is the radio antenna that is made
up of long wire. The length of the wire antenna has no relation with its wavelength. The cable
is connected to the transmitter or the receiver via an antenna tuner to help catch or transmit the
signals. Wire antennas are known for their portability and ease of installation. They can be
found in vehicles (automobiles), ships, aircrafts, buildings etc. Wire antennas come in different
shapes and sizes like straight wire (Dipole), Loop and Helix.

i) Short Dipole Antenna:

The simplest of all antennas is the Short Dipole Antenna which is shown in Figure 1.1. It is a
special case of the Dipole antenna. In its simplest form, it is basically an open circuit wire with
the signal being fed at the centre. The term “short” in short dipole antenna doesn’t directly refer
to its size but rather to the size of the wire relative to the wavelength of the signal. For a typical
Short Dipole Antenna, the length of the wire less than the tenth of the wavelength of the
frequency of operation.

Figure 1.1: Short Dipole

3
ii) Dipole Antenna

A dipole antenna shown in Figure 1.2 is the simplest type of radio antenna, consisting of a
conductive wire rod that is half the length of the maximum wavelength the antenna is to
generate. A Dipole Antenna is made up two conductors in the same axis and the length of the
wire need to be small compared to the wavelength.

Figure 1.2: Dipole antenna

iii) Loop Antenna

A loop antenna shown in Figure 1.3 is a radio antenna consisting of a loop or coil of wire,
tubing, or other electrical conductor, that is usually fed by a balanced source or feeding a
balanced load. A loop antenna is formed by a single or multiple turn of wire forming a loop.
The radiation produced by loop antenna is comparable to a short dipole antenna.
Within this physical description there are two distinct antenna types:

• Large loop antennas (or resonant loop antennas) have a perimeter close to
one wavelength at the operating frequency, which makes them self-resonant at that
frequency. These antennas may be used for both transmission and reception.
Resonant loop antennas have a two-lobe radiation pattern peaking at
directions normal to the plane of the loop.
• Small loop antennas (or magnetic loops) have a perimeter much smaller than the
operating wavelength. They are used mainly as receiving antennas but are
sometimes used for transmission despite their reduced efficiency; loops with a
circumference smaller than about 1/10 wavelength become so inefficient they are
rarely used for transmission. A common example is the ferrite (loop stick) antenna
used in most Amplitude Modulation (AM) broadcast radios. The radiation pattern
of a small loop antenna is maximum at directions in the plane of the loop.

4
 Figure 1.3: Loop antenna
iv) Monopole Antenna

A special case of Dipole antenna is the monopole antenna which is half of the dipole antenna.
A monopole antenna is a class of radio antenna consisting of a straight rod-shaped conductor,
often mounted perpendicularly over some type of conductive surface, called a ground
plane. The driving signal from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output
signal to the receiver is taken, between the lower end of the monopole and the ground plane.
One side of the antenna feedline is attached to the lower end of the monopole, and the other
side is attached to the ground plane, which is often the Earth. This contrasts with a dipole
antenna which consists of two identical rod conductors, with the signal from the transmitter
applied between the two halves of the antenna.

1.4.3 APERTURE ANTENNAS

A class of directional antennas, Aperture Antennas have an opening in the surface. Usually,
aperture antenna consists of Dipole or Loop Antenna in a guiding structure with an opening to
emit radio waves.

i) Slot Antenna

A type of aperture antenna which contains one or more slots cut on the surface of the
waveguide. They are usually used in microwave frequencies and have an omnidirectional
radiation pattern.
ii) Horn Antenna

One of the most popular antennas is the Horn antenna shown in Figure 1.4, which effects the
transition between transmission line and wave propagating in free space. It acts as a natural
extension to a waveguide.

5
 Figure 1.4: Horn antenna

1.4.4 REFLECTOR ANTENNA:

A reflector antenna consists of the reflector plus the horn feed at the geometric focus of the
reflector. Thus, the correct choice and design of the feed is an important part of the design of
the total reflector antenna. High performance feeds are necessary to achieve high performance
antennas. The diameter of the feed in wavelengths will be determined by the angle subtended
by the reflector at the feed.

Designing reflectors of many various for use in radio astronomy, microwave

communication, and satellite tracking resulted in spectacular progress in the development of
sophisticated analytical and experimental techniques in shaping the reflector surfaces and
optimizing illumination over their apertures so as to maximize the gain. Although reflector
antennas take many geometrical configurations, some of the most popular shapes are the plane,
corner, and curved reflectors (especially the parabolic).

i) Plane Reflector Antenna:

The simplest type of reflector is a plane reflector. It consists of primary antenna and reflecting
surface introduced to direct energy in a desired direction. Position of radiating source and it’s
relative to the reflecting surface can be used to control the radiating properties (pattern,
impedance, directivity) of the overall system. Image theory has been used to analyse the
radiating characteristics of such a system. Disadvantage of this type that not possible to
collimate energy in forward direction.

ii) Corner Reflector Antenna:

To better collimate the energy in the forward direction, the geometrical shape of the plane
reflector itself must be changed so as to prohibit radiation in the back and side directions. It
consists of two plane reflectors joined so as to form a corner. The feed element for a corner
reflector is almost always a dipole or an array of collinear dipoles placed parallel to the vertex
a distance s away. Greater bandwidth is obtained when the feed elements are cylindrical or
biconical dipoles instead of thin wires. In many applications, especially when the wavelength

6
is large compared to tolerable physical dimensions, the surfaces of the corner reflector are
frequently made of grid wires rather than solid sheet metal, one of the reasons for doing that is
to reduce wind resistance and overall system weight. The spacing (g) between wires is made
a small fraction of a wavelength (usually g ≤ λ/10). For wires that are parallel to the length of
the dipole, the reflectivity of the grid-wire surface is as good as that of a solid surface.

iii) Parabolic Reflector Antenna:

The overall radiation characteristics (antenna pattern, antenna efficiency, polarization

discrimination, etc.) of a reflector can be improved if the structural configuration of its surface
is upgraded. This type of reflector has shape of paraboloid and hence it has properties of a
parabola. Part of a parabola (blue), with various features (other colours). The complete parabola
has no endpoints. In this orientation, it extends infinitely to the left, right, and upward.

1.4.5 LENS ANTENNA:

A lens antenna is a microwave antenna that uses a shaped piece of microwave-transparent

material to bend and focus the radio waves by refraction, as an optical lens does for
light. Typically it consists of a small feed antenna such as a patch antenna or horn
antenna which radiates radio waves, with a piece of dielectric or composite material in front
which functions as a converging lens to collimate the radio waves into a beam. Conversely, in
a receiving antenna the lens focuses the incoming radio waves onto the feed antenna, which
converts them to electric currents which are delivered to a radio receiver. They can also be fed
by an array of feed antennas, called a Focal Plane Array (FPA), to create more complicated
radiation patterns.
To generate narrow beams, the lens must be much larger than the wavelength of the radio
waves, so lens antennas are mainly used at the high frequency end of the radio spectrum,
with microwaves and millimetre waves, whose small wavelengths allow the antenna to be a
manageable size. The lens can be made of a dielectric material like plastic, or a composite
structure of metal plates or waveguides. Its principle of operation is the same as an optical lens:
the microwaves have a different speed (phase velocity) within the lens material than in air, so
that the varying lens thickness delays the microwaves passing through it by different amounts,
changing the shape of the wave front and the direction of the waves.

1.4.6 TRAVELLING ANTENNA:

In radio and telecommunication, a traveling-wave antenna is a class of antenna that uses a

traveling wave on a guiding structure as the main radiating mechanism. Its distinguishing
feature is that the radio-frequency current that generates the radio waves travels through the
antenna in one direction. This is in contrast to a resonant antenna, such as the monopole or
dipole, in which the antenna acts as a resonator, with radio currents traveling in both directions,
bouncing back and forth between the ends of the antenna. An advantage of traveling wave
antennas is that since they are non-resonant, they often have a wider bandwidth than resonant
antennas. Common types of traveling wave antenna are the Beverage antenna, axial-mode

7
helical antenna, and rhombic antenna. Traveling-wave antennas fall into two general
categories: slow-wave antennas, and fast-wave antennas. Fast-wave antennas are often referred
to as leaky wave antenna.

