DENTAL INSTRUMENTATION

The History of Articulators: From Facebows

to the Gnathograph, a Brief History of
Early Devices Developed for Recording
Condylar Movement: Part II
Edgar N. Starcke, DDS

T HIS ARTICLE continues an historical review,

begun in the last issue, of landmark clinical
investigations that advanced the profession’s un-
derstanding of the nature of condylar movement.
The investigators’ unique recording devices, devel-
oped for registering and studying the movements of
the condyles in human subjects, are described.
Contributions of George Campion
and Norman Bennett
George G. Campion, of Manchester, England,
generally supported the findings of Charles E.
Luce and William E. Walker on mandibular
movement. When speaking of the S or ogee form
of the condylar paths, however, Campion stated
that the form and variations of the condyle paths
show how futile the efforts must be to construct
an anatomical articulator. He contended that no
articulator could be truly anatomical unless it
could imitate the exact condylar paths of each
individual patient.1 He believed that J. B. Parfitt
deserved the credit for being the first to construct
an articulator that embodied this essential prin-
ciple. Campion designed an adjustable facebow
fixed to the mandibular teeth with modeling plas-
tic to graphically record the various positions of
the condyles on the face with a succession of dots
(Fig 1). Using white blotting paper, the dots
(made with a thick oil-based dye) were related to
the ala-tragus line with one edge of the paper,
lifted off, and transferred directly to either a
paper record or a glass lantern slide.
Correspondence to: Edgar N. Starcke, DDS, Clinical Professor, De-
partment of Prosthodontics, The University of Texas Health Science Center
at Houston Dental Branch, 6516 M.D. Anderson Boulevard, P.O. Box
20068, Houston, TX 77225. E-mail: estarcke@mail.db.uth.tmc.edu
Copyright © 2002 by The American College of Prosthodontists
1059-941X/02/1101-0011$35.00/0
doi:10.1053/jpro.2002.31438
Although Campion did not produce an articula-
tor of his own, he was concerned about misconcep-
tions relating to the opening axis of the mandible
and the design of that feature in articulators. He
stated that although it had been suggested that
during the opening movement, the mandible ro-
tated about an axis located behind and below the
condyles, he believed this description to be errone-
ous. His data showed that there could be no one
axis about which the mandible travels in opening
movement. He interpreted this movement to be
complex, occurring about 2 axes: 1 approximately
through the centers of the condyles (rotation) and
the other through the centers of the curves of the 2
articulating eminences (translation). He concluded
“. . . the only part of the opening movement which
an articulator is concerned to reproduce is the
initial stage which is seen in the tracings to be a
simple rotation about an axis passing through the
condyles.”1
On April 27, 1908, Norman G. Bennett of Lon-
don, England presented a paper on mandibular
movement to the Royal Society of Medicine Odon-
tology Section. The article, originally published in
the proceedings of the society that year, was re-
printed in its entirety in the Journal of Prosthetic
Dentistry in 1958.2
By 1908, Bennett had been studying mandib-
ular movement for several years and on this
occasion wanted to clarify “one or two aspects of
this thorny problem” that he believed other in-
vestigators had not dealt with adequately. Specif-
ically, he intended to show that no single fixed
rotation center of the condyles exists, but that
the center is constantly moving. That is, for any
normal opening movement of the mandible, a
succession of instantaneous centers of rotation
occurs in a curved path. The paths vary among
individuals.
Other observations relating to vertical move-
ments of the mandible reported by Bennett in-

Journal of Prosthodontics, Vol 11, No 1 (March), 2002: pp 53-62 53

54
Figure 1. George C. Campion’s graphic facebow device.
Campion’s method of recording the condylar paths in-
volved placing a succession of dots on the face and trans-
ferring the dots with blotting paper to either paper or
glass. (Reprinted from Campion, p 40.1)
cluded the existence of a “definite rest position of
the mandible. . .as judged by subjective sensation” and
that the initial center of rotation of the mandible
was located behind and below the condyle. He
concluded, therefore, that altering the vertical di-
mension of occlusion on a hinge articulator would
introduce errors.2
Bennett’s description of the lateral paths of the
condyles was actually of minor consideration. Es-
sentially, the only data from this article that showed
the condylar movements that now bear his name is
illustrated in Fig 2 (movements of Bennett’s right
condyle). Line A is extreme vertical opening with
no lateral movement. Line B is extreme opening
with extreme lateral movement to the left. Line B⬘
is that of extreme opening combined with extreme
movement to the right. Lines C, C⬘ represent ex-
treme lateral movement to the left and right with
the teeth in continuous contact. Bennett’s com-
ments were, “[it] is interesting as showing that, in
my case at least, in movement towards the side on
which the condyle might be expected to remain
stationary there is quite considerable movement of
the condyle outwards away from its articular sur-
face.”2
Although Norman Bennett was a well-respected
clinical investigator, it is remarkable nevertheless
that this single case study received so much atten-
tion and has been seen as such an important mile-
Figure 2. An illustration of
extreme opening and lateral
movements of Norman Ben-
nett’s right condyle dem-
onstrating the phenomenon
now known as the “Bennett
movement.” (Reprinted with
permission.2)
 55

