Mission 120+ in Prelims. aa Nahi"Microbial Fuel Cells v A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by the action of microorganisms. It is a bio-electrochemical system that uses bacteria as the catalyst to oxidize organic and inorganic matter, and consequently, generate electric current out of it. It has applications in various fields such as power generation systems, _bio-recovery, _ waste-water treatment, etc.Biodiversity Hotspots. v The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term “biodiversity hotspot” in 1988 as a biogeographic region characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious levels of habitat loss. According to Cl, to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria: L It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics (not found anywhere else). 2. Ithas to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat. e: Conservation International is Intemational NGO who identify Biodiversity HotspotsBiodiversity Hotspots. v The 35 biodiversity hotspots cover 2.3% of the Earth’s land surfacey'yet more than 50' ” of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species are endemic to these areas. Biodiversity hotspots in India: 1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region from Pakistan to Myanmar. 2. Indo —Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam. Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China. .. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka). Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, runei, Philippines).Pyramid of Biomass. Pyramid of Biomass in Aquatic Ecosystems. In the aquatic system, the biomass can increase at higher trophic levels. For example, in Oceans, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton and ends at predatory fish, which has largest biomass. Thus, the pyramid of biomass is inverted in the aquatic systems including marine, ponds etc.* Pollutants especially non degradable ones “ move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. * Non degradable pollutants = mean materials, which cannot be metabolized by the living organisms. Movement of these pollutants involves two | LICEMATIMENTT Af 7 Increase in concentration of main processes: a pollutant in an organism. i) Bioaccumulation ii) BiomagnificationPOLLUTANTS AND TROPHIC uve. “Zee + Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the next. + In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. + Ifa pollutant is short-lived, it will be broken down before it can become dangerous. + If it is not mobile, it will stay in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms. + Ifthe pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. * Pollutants that dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time.Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) * Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds “ that, to a varying degree, resist photolytic, biological and chemical degradation. * Due to persistence, the pollutants are capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Most of the POPs include pesticides, Industrial solvents, polyvinyl chloride, and pharmaceuticals. Common Characters of the POPs:Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Common Characters of the POPs: + Low Water solubility + High lipid solubility: This property leads them to bioaccumulation in animal tissues. * Semi volatile: The property of their physico-chemical characteristics that permit these compounds to occur either in the vapour phase or adsorbed on atmospheric particles, thereby facilitating their long range transport through the atmosphere + The POPs with higher Molecular weights are more toxic and more persistent generally. Most of the POPs are halogenated and many have Chlorine a component.Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Dirty Dozen + In May 1995, the United Nations Environment Programme Governing Council (GC) started investigations on the POPs. The process began with 12 POPs which were most common at that time. They were called “Dirty Dozen”. + The Dirty Dozen are: Aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated — dibenzo-p- dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and toxaphene.Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Stockholm Convention and Endusulphan + Endosulphan belongs to the organochlorine group of pesticides such as DDT. + It is used as an organochlorine insecticide and acaricide (killing tickes and mites). + It causes endocrine disruption and neurotoxic impacts. It is also supposed to be a genotoxic and may lead to genetic mutation, however, it has not been found to be a carcinogenic. + Because of its threats to environment as a POP, it is banned in more than 63 countries but still is widely used.Stockholm Convention and Endusulphan * India is the largest user of Endosulphan, and had sought a 10 year remission from ban. + However, in 2011, the Supreme Court banned the use of Endosulphan due to some peculiar health impacts seen after aerial spray of in Cashew Plantations in Kerala.* Geothermal energy in India 5 + In India, Northwestern Himalayas and the western coast are considered geothermal areas. * The Geological Survey of India has already identified more than 350 hot spring sites, which can be explored as areas to tap geothermal energy. Environmental impact of geothermal energy + Geothermal energy can pose several environmental problems which includes on-site noise, emissions of gas and disturbance at drilling sites. + The steam contains hydrogen sulphide gas, which has the odour of rotten eggs, and cause air pollution. The minerals in the steam are also toxic to fish and they are corrosive to jipes, and equipment, requiring constant maintenance.Geothermal Energy.What are Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as green energy certificates or tradable renewable certificates are proof that energy has been generated from renewable sources such as solar or wind power. RECs unbundle the electricity component (commodity) from the green/environmental attributes of the power generated from renewable sources. Both the components can then