1.4.7 ARRAY ANTENNA:

An antenna array (often called a 'phased array') is a set of 2 or more antennas. The signals from
the antennas are combined or processed in order to achieve improved performance over that of
a single antenna. The antenna array can be used to increase the overall gain, provide diversity
reception. An antenna array is used to increase overall gain, provide diversity reception, cancel
out interference, manoeuvre the array in a particular direction, gage the direction of arrival of
incoming signals, and to maximize the Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR). Antenna
arrays are composed of group of similar antenna elements. The “grouping” of antennas
increases the gain compared to a single element antenna. At the same the radiated power is
more concentrated to one certain direction. This is due to reduced beam-width compared to the
single element antenna.

1.5 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF ANTENNAS (CHARACTERISTICS):

These parameters are sometimes also called as Properties of Antenna or Characteristics of

Antenna. Certain basic characteristics of antenna are listed below:
• Antenna Radiation Pattern
• Radiation Intensity
• Directivity and Gain
• Radiation Efficiency and Power Gain
• Input Impedance
• Effective Length
• Bandwidth
• Effective Aperture
• Antenna Polarization

i) Radiation Pattern

A practical antenna cannot radiate energy in all directions with equal strength. Radiation from
an antenna is usually found to be maximum in one direction whereas it is minimum or almost
zero in other directions. Field Strength is the quantity that is used to represent the radiation
pattern of an antenna. It is usually measured at a point located at a particular distance from the
antenna.
Field strength can be measured by calculating voltage at two different points on an electric
line and dividing the result with the distance between the two points. Hence, the units of field
strength are volts per meter. Graphically, the field of strength is plotted as a three-dimensional
graph as it is the measure of the electromagnetic field strength at equidistant points from the
antenna. If the graph of radiation of antenna is just a function of direction, then it is simply
called as Radiation Pattern. But if it is expressed in terms of the electric field strength in V/m,

8
then it is called Field Strength (or Radiation) Pattern. The Field Radiation Pattern for Dipole
Antennas with half wavelength and one wavelength is shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.5: Field Radiation Pattern for Dipole Antennas with half wavelength and one
wavelength

Sometimes, the radiation of the antenna is also a function of the power per unit solid angle.
This graph is called as Power Radiation Pattern.

ii) Radiation Intensity

The radiation intensity of an antenna is the power per unit solid angle. It is represented by U
and is independent to distance from the antenna. Units of radiation intensity are Watts per
steradian (W/Sr).
1 1 𝐸𝜃
𝑈 = 𝑟 2 𝑅𝑒(𝐸𝜃 𝐻𝜑 ) = 𝑟 2 (1)
2 2 𝑍0

𝑊
𝑈= (2)
4𝜋

iii) Directivity and Gain

Ideally, an antenna which radiates energy in all directions equally i.e., an omnidirectional
antenna is called as Isotropic Antenna. This is a hypothetical situation and an isotropic antenna.
But if it is an isotropic antenna, then its power density will be same at all points on the sphere
of radiation. Hence, the average power of an antenna as a function of radiated power is
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑊/𝑚2 (3)
4𝜋𝑟 2
The ratio of power density to the average power radiated is known as Directive
Gain. Directivity of an Antenna is a measure of concentration of radiation in the direction of
maximum radiation or the ratio of maximum power density to average power radiated.

iv) Radiation Efficiency and Power Gain

All practical antennas will have Ohmic losses as they are made up of conducting materials with
finite conductivity. Radiation Efficiency is ratio of radiated power to the input power.
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
η𝑟 = (4)
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Power Gain of an Antenna is the ratio of the power radiated in a direction to the total input
power.

9
v) Input Impedance
It is very important to match the input impedance of the antenna to that of the input transmission
line. If the input impedance doesn’t match, then the system degrades over time due to the
reflected power.

vi) Effective Length

The length of an imaginary linear antenna with uniformly distributed current is defined as the
Effective Length of an antenna such that both these antennas have same far field in π/2 plane.

2𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑦
• Sinusoidal, 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (5)
𝜋
𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑦
• Triangular (or electrically short dipole), 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (6)
2
• Hertzian dipole, 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑦 (7)

vii) Bandwidth
The bandwidth of antenna is defined as the range of frequencies over which the characteristics
of the antenna are maintained to the specified value. This is because, the requirements for the
characteristics of an antenna like the gain, impedance, standing wave ratio etc. may change
during operation.

viii) Effective Aperture

Generally, the term effective aperture or effective area is associated with the receiving antenna.
Effective Aperture or Area of an antenna is the measure of the ability of an antenna to extract
energy from the electromagnetic wave. Effective Aperture of an antenna is the ratio of the
Power Received at the load to the average power density produced by the antenna.

η|𝑙𝑒 |2
Effective Aperture (Ae) = (8)
4𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑

ix) Antenna Polarization

The Antenna Polarization refers to the physical orientation of the electromagnetic wave
radiated in a given direction. Polarization of an EM wave is a time varying direction and
relative magnitude of the electric field vector. If the direction is not specified, then the
polarization in the direction of maximum gain is considered.

There are other characteristics like Antenna Temperature, beam width, beam efficiency which
are also critical.

1.6 ENDOSCOPY:
Endoscopy is a procedure by which a doctor can assess the internal organs of the body.
• A flexible tube with a small camera at the end is used
• The tube is inserted into a small incision or through an opening like the mouth
• The visual from the camera is seen on a monitor to assess the internal organ
• It is used to do a biopsy to check if cells of an organ are infected, damaged or cancerous

10
Endoscopy has many difficulties. To overcome the disadvantages of endoscopy, capsule
endoscopy has been developed.

1.7 CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY:

A capsule endoscopy is a procedure that involves swallowing a small capsule, which is the size
of a large vitamin pill. Inside the capsule is a tiny wireless camera that takes pictures as it passes
through the small intestine. Images are transmitted to a recording device worn on a belt around
the waist. This recording device saves the pictures for a specialist to look at and interpret at a
later time. The capsule usually passes through the digestive system within 24-48 hours. The
actual imaging starts the moment when the patient swallows the pill cam. The camera will
telecast the images it takes to the sensors, and the signals will be delivered to the sensor belt or
recording device (either wirelessly or via cables). At the end of the procedure, the photographs
are downloaded from the receiver into a computer, and the images are reviewed by a physician.
The capsule is passed by the patient into the toilet and flushed away. There is no need to retrieve
the capsule. The block diagram of capsule endoscopy is shown in Figure 1.6.
A capsule endoscopy is generally very safe. Very rare complications include bowel
obstruction (if capsule becomes stuck in a narrow passage). The disposable capsule, often
referred to as a "pill-cam," is roughly the size of a large vitamin tablet, allowing it to navigate
the patient’s Gastro Intestinal (GI) tract better than a scope. Within the self-contained unit is a
miniaturized video camera programmed to take between two and 18 images per second, which
then ultimately get transmitted to sensor equipment. A regular video camera shoots between
24 and 25 images per second. Also housed within the unit is one or several tiny LED lights, a
radio transmitter, and an eight-hour power source.

Reasons to use capsule endoscopy:

• Unexplained abdominal pain

• Unexplained GI bleeding
• Iron deficiency (sometimes caused by GI bleeding)
• Screening for tumours, polyps, or ulcers
• Diagnosing celiac disease associated with gluten intolerance
• Diagnosing Crohn's disease, a form of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
• Following up on imaging tests, such as an X-ray or Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI), that fail to provide clear or conclusive evidence of a GI tract disorder

Capsule endoscopy is typically used to investigate blood loss only after endoscopy
or colonoscopy fail to reveal the source of the bleed. Around 5% of unexplained bleeding
episodes stem from the small intestines, most often from small vascular lesions known
as Angio ectasias. Unlike endoscopy or colonoscopy, which can be used to remove polyps
(polypectomy), capsule endoscopy can only be used for visual diagnoses, not treatment.

11
 Figure 1.6: Block diagram of capsule endoscopy

1.8 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA:

It is a kind of internal antenna. They are mostly used at microwave frequencies. An individual
microstrip antenna consists of a patch of metal foil of various shapes (a patch antenna) on the
surface of a PCB (printed circuit board), with a metal foil ground plane on the other side of the
board. A Microstrip Antenna in its simplest form consists of a radiating patch on one side of
Dielectric substrate and a ground plane on the other side. Most common shapes are rectangular
and circular. However, other Shapes such as the square, meandered, triangular, semi-circular
and annular ring Shapes are also used.

The most common type of microstrip antenna is commonly known as patch antenna. Antennas
using patches as constitutive elements in an array are also possible. A patch antenna is a
narrowband, wide-beam antenna fabricated by etching the antenna element pattern in metal
trace bonded to an insulating dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a
continuous metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane.

1.8.1 ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA:

Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities. Capable of dual and triple
frequency operations. Easily integrated with microwave integrated circuit. This antenna has a
smaller size and hence will provide small size and devices.

In Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) systems, circularly polarised microstrip antennae are
used. They are very compact in size and quite expensive due to their positioning. Microstrip
antennae are also used in the fields of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), mobile
communication and healthcare.

12
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 In Vivo Characterization of a Wireless Telemetry Module for a Capsule Endoscopy

System Utilizing a Conformal Antenna (2018):

This paper describes the design, fabrication, packaging, and performance

characterization of a conformal helix antenna created on the outside of a 10 mm × 30 mm
capsule endoscope designed to operate at a carrier frequency of 433 MHz within human tissue.
Wireless data transfer was established between the integrated capsule system and an external
receiver. The telemetry system was tested within a tissue phantom and in vivo porcine models.
Two different types of transmission modes were tested. The first mode, replicating normal
operating conditions, used data packets at a steady power level of 0 dBm, while the capsule
was being withdrawn at a steady rate from the small intestine. The second mode, replicating
the worst-case clinical scenario of capsule retention within the small bowel, sent data with
stepwise increasing power levels of –10, 0, 6, and 10 dBm, with the capsule fixed in position.
The temperature of the tissue surrounding the external antenna was monitored at all times using
thermistors embedded within the capsule shell to observe potential safety issues. The recorded
data showed, for both modes of operation, a low error transmission of 10−3 packet error rate
and 10−5-bit error rate and no temperature increase of the tissue according to IEEE standards.

2.2 Outer-Wall Loop Antenna for Ultra-wideband Capsule Endoscope System (2010):

The capsule endoscopy system has been used to obtain an image from the inside of the
human digestive tract. To acquire high-resolution images, a loop antenna with ultrawide
bandwidth is proposed. It is part of the outer wall of the capsule, thus decreasing volume and
increasing performance, and uses a meandered line for resonance in an electrically small area.
The proposed antenna makes maximal use of the capsule’s outer surface, enabling the antenna
to be larger than inner antennas. The measured result shows that the gain of the proposed
antenna is higher than that of inner antennas. Return loss and radiation pattern are investigated
through simulation and measurement, showing that the proposed antenna has an ultrawide
bandwidth of 260 MHz (from 370 to 630 MHz) for VSWR <2 and an omnidirectional radiation
pattern. Using identical antenna pairs in the equivalent body phantom fluid, antenna efficiency
is measured to 43.7% (-3.6 dB).

2.3 A Wideband Spiral Antenna for Ingestible Capsule Endoscope Systems:

Experimental Results in a Human Phantom and a Pig (2011):

This paper presents the design of a wideband spiral antenna for ingestible capsule
endoscope systems and a comparison between the experimental results in a human phantom
and a pig under general anaesthesia. As wireless capsule endoscope systems transmit real-time
internal biological image data at a high resolution to external receivers and because they operate
in the human body, a small wideband antenna is required. To incorporate these properties, a

13
thick-arm spiral structure is applied to the designed antenna. To make practical and efficient
use of antennas inside the human body, which is composed of a high dielectric and lossy
material, the resonance characteristics and radiation patterns were evaluated through a
measurement setup using a liquid human phantom. The total height of the designed antenna is
5 mm and the diameter is 10 mm. The fractional bandwidth of the fabricated antenna is about
21% with a voltage standing-wave ratio of less than 2, and it has an isotropic radiation pattern.
These characteristics are suitable for wideband capsule endoscope systems. Moreover, the
received power level was measured using the proposed antenna, a circular polarized receiver
antenna, and a pig under general anaesthesia. Finally, endoscopic capsule images in the
stomach and large intestine were captured using an on–off keying transceiver system.

2.4 Orientation Insensitive Antenna with Polarization Diversity for Wireless Capsule
Endoscope System (2017):

An orientation insensitive antenna is proposed for the 2.4-GHz industrial, scientific,

and medical band wireless capsule endoscopy system. To achieve the polarization diversity,
three orthogonal currents are obtained by bending a dipole. Inversed T matching branch and
meander lines are employed to gain better impendence matching and miniaturization. A normal
dipole in capsule with single polarization is set as the reference antenna in simulation. The one-
layer muscle phantom and the Gustav human body model are adopted in simulation. Minced
pork is used during measurement. Communication links between the proposed capsule antenna
and the external receiving antenna when they are in different orientations are measured to
demonstrate the advantages the polarization diversity brings. According to the measured |S21|,
the proposed antenna can transmit effectively even the orientation of the capsule is changed;
therefore, direction insensitivity performance is achieved.

2.5 Antenna System Design for Improved Wireless Capsule Endoscope Links at
433MHz (2019):

Wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) systems are used to capture images of the human digestive
tract for medical applications. The antenna is one of the most important components in a WCE
system. In this paper, we present novel small antenna solutions for a WCE system operating at
the 433 MHz ISM band along with a link budget analysis. The in-body capsule transmitter uses
an ultra-wideband outer wall conformal loop antenna, whereas the on-body receiver uses a
printed monopole antenna with a partial ground plane. A colon equivalent tissue phantom and
CST Gustav voxel human body model was used for the numerical studies of the capsule
antenna. The simulation results in the colon-tissue phantom were validated through in vitro
measurements using a liquid phantom. According to the phantom simulations, the capsule
antenna has −10 dB impedance matching from 309 to 1104 MHz. The ultra-wideband
characteristic enables the capsule antenna to tolerate the detuning effects due to electronic
modules in the capsule and due to the proximity of various different tissues in gastrointestinal
tracts. The same design methodology was applied to on-body antennas followed by in vitro and
ex vivo measurements for validation. The on-body antenna exceeds −10 dB impedance
matching from 385 to 502 MHz both in simulations and measurements. The path loss for the

14
radio link between an in-body capsule transmitter and an on-body receiver using our antenna
solutions, in simulations and measurements, is less than 50 dB for any capsule orientation and
location, ensuring sufficient signal level at the receiver, hereby enabling an improved capsule
endoscope.

2.6 Investigation of Localizing Precise Human Abdomen Models for Wireless Capsule
Endoscopy Antenna Design (2021):

In order to keep safety of the antenna in wireless capsule endoscopy to human body
and its use range in different groups of people, 7 human abdomen models are established where
the age, tissue thickness and organ shape have been considered. On basis of plane wave
propagating theory in lossy multi-layered media, each model is composed of simulated skin,
subcutaneous fat, muscle, visceral fat and gastrointestinal organ. Different dielectric constant
for the biological tissue component is used. A bendable dual-band antenna is designed for the
WCE system, conformed to the capsule shell. An L-shaped branch is used to get the better
impendence matching. Both the ISM band adopted for data transmission and the WMTS band
for midfield wireless power transmission are studied. Fresh pork abdominal tissue samples are
used as experiment materials; and it is properly kept consistent with the real human abdominal
as far as possible. Experiment results show the performance of antenna stable in the ISM (433
MHz) band. The specific absorption ratio value is checked in different models. Results indicate
dielectric parameters varying with age cannot be ignored; and the antenna must be aimed at the
middle-aged and elderly population with high gastrointestinal diseases incidence.