be traded separately. Thus, RECs help in incentivizing the production of renewable energy over and above the RPO state limit as tradable certificates are not constrained by the geographical limitations of commodity electricity. included under GST.Tal Enerey. ae. * Non-conventional Renewable source of energy 5 * Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. * Floodgate dams are built across inlets gE + During high tide water flows into the inlet and gets ké trapped when the gate is closed. eo + After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water £ retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine. + In India, the Gulf of Kutch, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy. The dams built to harness the tidal power adversely affect the vegetation and wildlife.LUMINESCENT SOLAR CONCENTRATORS: A luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) is a transparent piece of plastic or glass that has a fluorescent dye or quantum dots embedded or painted on it. The dye absorbs light and then fluoresces creating a glow that propagates by total internal reflection to the edge of the sheet where the light is absorbed by a narrow solar cell. This is a promising technology because it allows a large collecting area of virtually transparent glass with a comparatively small area of expensive solar cells.LUMINESCENT SOLAR CONCENTRATORS: A luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) is a transparent piece of plastic or glass that has a fluorescent dye or quantum dots embedded or painted on it. The dye absorbs light and then fluoresces creating a glow that propagates by total internal reflection to the edge of the sheet where the light is absorbed by a narrow solar cell. This is a promising technology because it allows a large collecting area of virtually transparent glass with a comparatively small area of expensive solar cells.LUMINESCENT SOLAR CONCENTRATORS: + LSCs can collect both direct and diffuse solar - radiation. Therefore tracking of the sun is not required. LSCs are excellent candidates for building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and for the cloudier northern climates. unionInternational Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) + It is an intergovernmental organization to promote adoption and sustainable use of renewable energy. It is the global hub for renewable energy cooperation and information exchange within its member nations. It was founded in 2009 and its statute entered into force on 8 July 2010. Headquarters: Abu Dhabi. Members: In total it has 138 Members. India is one of the 33 Permanent members of en O@ IRENA International Renewable Energy AgencyHydrogen Enerey ee + Many scientists believe that the fuel for the future is hydrogen gas. + When hydrogen gas burns in the air or in fuel cells, it combines with oxygen gas to produce non-polluting water vapour and fuel cells directly convert hydrogen into electricity. * Widespread use of hydrogen as fuel would greatly reduce the problem of air pollution and danger of global warming because there will not be any CO2 emission. + Producing hydrogen from algae in large scale cultures is possible. It may be possible to control photosynthesis so that green algae are able to produce hydrogen through the process of photosynthesis. Hydrogen is a pollution free, cost effective manner and if technologies such as fuel cells can be made cost effectiveFuel Cell Technology: ee. + Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away with combustion. * The most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a mixture of compounds containing hydrogen.Fuel Cell Technology: ee. + Fuel cells are highly efficient power-generating systems that produce electricity by combining fuel (hydrogen) and oxygen in an electrochemical reaction. + Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away with combustion. + Hydrogen and phosphoric acid are the most common type of fuel cells, although fuel cells that run on methanol, ethanol, and natural gas are also available. = The most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a mixture of compounds containing hydrogen. igh initial cost is still the biggest hurdle in the widespread ercialization of fuel cells.Wind Energy Potential in India. Wind power potential in India s¥ar09 myars0. MaratGlobal Energy Transition Index. India has moved up two places to rank 76th on a global energy transition index, released by World Economic Forum (WEF). Global Energy Transition Index. The WEF has ranked 115 economies on how well they are able to balance energy security and access with environmental sustainability and affordability. The WEF index considers both the current state of the countries’ energy system and their structural readiness to adapt to future energy needs. The ‘transition readiness’ component of the index has taken into account six individual indicators.Nuclear Energy. ee. Nuclear Reactor Coolant + A nuclear reactor coolant usually water or molten salt is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates. + The heat is carried away from the reactor and is then used to generate steam.Nuclear Energy. eli oe Neutron Moderator. > + A neutron moderator is a medium that reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction. + When a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium- 239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. + The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, (the fission products), releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. + A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction. Commonly-used moderators include regular (light) water (in 74.8% of e world’s reactors), solid graphite (20% of reactors), heavy water (5%Nuclear Energy. ee. Control Rods or Reactivity control + The power output of the reactor is adjusted by controlling how many neutrons are able to create more fissions. + Control rods that are used to absorb neutrons. + Absorbing more neutrons in a control rod means that there are fewer neutrons available to cause fission. + So pushing the control rod deeper into the reactor will reduce its