2.7 WBAN Channel Characteristics Between Capsule Endoscope and Receiving

Directive UWB On-Body Antennas (2020):

This paper presents a study on the Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) radio channel
characteristics between a capsule endoscope and a directive on-body antenna in different parts
of the small intestine. The study is conducted using a Finite Integration Technique (FIT) based
electromagnetic simulation software CST Studio Suite and four of its anatomical voxel models.
The capsule endoscope model is set inside different areas of the small intestine of the voxel
models. A recently published directive on-body antenna designed for in-body communications
is used in the evaluations. The obtained frequency and time domain channel characteristics are
compared with previously published results with another directive on-body antenna designed
for capsule endoscopy communications. Power flow presentations are used to understand
differences obtained with two on-body antennas. Different rotation angles of the capsule are
also considered in this study. It is found that channel characteristics vary remarkably depending
on the antenna location in the small intestine and location of the on-body antenna. Thus, the
on-body antennas should be located carefully to ensure coverage over the whole intestine area.
Path loss does not only depend on the distance between a capsule and the on-body antenna but
also on the tissues between the capsule and on-body antennas. Obviously, the antenna patterns
have clear impact on the received signal’s strength. Furthermore, orientation of the capsule
affects also strongly impact when linearly polarized antennas are used.

15
2.8 A Two-Hop Wireless Power Transfer System with an Efficiency-Enhanced Power
Receiver for Motion-Free Capsule Endoscopy Inspection (2012):

This paper presents a wireless power transfer system for a motion-free capsule endoscopy
inspection. Conventionally, a wireless power transmitter in a specifically designed jacket has
to be connected to a strong power source with a long cable. To avoid the power cable and allow
patients to walk freely in a room, this paper proposes a two-hop wireless power transfer system.
First, power is transferred from a floor to a power relay in the patient’s jacket via strong
coupling. Next, power is delivered from the power relay to the capsule via loose coupling.
Besides making patients much more conformable, the proposed techniques eliminate the
sources of reliability issues arisen from the moving cable and connectors. In the capsule, it is
critical to enhance the power conversion efficiency. This paper develops a switch-mode
rectifier (rectifying efficiency of 93.6%) and a power combination circuit (enhances combining
efficiency by 18%). Thanks to the two-hop transfer mechanism and the novel circuit
techniques, this system is able to transfer an average power of 24 mW and a peak power of 90
mW from the floor to a 13 mm × 27 mm capsule over a distance of 1 m with the maximum dc-
to-dc power efficiency of 3.04%.

2.9 A Medical Image Transmission System for Wi-Fi Based Wireless Capsule
Endoscopy (2015):

The aim of this project is to build a wireless endoscopic system based on the Wi-Fi
technology, in case to make this medical equipment available in much more circumstances.
The core idea is to cope with the problem that the traditional endoscopic used before is
inconvenient since there must be a dedicated receiver which is made on purpose. With the
popularity of mobile intelligent terminal, the Wi-Fi based wireless transmission technology
could make it easy to use the common Android mobile phone or iPad as the endoscopic
receiver. In this project, we take CC3200 as the MCU of endoscopic system which integrates
the Wi-Fi module in one chip.

2.10 Design and Simulation of a Quadrifilar Helical Antenna for Wireless Capsule
Endoscopy (2019):

This paper proposes a miniaturized quadrifilar helical antenna for wireless capsule
endoscopy. The helix arms of the antenna are made with copper material. The helix height,
radius, width and pitch angle are 8.85 mm, 3.3 mm, 0.4 mm and 13.7° respectively. The number
of helix’s turn is 0.5. A polyimide material is selected for modelling the capsule of WCE. The
gastrointestinal tract with muscle phantom is also modelled using CST Microwave Studio
(CST) software package. The performance of the antenna is analysed in free space, capsule and
muscle phantom. Resonant frequency of the antenna inside the body phantom is 3.36 GHz with
S11 parameter of -10 dB and bandwidth 1 GHz ranging from 2.8 to 3.8 GHz. The antenna
shows an omnidirectional radiation pattern and linear polarization when simulated inside the
body phantom. The maximum radiation efficiency is -44.26 dB. Moreover, the gains of the

16
antenna in free space, capsule, and the body model are obtained as 4.317 dB, 4.019 dB and -
38.57 dB respectively.

2.11 Wireless Capsule Gastrointestinal Endoscopy: Direction-of-Arrival Estimation

Based Localization Survey (2017):

One of the significant challenges in Capsule Endoscopy (CE) is to precisely determine

the pathology’s location. The localization process is primarily estimated using the Received
Signal Strength (RSS) from sensors in the capsule system through its movement in the GI tract.
Consequently, the Wireless Capsule Endoscopy system requires improvement to handle the
lack of the capsule instantaneous localization information and to solve the relatively low
transmission data rate challenges. Furthermore, the association among the capsule’s transmitter
position, capsule location, signal reduction, and the capsule direction should be assessed. These
measurements deliver significant information for the instantaneous capsule localization
systems based on time-of-arrival approach, phase difference of arrival, RSS, electromagnetic,
Direction of Arrival (DOA) and video tracking approaches are developed to locate the WCE
precisely. This review introduces the acquisition concept of the GI medical images using the
endoscopy with a comprehensive description of the endoscopy system components. Capsule
localization and tracking are considered to be the most important features of the WCE system;
thus, this paper emphasizes the most common localization systems generally, highlighting the
DOA-based localization systems and discusses the required significant research challenges to
be addressed.

2.12 Design, Development and Realization of UWB Antenna for Wireless Capsule
Endoscopy (2020):

In the modern era, humans are suffering from life-threatening diseases that are curable
if detected in the early stages. Wireless capsule endoscopy is a modern, non-invasive technique
to diagnose the gastrointestinal tract for cancer, Crohn’s disease, bleeding, etc. Hence this
diagnostic technique has the utmost importance which attracted attention in recent times. To
achieve higher data rates and frame rates with higher image resolution, an inner wall dual loop
antenna with a u-slotted patch at the Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) in the range of 3.1 GHz to 10.6
GHz is proposed in this paper. The simulated results show the antenna’s excellent performance
in terms of return loss with a bandwidth of 7.5 GHz ranging from 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz. The
antenna is quasi omnidirectional with maximum gains of -36.78 dBi, -38 dBi, -34.36 dBi, and
-34.68 dBi at 3 GHz, 5 GHz, 8 GHz, and 10 GHz respectively which is common in antennas
for wireless capsule endoscopy because of the highly lossy environment.

2.13 Circularly-Polarized 4-Arm Curl Antenna for Wireless Capsule Endoscopy (2018):

Circularly-polarized 4-arm curl antenna for wireless in-body capsule endoscopy

application at 2.4 GHz is presented. The antenna arms are sequentially fed to enhance the

17
circular polarization characteristics. The antenna is encapsulated and implanted in the human
body. The human body tissue is demonstrated by a cylindrical multilayer model to simulate its
dispersive properties. The full structure is simulated using the finite integral technique. The
radiation characteristics of the encapsulated 4-arm curl antenna inside the human body are
investigated. The orientation of the WCE inside the human body is demonstrated. The
performance of the capsule in free-space with the same dimensions is investigated. The effect
of capsule orientation during its travel through the digestive tract on the gain and radiation
efficiency has been investigated.

2.14 Study on the Design and Experiment of a Magnetic Controlled Wireless Capsule
Endoscopy (2011):

Through theoretical analysis and experimental study, this paper discusses the key issues
in the wireless capsule endoscopy MEMS system, such as the optics design, the image
capturing, the transmitter, the power supply and so on. The reasonable design of lens and lens
holder ensures imaging of the system; An illumination device is designed according to the
imaging illuminance of the image sensor in the capsule; The system circuit is controllable in
the wireless way outside the body through the magnetic switch and a magnetic field array, so
that the point checking can be carried out. All the parameters and configurations of the
endoscope system prototype are designed with the principles of micromation and low power
consumption. The images captured by the capsule in live animal experiments indicate that the
miniature wireless capsule endoscopy is feasible.

2.15 Miniaturized Dual-Band Circularly Polarized Implantable Antenna for Capsule

Endoscopic System (2021):

This study proposes a miniaturized dual-band antenna with a circular-polarization

characteristic for a wireless-capsule endoscopic system operating in the industrial, scientific,
and medical bands: 915 and 2450 MHz. The proposed capsule device is intended for deep-
tissue implantation with the standard dimensions of 26 × 11 mm2. The key features of the
proposed antenna are its CP characteristic at both bands, satisfactory gain values, and a smallest
volume (6.5 × 6.5 × 0.05 = 2.11 mm3) with a via-less ground plane compared with the state-
of-the-art device. The CP wave performance and the miniaturization of the antenna are
achieved via the introduction of slots accompanied by meandered line segments in a radiating
patch and open-end slots in a ground plane. Furthermore, the proposed antenna offers a
reasonable axial ratio (AR) of <3 dB at the desired frequency bands. The circularly polarized
radiator attains the AR bandwidths (BWs) of 33.0% and 8.67% and the measured -10 dB
impedance BWs of 13.63% and 6.28% at 915 and 2450 MHz, respectively. The measurements
of the reflection coefficient and radiation pattern are performed using a fabricated prototype of
the proposed antenna system in a saline solution and minced pork. Finally, the safety
considerations and link budget calculations are evaluated to analyse the performance of the
proposed capsule device. Due to the AR BW, impedance BW, and ease of fabrication, the
proposed antenna system is a suitable candidate for use in endoscopic applications.

18
 CHAPTER 3

SOFTWARE USED

3.1 SOFTWARE USED:

The software used for designing Antennas are
1. ZELAND IE3D
2. ANSYS HFSS
3. MICROWAVE STUDIO CST
4. FEKO
5. ANTENNA MAGUS

3.2 ANSYS HFSS:

HFSS-High Frequency Structure Simulator

Ansys HFSS is 3D electromagnetic simulation software for designing and simulating
high frequency electronic products such as antennas, antenna arrays, RF or microwave
components, and high-speed interconnects, filters, connectors, IC packages and printed circuit
boards. Ansys HFSS is mainly used to design high frequency, high speed electronics in
communication systems, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), satellites and Internet
of Things (IOT).
Ansys HFSS is a commercial finite element method solver for electromagnetic
structures from Ansys. The acronym stands for high-frequency structure simulator. HFSS is
one of several commercial tools used for antenna design, and the design of complex radio
frequency electronic circuit elements including filters, transmission lines, and packaging.

3.3 IMPORTANT ASPECTS IN ANSYS HFSS:

i) SOLUTION TYPES:
➢ Eigen mode solution:
Solves natural resonances of structure based on geometry, materials and
boundaries. Provide modal frequencies, unloaded Q-factors and fields.
➢ Driven solution:
Port or incident field used to excite the structure. Driven modal method
commonly used for RF/microwave designs. Driven terminal method commonly used
for multi-conductor transmission lines. Provide S-parameters and fields.
ii) PORT EXCITATIONS:
➢ Wave ports:
• 2D FEM solver calculates requested number of modes (treated as t-line cross-
section) Solves for impedances and propagation constants.
• Supports multiple modes and de-embedding. Simple for closed t-lines.
• Must allow room for fields of open t-lines.
• Must touch external boundary or backed by conducting object.

19
 ➢ Lumped ports
• User-assigned constant impedance.
• Uniform electric field on surface.
• Single TEM mode with no de-embedding.
• Can be internal to model.

iii) BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

➢ Used to simplify geometry or make meshing more efficient.
➢ Material properties for surfaces.
• Finite conductivity (imperfect conductor)
• Perfect electric or magnetic conductor
➢ Surface approximations for components
• Lumped RLC
• Layered impedance
➢ Radiation
• Absorbing boundary condition.
• Perfectly Matched Layers (PML).
➢ Any object surface that touches the background is automatically defined as Perfect
E boundary.

iv) FREQUENCY SWEEPS:

➢ Discrete sweep:
• Solves adapted mesh at every frequency.
• Matrix data and fields at every frequency.
➢ Fast sweep:
• Extrapolates rational polynomial function for electric field over specified range.
• Usually valid over less than 10:1 BW.
• Matrix data and fields at every frequency.
➢ Interpolating sweep:
• Solves minimum number of frequencies to create polynomial fit for S-
parameters.
• Useful for very broadband S-parameters.
• Matrix data at every frequency.
v) FIELDS CALCULATOR:
➢ Tool for performing math operations on saved fields
• E, H, J, and Poynting data available.
• Geometric, complex, vector, and scalar data.
• Perform operations using model or non-model geometry.
• Generate numerical, graphical, geometrical, or exportable data.
➢ Reverse Polish notation frequently used expressions can be included in user library
and loaded into any project.
➢ Eliminates need to re-create expressions used across projects.

20
 CHAPTER 4

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA & DIPOLE ANTENNA

4.1 MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

The study of microstrip patch (MSP) antennas has made great progress in recent years.
Compared with conventional antennas, microstrip patch antennas have more advantages and
better prospects. They are lighter in weight, low volume, low cost, low profile, smaller in
dimension and ease of fabrication and conformity. Moreover, the microstrip patch antennas
can provide dual and circular polarizations, dual-frequency operation, frequency agility, broad
band-width, feedline flexibility, beam scanning omnidirectional patterning. The basic structure
of microstrip patch antenna consists of area of metallization supported above a ground plane
by a thin dielectric substrate and fed against the ground at an appropriate location. The patch
shape can be arbitrary; in practice, the rectangle, the circle, the equitriangle and the annular-
ring are common shapes. They are coaxial probe feed, microstrip line feed, aperture-coupled
feed and proximity feed. Electromagnetic energy is first guided or coupled to the region under
the patch, which acts like a resonant cavity with open circuits on the sides. Some of the energy
leaks out of the cavity and radiates into space, resulting in an antenna.
4.2 MATERIAL CONSIDERATION OF MSP:
The metallic patch is normally made of thin copper foil. The substrate material provides
mechanical support for the radiating patch elements. It also maintains the required spacing
between the patch and its ground plane. The substrate thickness for the basic geometry is in the
range of 0.01 to 0.05 free-space wavelength.
The dielectric constant ranges from 1 to 10 and can be separated into three categories.
• Those having a relative dielectric constant (relative permittivity) in the range of 1.0 to
2.0. This type of material can be air, polystyrene foam, or dielectric honeycomb.
• Those having a relative dielectric constant in the range of 2.0 to 4.0. This type of
material consists mostly of Fiber-glass reinforced Teflon.
• Those with a relative dielectric constant between 4.0 and 10.0. This type of material
can be ceramic, quartz, or alumina.
The most commonly used material is Teflon-based with a relative permittivity between 2 and
3. This material is also called PTFE (Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene). It has a structure very similar
to fiberglass material used for digital circuit boards, but has a much lower loss tangent. Cost,
power loss, and performance are trade-off considerations in choosing the substrate material, as
illustrated by the following examples. For example, a single patch or an array of a few elements
may be fabricated on a low-cost fiberglass material at the L-band frequency, while a 20-element
array at 30 GHz may have to use higher-cost, but lower loss, Teflon-based material (loss
tangent less than 0.005). For a large number of array elements at lower microwave frequencies
(below 15 GHz), a dielectric honeycomb or foam panel may be used as a substrate to minimize
loss, antenna mass, and material cost while having increased bandwidth performance. There
are materials with relative dielectric constant higher than 10. The patch size is smaller for
higher dielectric constant. However, higher dielectric constant also reduces bandwidth and
radiation efficiency.