power output, and extracting the control rod will increase it. * Control rods are composed of chemical elements such as boron, silver, indium and cadmium.Rights of Person with disability The Supreme Court has confirmed that persons suffering from disabilities are also socially backward. With this, they become entitled to the same benefits of relaxation as Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe candidates in public employment and education.Trans Fats. Trans fatty acids (TFAs) or Trans fats are the most harmful type of fats w can have much more adverse effects on our body than any other dietary constituent. These fats are largely produced artificially but a small amount also occurs naturally. Thus in our diet, these may be present as Artificial TFAs and/ or Natural TFAs. Artificial TFAs are formed when hydrogen is made to react with the oil to produce fats resembling pure ghee/butter. In our diet the major sources of artificial TFAs are the partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (PHVO)/vanaspati/ margarine while the natural TFAs are present in meats and dairy products, though in small amounts. TFAs pose a higher risk of heart disease than saturated fats. While saturated fats raise total cholesterol levels, TFAs not only raise total cholesterol levels but also reduce the good cholesterol (HDL).Trans Fats. FSSAI has proposed to limit TFA limit in foods to 2% and eliminate trans fats from foods by 2022. + FSSAI launches “Trans-Fat Free’ logo. + Has also launched movement against Trans-Fats and also provided a momentum to accelerate the ‘Eat Right India’ movement of FSSAL. + Note: not all saturated fats are bad. Those having high HDL are better for health,iversal Declaration of Human Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights was proclaimed under UNGA resolution 217 A in Paris. It set out, for the first time, fundamental human rights to be universally protected. It entitles everyone to all the rights and freedoms and prohibits slavery and slave trade in all forms. Other rights recognized under the declaration are right to a nationality, right against arbitrary arrest, detention or exile, the right to seek asylum from prosecution, the right to freedom of movement and residence, ete. The Universal Declaration is not a treaty, so it does not directly createThe Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) is the leading UN entity on human rights. It was established in 1993 and is a part of the United Nations Secretariat. OHCHR is headquartered in Geneva. provides assistance in the form of technical expertise and capacity development in order to support the implementation of international human rights standards on the ground.The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UN Human Rights) is the leading UN entity on human rights. It was established in 1993 and is a part of the United Nations Secretariat. OHCHR is headquartered in Geneva. provides assistance in the form of technical expertise and capacity development in order to support the implementation of international human rights standards on the ground.Human Rights Vs Fundamental Rights. BASIS FOR COMPARISON Meaning, Includes Scope Basic Principle Guarantee Enforcement Origin FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS Fundamental Rights means the primary rights of the citizens which are justifiable and written in the constitution. Basic Rights Only It is country specific. Right of freedom Constitutionally guaranteed Enforceable by the court of law. Originated from the views of democratic society. HUMAN RIGHTS Human Rights are the basic rights that all the human beings can enjoy, no matter where they live, what they do, and how they behave, etc. Basic and Absolute Rights It is universal. Right of lil fe with dignity Internationally guaranteed Enforceable by United Nation Organization. Originated from the ideas of civilized nations.Statutory Body. It was established in 1993 under a legislation enacted by the Parliament, namely, the Protection of Human Rights Act. watchdog of human rights in the country.COMPOSITION OF THE nrc: “ZS > + multi-member body consisting of a chairman and four members. + Chairman should be a retired chief justice of India. * Chairman of National Commission of SC/ST/Minorities/Women are also ex officio members of NHRC. Six-member committee consisting of the 1. Prime minister as its head. 2. the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. 3. the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. 4. leaders of the Opposition in both the Houses of Parliament. 5 the Central Home Minister. es , Vag) itting Judge can also be nominated but only with CJI approval.COMPOSITION OF THE COMMISSIO! - Chairman and members hold office for a term of five years or until they attain the age of 70 years. chairman and members are not eligible for further employment. They can be removed by President. In case of charges of misbehaviour, President has to refer case to SC enquiry. Recommendation of SC regarding removal or not is binding on President.POWER OF THE NHRC: ee inquire into any violation of human rights. + Have suo moto powers as well. * intervene in any proceeding involving allegation of violation of human rights pending before a court. * Visit jails and study living conditions of inmates. + Recommend measures for more effective measures of Constitutional safeguards to protect Human Rights. study treaties and other international instruments on human rights. ‘esearch in the field of human rights. id human rights literacy among the people.POWER OF THE NHRC: ee Powers of a civil court and its proceedings have a judicial character. Have own staff for investigating Human right violation. It can ask for services of agencies under union and state. it can look into a matter within one year of its occurrence.POWER OF THE NHRC: ee * May recommend to the concerned government or authority to make payment of compensation or damages to the victim. Recommend to government regarding violation of HR by Public servant. it may approach the Supreme Court or the high court concerned for the necessary directions, orders or writs.Thermal Pollution. * Power plants — thermal and nuclear, chemical and other industries use a lot of water for cooling purposes, and the used hot water is discharged into rivers, streams or oceans. + Discharge of hot water may increase the temperature of the receiving water by 10 to 15 °C above the ambient water temperature. This is thermal pollution. + Increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygen in the water. + Unlike terrestrial organisms, aquatic organisms are adapted to a uniform steady temperature of the environment. A sudden rise in temperature kills fishes and other aquatic animals.Underground water pollution EE. In India at many places, the groundwater is threatened with contamination due to seepage from industrial and municipal wastes and effluents, sewage channels and agricultural runoff. Pollutants like fluorides, uranium, heavy metals and nutrients like nitrates and phosphates are common in many parts of India, Nitrates Dissolved nitrates commonly contaminate groundwater. This condition is called methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome. High level of nitrates may form carcinogens and can accelerate eutrophication in surface waters.+ Include lead, mercury, cadmium, copper, chromium and nickel. + These metals can be toxic and carcinogenic. Arsenic + Seepage of industrial and mine discharges, fly ash ponds of thermal power plants can lead to arsenic in groundwater. + In India and Bangladesh (Ganges Delta), millions of people are exposed to groundwater contaminated with high levels of arsenic, a highly toxic and dangerous pollutant. Chronic exposure to arsenic causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea and also lung and skin cancer.Trace metals Fluoride + Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuromuscular disorders, gastrointestinal problems, teeth deformity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints (skeletal fluorosis). + Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome, + Fluorosis is a common problem in several states of the country due to the intake of high fluoride content water.Eutrophication — Ageing of Lakes The nutrient-enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants and various fauna, This process is known as natural eutrophication. Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as cultural eutrophication. lakes accumulate mineral and organic matter and gradually, get filled up.Eutrophication and Algal Bloom * Eutrophic water body: it is a body of water rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant population, the decomposition of which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen. + Eutrophication is the response to the addition of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or artificially, fertilising the aquatic ecosystem. + Phytoplankton (algae and blue-green bacteria) thrive on the excess nutrients and their population explosion covers almost entire surface layer. This condition is known as algal bloom. + Water temperature with unusually warm water being conducive to blooms. Algal blooms can be any colours, but the most common are red or brown, These blooms are commonly ta ac red ar hrawn tidec+ Eutrophication eventually creates detritus layer in lakes and produces successively shallower depth of surface water. * water body is reduced into marsh whose plant community is transformed from an aquatic environmentto a recognizable terrestrial environment. + Algal Blooms restrict the penetration of sunlight resulting in the death of aquatic plants and hence restricts the replenishment of oxygen. + Loss of coral reefs: Occurs due to decrease in water transparency (increased turbidity), + Most algal blooms are not harmful, but some produce toxins. These are known as Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs). Toxicity: Some algal blooms when died or eaten, release neuro & epatotoxins which can kill aquatic organism & pose a threat to ns. E.g. Shellfish poisoning.+ For India, El Nino during winter results in development of warm conditions. + During summer, it leads to dry conditions and deficient monsoon, leading to droughts and water scarcity. + Whereas La-Nina brings rains and stronger monsoon in India, it may cause flood like situation in coastal areas.Cornwallis Code The Cornwallis Code is a body of legislation passed in 1793 by the"East India Company. This code was developed by Cornwallis who was the governor of Bengal from 1786 to 1793. The Cornwallis Code is known for some significant provisions made in it. These provisions related to governance, law and order, judicial and civil administration. The best known provision was the permanent settlement enacted in 1793. This act established a system of revenue collection which was followed until the 20th century. istrict collector was divested from his judicial powers and separate judicial was created.Indian Parliamentary Committee Sir William Wedderburn entered the British Parliament as a liberal member and sought to voice India’s grievances within the house. In the same year, he formed the “Indian Parliamentary Committee” with Dadabhai NaorojiGenetic diversity. It is concerned with the variation in genes within a particular species. Genetic diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments. This diversity aims to ensure that some species survive drastic changes and thus carry on desirable genes. More gene diversity less chances of genetic disorders. Higher chances of survival.Species diversity. More the number of different species at a place. More Bio diverse ecosystem is. * More Biodiversity= more stable Ecosystem. Ocean is most stable ecosystem.Biodiversity Conservation Ex-situ conservation In site conservation 1. Botanical garden Protected Area 2. Zoological parks National Sanctuary Blosphere 3. Aquaria park reserve 4. Arboreta Terrestrial Marine SCHEME SHOWING BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION MANAGE- MENT SYSTEMS.Biodiversity conservation. Ex-situ conservation: Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally occur is known as ex situ conservation. Here, animals are reared or plants are