21
4.3 FEED METHODS FOR THE SINGLE ELEMENT OF MSP:
There are four common feeding methods of microstrip patch antenna which is shown in
Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Four common feeding methods of microstrip patch antenna

i) COAXIAL PROBE FEED

This is the most common feeding method. The coaxial probe shown in Figure 4.2 usually has
a characteristic impedance of 50 ohms. The input impedance of the patch antenna varies with
the feed location. Thus, the location of the probe should be at a 50-ohm point of the patch to
achieve impedance matching. There are a number of terms associated with the coaxial probe.
Type N, TNC, or BNC connectors are for VHF, UHF, or lower microwave frequencies. OSM
or OSSM connectors can be used throughout the microwave frequencies. OSSM, OS-50 or K-
connector is for millimetre wave frequencies.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.2: The geometry of coaxial probe feed microstrip patch antenna (a) top view
and (b) side view

22
ii) MICROSTRIP-LINE FEED

A microstrip patch can be connected directly to a microstrip transmission line. At the edge of
a patch, the impedance is generally much higher than 50 ohms (e.g., 200 ohm). To avoid
impedance mismatch, sections of quarter-wavelength transformers can be used to transform
large input impedance to a 50-ohm line. The input impedance is smaller at points away from
the edge. Thus, another method of matching the antenna impedance is to extend the microstrip
line into the patch. With the microstrip-line feed approach, an array of patch elements and their
microstrip power division lines can all be designed and chemically etched on the same substrate
with relatively low fabrication cost per element. However, the leakage radiation of the
transmission lines may be large enough to raise the side lobe or cross-polarized levels of the
array radiation. The direct microstrip feed microstrip patch antenna is shown in Figure 4.3 and
recessed microstrip line feed microstrip patch antenna is shown in Figure 4.4.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3: The geometry of a direct microstrip feed microstrip patch antenna (a) top
view and (b) side view

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4: The geometry of a recessed microstrip line feed microstrip patch antenna (a)
top view and (b) side view

23
iii) PROXIMITY-COUPLED MICROSTRIP-LINE FEED

An open-ended microstrip line can also be used to feed a patch antenna through proximity
coupling. An open-ended microstrip line can also be placed in parallel and very close to the
edge of a patch, to achieve excitation through fringe-field coupling. Both these methods avoid
any soldering connection, which in some cases, could achieve better mechanical reliability.
The geometry of a proximity coupled microstrip feed microstrip patch antenna is shown in
Figure 4.5 and the geometry of a patch antenna fed by an adjacent microstrip line is shown in
Figure 4.6.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.5: The geometry of a proximity coupled microstrip feed microstrip patch
antenna (a) top view and (b) side view

(a) (b)

Figure 4.6: The geometry of a patch antenna fed by an adjacent microstrip line (a) top
view and (b) side view

24
iv) APERTURE-COUPLED FEED

An open-ended microstrip line can be placed on one side of the ground plane to excite a patch
antenna situated on the other side through an opening slot in the ground plane. This slot-
coupling or aperture-coupling technique shown in Figure 4.7 can be used to avoid soldering
connection as well as to avoid leakage radiation of the line to interfere with the patch radiation.
In addition, by using a thick substrate, this feed method allows the patch to achieve a wider
bandwidth (>10%) compared to the coax probe feed. Still wider bandwidth (about 20%) is
obtained if a resonant slot is used. When two resonators (slot and patch) having different but
closely spaced resonance, wider bandwidth is achieved. The main disadvantage of this feeding
method is the back radiation from the slot.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 4.7 The geometry of an aperture coupled feed microstrip patch antenna (a) top
view, (b) side view (c) pictorial view

25
4.4 SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FEEDING
METHODS:

S. No Feeding method Advantages Disadvantages

• No direct contact • Multilayer
between feed and fabrication
1. Proximity Coupled patch required
• Can have large
effective thickness
for patch substrate
and much thinner
feed substrate
• Monolithic • Spurious
• Easy to fabricate radiation from
2. Microstrip Line • Easy to match by feed line,
controlling especially for
• Insert position thick substrate
when line width
is significant
• Easy to match • Large
3. Coaxial Feed • Low spurious inductance for
radiation thick substrate
• Soldering
required
• Use of two • Multilayer
substrates avoids fabrication
deleterious effect of required
a high-dielectric • Higher
constant substrate backlobe
4. Aperture Coupled on the bandwidth radiation
and efficiency
• No direct contact
between feed and
patch avoiding large
probe reactance or
wide microstrip line
• No radiation from
the feed and active
devices since a
ground plane
separates them from
the radiating patch

26
4.5 DESIGNING MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS:
To be able to design microstrip patch antennas to meet the performance specifications, the
designer should possess a combination of certain knowledge and skills. First, the designer
should have an understanding of the principles of operation of the basic microstrip patch
antenna structure. This can be obtained from a physical model known as the cavity model,
which is based on a number of assumptions applicable to thin substrates. Within its limitations,
the theory provides an understanding of the physical principles and can predict the parametric
dependence of a number of antenna characteristics. In practice, it is rare that the performance
specifications can be met by the basic microstrip patch antenna structure. Thick substrates and
additional features, such as parasitic patches, shorting pins, or slots in the patch, have to be
added. Once the structure departs from the basic geometry, it is not amendable to analysis via
a simple model. Maxwell’s equations must be solved and boundary conditions satisfied, a
procedure known as full-wave analysis. Such analysis, while not providing much physical
insight, does yield numerical results predicting the performance of the antenna structure.
Nowadays, while the antenna designer seldom needs to perform the full wave analysis and
develops his own codes, knowledge of this is still valuable since it will enable the designer to
use the codes judiciously and be aware of their limitations. It will also help the designer to
develop software in situations which are not covered in commercially available software, such
as substrate materials with novel properties. The Flowchart of number of commercial
electromagnetic simulation software in MSP antenna is shown in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8: Flowchart of number of commercial electromagnetic simulation software in

MSP antenna

27
One class uses the method of moments in the numerical analysis, while another uses the finite
difference time domain method. One software, HFSS, is based on the finite element method.
Another software, PCAAD, is based on the cavity model. The segmentation method used in
Micro patch is a variation of the cavity model.

4.6 ADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNAS:

The advantages of microstrip patch antennas are:

(1) Planar, which can also be made conformal to a shaped surface
(2) Low profile
(3) Low radar cross-section
(4) Rugged
(5) Can be produced by printed circuit technology
(6) Can be integrated with circuit elements
(7) Can be designed for dual polarization operations
(8) Can be designed for dual or multi-frequency operations
These advantages make microstrip patch antennas much more suitable for aircrafts, space
crafts, and missiles than conventional antennas as they do not interfere with the aerodynamics
of these moving vehicles.

4.7 DESIGN EQUATION OF MSP ANTENNA:

i) Peak Gain:
𝐺 =𝑘𝐷 (9)
where k is antenna efficiency(0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1)

ii) Radiation Intensity:

𝑃𝑟
𝑈𝑎𝑣 = (10)
4𝜋
where 𝑃𝑟 is Radiated Power

iii) Width of patch:

𝑣0 2
𝑊= √ (11)
2𝑓𝑟 𝜀𝑟 +1

iv) Effective dielectric constant:

𝜀𝑟 +1 𝜀𝑟 −1 ℎ −1⁄
𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + [1 + 12 ] 2 (12)
2 2 𝑊

where 𝜀𝑟 is relative dielectric constant of the material

h is the height of the substrate
W is the width of the patch

28
v) Length of the patch:
𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 +0.3)( +0.264)
ℎ
∆𝐿 = ℎ0.412 𝑊 (13)
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 −0.258)( +0.8)
ℎ

𝑣0
𝐿= − 2∆𝐿 (14)
2𝑓𝑟 √𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓

4.8 DESIGN OF MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA:

Figure 4.9: Design of MSP antenna

The MSP antenna is designed using the above design equations. The MSP antenna used here
designed in the frequency of 2.45 GHz is shown in Figure 4.9. Here, copper is used for ground
and patch. When the frequency is increased, the radiation will be high which is very harmful
to the human body. So, the frequency of the antenna cannot be increased. The frequency is
indirectly proportional to size of the antenna. When the frequency is decreased, the size of the
antenna is increased. So that the capsule size will also be increased which leads to difficulty in
travelling of capsule through intestine. The standard size of the capsule is 30mm X 10mm and
it is the same used here.

29
4.9 DIPOLE ANTENNA:
The dipole is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view. Most commonly it
consists of two conductors of equal length oriented end-to-end with the feedline connected
between them. Dipoles are frequently used as resonant antennas.

4.10 DIPOLE TYPES:

i) HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA:

The half wave dipole antenna is the one that is most widely used. Being half a
wavelength long it is a resonant antenna.

ii) MULTIPLE HALF WAVES DIPOLE ANTENNA:

It is possible to utilise a dipole antenna or aerial that is an odd multiple of half

wavelengths long.

iii) FOLDED DIPOLE ANTENNA:

As the name implies this form of the dipole aerial or dipole antenna is folded back on
itself. While still retaining the length between the ends of half a wavelength, an additional
length of conductor effectively connects the two ends together.

iv) SHORT DIPOLE:

A short dipole antenna is one where the length is much shorter than that of half a
wavelength. Where a dipole antenna is shorter than half a wavelength, the feed impedance
starts to rise and its response is less dependent upon frequency changes. Its length also becomes
smaller and this has many advantages. It is found that the current profile of the antenna
approximately a triangular distribution.

v) NON-RESONANT DIPOLE:

A dipole antenna may be operated away from its resonant frequency and fed with a high
impedance feeder. This enables it to operate over a much wider bandwidth.

4.11 FEEDING A DIPOLE ANTENNA:

Ideally, a half-wave dipole should be fed using a balanced transmission line matching its typical
65 - 70Ω input impedance. Twin lead with a similar impedance is available but seldom used.
Many types of coaxial cable have a characteristic impedance of 75Ω, which would therefore
be a good match for a half-wave dipole, however coax is an unbalanced transmission line (with
one terminal at ground potential) whereas a dipole antenna presents a balanced input (both
terminals have an equal but opposite voltage with respect to ground). When a balanced antenna
is fed with a single-ended line, common mode currents can cause the coax line to radiate in
addition to the antenna itself, distorting the radiation pattern and changing the impedance seen
by the line. The dipole can be properly fed, and retain its expected characteristics, by using a
balun in between the coaxial feedline and the antenna terminals.

30
i) DIPOLE FEED IMPEDANCE BASICS:

The feed impedance of a dipole is determined by the ratio of the voltage and the current at the
feed point. A simple Ohms Law calculation will enable the impedance to be determined.
Although a dipole can be fed at any point, it is typically fed at the current maximum and voltage
minimum point. This gives a low impedance which is normally more manageable. Most dipoles
tend to be multiples of half wavelengths long. It is therefore possible to feed the dipole at any
one of these voltage minimum or current maximum points which occur at a point that is a
quarter wavelength from the end, and then at half wavelength intervals. Three half wavelength
wave dipole antenna showing feed point points λ/4 from either end could also be used. The
vast majority of dipole antennas are half wavelengths long. Therefore, they are centre fed - the
point of the voltage minimum and current maximum.

Figure 4.10: Three half wavelength wave dipole antenna showing feed point

Figure 4.11: The basic half wave dipole antenna with centre feed point

The dipole feed impedance is made up from two constituents:

• Loss resistance: The loss resistance results from the resistive or Ohmic losses within the
radiating element, i.e., the dipole. In many cases the dipole loss resistance is ignored as it may
be low. To ensure that it is low, sufficiently thick cable or piping should be used, and the metal
should have a low resistance. Skin effects may also need to be considered.

• Radiation resistance: The radiation resistance is the element of the dipole antenna
impedance that results from the power being "dissipated" as an electromagnetic wave. The aim
of any antenna is to "dissipate" as much power in this way as possible.

31
(ii) WAVELENGTH CALCULATIONS FOR DIPOLE IN FREE SPACE:

Figure 4.12: The patterns show the distribution and strength of the voltage (V) and
current (I) on a dipole antenna

4.12 DESIGN EQUATION OF DIPOLE ANTENNA:

The wavelength of a radio wave or any other wave varies inversely proportional to the
frequency, it is given by:
1
𝜆∝ (15)
𝑓

𝑐
𝜆= (16)
𝑓

Where, C = velocity of light = 3*108 m/s

f = frequency, in Hertz

λ= wavelength, in meter

Thus,

3∗108 300
λ= = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (17)
𝑓(𝐻𝑧) 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧)

Now, at a half-wavelength, the length of the antenna is given by,

𝜆 300 150
= = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (18)
2 2∗𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧)

𝜆 150∗3.28 492
= = 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 (19)
2 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧)

𝜆 150∗39.37 5905
= = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 (20)
2 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧)

Thus, from equation (20) we can say that, if we used a 1 MHz radio transmitter, then the basic
length of the antenna wire will be 150 meters or 492 feet or 5905 Inches.

32
This is correct if we neglect the “end effect”. This “end effect” is the dielectric effect of the air
at the end of the antenna that increases the effective length of the antenna. Due to the end effect,
an antenna wire acts as 5% longer than the actual length. This will produce interference
between the exciting and oscillating currents and due to that oscillation amplitude may be
weakened.

Hence, to counterbalance the “end effect” and to make the antenna works properly, it is
necessary to cut the antenna wire about to 5% and makes its physical length approximately
𝜆
95% of half of the wavelength. Thus, to get the practical 2 length of the antenna wire, the value
multiplied by a factor K to the basic length of the antenna wire, i.e.,
𝜆 492∗𝐾 492∗0.95
= = (21)
2 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧) 𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧)

468
λ= 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 (22)
𝑓(𝑀𝐻𝑧)

The value of K depends on the thickness of the conductor and the operating frequency. This
value of K is accurate for antenna wire at a frequency of up to 30 MHz.

4.13 DESIGN OF DIPOLE ANTENNA:

Figure 4.13: Design of Dipole antenna

Dipole antenna is designed using the above design equations. The dipole antenna is designed
in the frequency of 900 MHz. The length of the antenna is 3cm and the width is 1cm.The
feedgap length is 0.25 cm which is designed in the way to be fixed within the size of the capsule.

33
 CHAPTER 5

RESULT & DISCUSSION

There are many dielectric mediums used in substrate in MSP antenna such as FR4 Epoxy,
Vacuum, Bakelite, Rogers R04003, Taconic TLC, Duroid. The parameters of these dielectric
medium have been analysed. Particularly, peak directivity, peak gain, radiated power, accepted
power, radiation efficiency of dielectric medium has been analysed. The results of these
dielectric medium are shown below:
5.1 RESULTS OF DIELECTRIC MEDIUM USED IN SUBSTRATE OF MSP:
5.1.1 DUROID:

(a) (b)
Figure 5.1: Terminal S Parameter Plot in (a) 2-Dimensional (b) 3-Dimensional

Gain value is high at 2.45GHz and the gain decreases when the frequency increases which is
shown in Figure 5.1. So, the MSP Antenna is designed in the frequency of 2.45GHz.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.2: Gain Plot in (a) 2-Dimensional and (b) 3-dimensional

34
The Figure 5.2 shows that when Duroid substrate is used for MSP antenna, the value of peak
gain is 4.8596 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the higher gain value compared to other
dielectric mediums.

Figure 5.3: Directivity Plot

This Figure 5.3 shows that when Duroid substrate is used for MSP antenna, the value of peak
directivity is 5.4676 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the higher directivity value
compared to other dielectric mediums.

When Duroid substrate is used for MSP antenna, the value of radiated power is 0.0004 and the
accepted power is 0.0005 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the lower radiated power and
accepted power compared to other dielectric mediums. The value of radiation efficiency for
the Duroid substrate is 0.8888 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the higher radiation
efficiency compared to other dielectric mediums.

5.1.2 FR4 EPOXY:

(a) (b)

Figure 5.4: Terminal S Parameter Plot in (a) 2-Dimensional (b) 3-Dimensional

This Figure 5.4 shows that the gain value is very low at 2.45GHz So, the MSP Antenna is not
designed with FR4 Epoxy dielectric medium.

35
 Figure 5.5: Gain plot
This Figure 5.5 shows that the peak gain
value of FR4 Epoxy substrate is 2.9367 in
the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the
lower gain value compared to Duroid
dielectric medium.
Figure 5.6: Directivity Plot
This Figure 5.6 shows that the peak
directivity value of FR4 Epoxy substrate is
4.7479 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which
is the lower directivity value compared to
Duroid dielectric medium.

For FR4 Epoxy substrate, the radiated power value and accepted power in the frequency of
2.45GHz is 0.0056 and 0.0091 respectively which is the higher radiated power and accepted
power value compared to Duroid dielectric medium. The radiation efficiency value is 0.6185
in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the lower radiation efficiency value compared to Duroid
dielectric medium.