cultivated like zoological parks or botanical gardens. Reintroduction of an animal or plant into the habitat from where it has become extinct is another form of ex situ conservation. For example, the Gangetic gharial has been reintroduced in the rivers of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan where it had become extinct. Seed banks, botanical, horticultural and recreational dens are important centres for ex-situ conservation.Biodiversity conservation. In-situ conservation: Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is known as in-situ conservation. The established natural habitats are: + National parks + Sanctuaries + Biosphere reserves and + Reserved forests + Protected forests.THE RED DATA BOOK: IUCN CLASSIFICATION : Extinet (EX) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. Extinct in the Wild (EW): Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity.THE RED DATA BOOK: Critically Endangered (CR): Reduction in population (> 90% over the last 10 years). Population size (number less than 50 mature individuals). Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in wild in at least 50% in their 10 years) and considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.THE RED DATA BOOK: Endangered (EN) criteria * reduction in population size (70% over the last 10 years). * population size estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, * quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in wild in at least 20% within 20 years.World Heritage Sites: A World Heritage Site is a place on earth having a special cultural or physical significance and outstanding universal value to the humanity. It may be a building, a city, a complex, a desert, a forest, an island, a lake, a monument, or a mountain. According to the sites ranked by country, Italy is home to the greatest number of World Heritage Sites with 51 sites, followed by China (48), Spain (44), France (41), Germany (40), Mexico (33), and India (32). (India has 7" rank).World Heritage Sites: ee. Who lists World Heritage Sites? 5 Answer: UNESCO. How it is done: * World heritage committee comprising of 21 member countries who are selected by General Assembly of UN on 4 year term. + Each country submit its nominations. (In India it is done by ASI) + To determine the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) for World Heritage nomination, there are ten enlisted criteria. The proposed nomination must satisfy at least one of these ten criteria.Significance of World Heritage Sites: Boost tourism. Global attention towards its conservation. * raise awareness among citizens and governments for heritage preservation. + A country may also receive financial assistance and expert advice from the World Heritage Committee to support activities for the preservation of its sites. + Such sites can’t be used for military purpose. Destroying such sites is classified as war crime.UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India eli oe * The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the nodal agency for forwarding any request for World Heritage status to any Indian site whether cultural or natural. * India now has 35 sites, including 27 cultural properties, seven natural sites and one mixed site, notified as World Heritage Sites. + The latest entries in 2016 were — (1) Nalanda University (2) Capitol Complex and (3) Khangchendzonga National Park (mixed site). * Note not all sites are under protection of MoEFCC, Mountain Railway of India ( Darjeeling,1999), Nilgiri (2005), Kalka-Shimla(2008), Shivaji terminus Mumbai under Railways. Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP) (2016)* [Only Mixed site of Cultural Natural importance]UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India a + Jaipur, Ahmedabad and Fatehpur Sikri are Heritage cities.Terrestrial and Jovian Planet: Se Terrestrial Jovian ~ + Small + Large + Dense + Low-Density * Rocky Bodies * Gaseous + Less Atmosphere * Bigger Atmosphere * Closer to Sun + Further away from Sun + Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars + Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and NeptuneWhy are the inner planets rocky mostly in gaseous form? The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too warm for gases on the surface to condense to solid particles. The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the surface of the terrestrial planets. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian planets. The terrestrial planets are smaller, and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping gases.Asteroid belt. ‘ey of * It is located between Mars and Jupiter. + An asteroid is an extremely small planetoid that revolves around the Sun. * Ceres is the largest asteroid, with diameter of 970 km. * While most asteroids are made mostly of carbon-rich rock, some are made at least partially of iron and nickel. + When asteroids collide and their fragments reach earth surface they are called meteorites. + The main belt itself is divided into thinner belts, separated by object-free zones called Kirkwood Gaps. Trojan asteroids are those which follow orbit of a planet. re broken parts of the Planet itself.Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. + The Kuiper Belt is ring of dormant comets located just beyond the orbit of Neptune.Comets. A comet is anicy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, heats up due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus and begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. Comets have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the planets which have near-circular orbits. They are made of frozen gases (water, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide) which hold together small pieces of rocky and metallic minerals.Meteorite craters in India. * Lonar Lake (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana District of Maharashtra * Dhala crater(14 km in diameter) in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh and + Ramgarh crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a potential meteorite crater in Kota plateau in Rajasthan.