5.1.3 BAKELITE:

(a) (b)
Figure 5.7: Terminal S Parameter Plot in (a) 2-Dimensional (b) 3-Dimensional

This Figure 5.7 shows that the gain value is very low at 2.45GHz So, the MSP Antenna is not
designed with Bakelite dielectric medium.

36
 Figure 5.8: Gain plot
This Figure 5.8 shows that the peak gain
value of bakelite is 4.1102 in the frequency
of 2.45GHz which is the lower gain value
compared to Duroid dielectric medium.
Figure 5.9: Directivity Plot
This Figure 5.9 shows that the peak
directivity value of bakelite substrate is
4.6998 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which
is the lower directivity value compared to
Duroid dielectric medium.

The radiated power value of bakelite substrate is 0.0039 in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is
the same radiated power value as Duroid dielectric medium. The accepted power value of is
0.0044 which is the lower accepted power value compared to Duroid dielectric medium but
bakelite is not used as the dielectric medium as it has lower directivity value, lower gain value
and lower efficiency. The radiation efficiency value of bakelite substrate is 0.8746 which is the
lower radiation efficiency value compared to Duroid dielectric medium.
5.1.4 ROGERS R04003:

(a) (b)
Figure 5.10: Terminal S Parameter Plot in (a) 2-Dimensional (b) 3-Dimensional
This Figure 5.10 shows that the gain value is very low at 2.45GHz So, the MSP Antenna is not
designed with Rogers R04003 dielectric medium.

37

Figure 5.11: Gain Plot
This Figure 5.11 shows that the peak gain
value of Rogers R04003 substrate is 4.2136
in the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the
lower peak gain value compared to Duroid
dielectric medium.
Figure 5.12: Directivity Plot
This Figure 5.12 shows that the peak
directivity value of Rogers R04003
substrate is 4.7725 in the frequency of
2.45GHz which is the lower peak
directivity value compared to Duroid
dielectric medium.

The radiated power value of Rogers R04003 substrate which is 0.0034 in the frequency of
2.45GHz which is the higher radiated power value compared to Duroid dielectric medium.
The accepted power value of Rogers R04003 substrate is 0.0039 in the frequency of 2.45GHz
which is the lower accepted power value compared to Duroid dielectric medium but Rogers
R04003 is not used as the dielectric medium as it has lower directivity value, lower gain value
and lower efficiency. The radiation efficiency value is 0.8792 which is the lower radiation
efficiency value compared to Duroid dielectric medium.

5.1.5 TACONIC TLC:

(a) (b)
Figure 5.13: Terminal S Parameter Plot in (a) 2-Dimensional (b) 3-Dimensional

This Figure 5.13 shows that the gain value is very low at 2.45GHz So, the MSP Antenna is not
designed with Taconic TLC dielectric medium.

38
 Figure 5.14: Gain Plot

This Figure 5.14 shows that the peak gain value of Taconic TLC substrate is 3.8039 in the
frequency of 2.45GHz which is the lower peak gain value compared to Duroid dielectric
medium.

Figure 5.15: Directivity plot

This Figure 5.15 shows that the peak directivity value of Taconic TLC substrate is 4.6588 in
the frequency of 2.45GHz which is the lower peak directivity value compared to Duroid
dielectric medium.

The radiated power value of Taconic TLC substrate which is 0.0017 in the frequency of
2.45GHz which is the higher radiated power value compared to Duroid dielectric medium.
The accepted power value of Taconic TLC substrate is 0.0020 in the frequency of 2.45GHz
which is the lower accepted power value compared to Duroid dielectric medium but Taconic
TLC is not used as the dielectric medium as it has lower directivity value, lower gain value and
lower efficiency. The radiation efficiency value of Taconic TLC substrate is 0.8165 which is
the lower radiation efficiency value compared to Duroid dielectric medium.

39
 5.2 COMPARISON:

Parameters FR4 Epoxy Bakelite Vacuum Rogers Taconic Duroid

R04003 TLC

Peak Directivity X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz

Y=4.7479 Y=4.6998 Y=4.8727 Y=4.7725 Y=4.6588 Y=5.4676

Peak Gain X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz

Y=2.9367 Y=4.1102 Y=4.4163 Y=4.2136 Y=3.8039 Y=4.8596

Radiated Power X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz

Y=0.0056 Y=0.0039 Y=0.0001 Y=0.0034 Y=0.0017 Y=0.0004

Accepted Power X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz

Y=0.0091 Y=0.0044 Y=0.0001 Y=0.0039 Y=0.0020 Y=0.0005

Radiation X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz

Efficiency
Y=0.6185 Y=0.8746 Y=0.9063 Y=0.8792 Y=0.8165 Y=0.8888

Array Factor X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz X=2.45GHz

Y=1.0 Y=1.0 Y=1.0 Y=1.0 Y=1.0 Y=1.0

Duroid substrate has the high directivity of 5.1142, high gain of 4.3306 dB, high efficiency of
0.8468 and has lower radiated power and lower accepted power. Vacuum also has high
efficiency, low radiated power and low accepted power than Duroid but vacuum cannot be
used as dielectric medium in substrate. Duroid has high directivity, high gain and high
efficiency compared to other substrates in MSP antenna. Hence, Duroid is used as the dielectric
medium for substrate in MSP antenna for wireless capsule endoscopy for the better
performance of the capsule.

40
5.3 RESULTS OF DIPOLE ANTENNA USED IN WCE:

i) GAIN PLOT:

(a)

(b)

41
 (c)

Figure 5.16: (a) 3D gain plot, (b) 2D gain plot and (c) 2D gain total stacked of Dipole
antenna

ii) RETURN LOSS:

Figure 5.17: Return loss of dipole antenna

The return loss is in the mid-range when the dipole antenna is designed in the frequency of
0.9 GHz.

42
iii) INPUT IMPEDANCE:

Figure 5.18: Input impedance

iv) PEAK DIRECTIVITY:

Figure 5.19: Peak Directivity

This Figure 5.19 shows that the peak directivity value of Dipole antenna is 1.5447 in the
frequency of 0.9 GHz.

43
v) PEAK GAIN:

Figure 5.20: Peak Gain

This Figure 5.20 shows that the peak gain value of Dipole antenna is 1.5798 in the frequency
of 0.9 GHz.

vi) RADIATED POWER:

Figure 5.21: Radiated Power

This Figure 5.21 shows that the radiated power value of Dipole antenna is 0.0 in the frequency
of 0.9 GHz.

44
vii) ACCEPTED POWER:

Figure 5.22: Accepted Power

This Figure 5.22 shows that the accepted power value of Dipole antenna is 0.0 in the frequency
of 0.9 GHz.

viii) RADIATION EFFICIENCY:

Figure 5.23: Radiation Efficiency

This Figure 5.23 shows that the Radiation efficiency value of Dipole antenna is 1.0227 in the
frequency of 0.9 GHz.

45
5.4 TABLE OF DIPOLE ANTENNA PARAMETERS:

Frequency value=0.9 GHz

Parameters Value

Peak Directivity 1.5447

Peak Gain 1.5798

Radiated Power 0.0

Accepted Power 0.0

Radiation Efficiency 1.0227

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION
6.1 CONCLUSION

In capsule endoscopy the size of capsule must be small which is very important characteristics
of capsule endoscopy so that it is easy to swallow and travel through the intestine. In capsule
endoscopy, many antennas are used to transmit and receive the signals. MSP antenna is used
here to transmit and receive as it is smaller in size which decreases the size of the capsule and
it is very efficient. The substrates used in MSP antenna such as FR4 Epoxy, Vacuum, Bakelite,
Rogers R04003, Taconic TLC, Duroid has been analysed. After the analysis and from the above
results, here Duroid is used as dielectric medium in substrate as it has high efficiency, high
gain and high directivity. Hence, if Duroid is used as dielectric medium in substrate in MSP
antenna designed in the frequency of 2.45GHz, it increases the performance of the wireless
capsule endoscopy. The dipole antenna is also designed for wireless capsule endoscopy in the
frequency of 0.9 GHz which gives lower radiated and accepted power compared to Microstrip
patch antenna.

46
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