Figure 3. (A) Professor Alfred Gysi demonstrating man-

dibular movement. This is one of the earliest models of
Gysi’s mandibular recorders. It was designed to record
the movements of mandible at the condyles and chin in
straight opening and closing. The pencils are pointed to
record in the sagittal plane. The horizontal plates paral-
lel the occlusal plane. (Reprinted from Clapp, p 143.9)
(B) These recordings showed a downward and forward
path of the condyle. (The arm and pencil have been
removed to permit a better view of the condylar path.)
Note that the chin path scribed a loop or “teardrop”
effect. (Reprinted from Clapp, p 143.9) (C) Professor Gysi
demonstrating the lateral movements of the condyles and
chin. The pencils are turned to record on the horizontal
plane. Gysi showed that “the condyle on the ‘working
side’ moved out of the fossa away from the median line
while the advancing condyle moved strongly inward” (p
148).9 He also showed the components of the “gothic
arch” or movements of the incisor point. (Reprinted from
Clapp, p 149.9)
56
stone in the quest for understanding mandibular
movement. It is true that his conclusions have been
found to be largely accurate; however, his method-
ology was hardly scientific. On the other hand, he
did introduce basic new information and he proba-
bly never meant for his paper to be accepted for
more than it was: a case study.
As far as his research methodology was con-
cerned, Bennett prefaced his article by reporting
that the information he presented was “fragmen-
tary and it consists mainly of an account of some
experiments that I undertook some time ago, but
have not had the time to carry out to a full extent.”2
There was only one test subject, Bennett himself,
who was assisted in the experiment by his brother.
Bennett described his apparatus as a facebow to
which were attached 2 very small light bulbs, 1
opposite the center of the right condyle, and 1
opposite the center of the sulcus of the lower lip.
With the facebow in place, his head was stabilized
with the right side of his face parallel to a wall. A
Figure 4. (A) The Gysi Con-
dyle Path Register and Acces-
sories. This was Gysi’s first
commercially available model.
It was adjustable and had 2
reversible styli ( J and K) for
tracing the condylar paths
in both the vertical and hor-
izontal planes. Horseshoe
plate A and incisor point
marker E were attached to
wax occlusion rims for
making the tracings of the
“gothic arch.” (Reprinted
from Clapp et al, p 127.10)
(B) The incisor point marker
mounted on a wax occlusion
rim and a mandibular horse-
shoe plate with a registered
incisor path. (Reprinted from
Hillyer, p 999.11)
biconvex lens was placed between the light bulbs
and the wall to control the magnification and to
focus the images. When the 2 light bulbs were
turned on in a dark room, the images were pro-
jected on the wall. The paths of the mandibular
movements (appearing as dots of light) were then
traced by his assistant on a sheet of white paper
placed on the wall. Bennett stated that when the
lateral movements were made, he was facing the
wall. This is interesting because the “Bennett
movement” is described on the horizontal plane.
However, to project the movement of the light
bulbs during a lateral condylar movement on a wall
toward which he was facing would have displayed
the movement on the frontal (coronal) plane. For
the image to be on the horizontal plane, it should
have been projected on the ceiling with the head
erect.
Bennett’s report did bring to the attention of the
profession a concept that Balkwill had discovered
but that had been buried for over 40 years. Norman
 57

Figure 5. (A) The Gysi “Con-

dyle Register,” 1910. This view
shows the technique for trac-
ing the right vertical condylar
path on a patient. Note that
the horizontal point of the re-
versible stylus is used for trac-
ing on a card held in position
by an assistant. (Reprinted
from Clapp et al, p 135.10) (B)
The Gysi “Condyle Register,”
1910. This frontal view of the
patient shows the technique
for recording the lateral (Ben-
nett) paths of the condyles.
The vertical points of the re-
versible styli are used for trac-
ing on the underside of the
horizontal frosted glass plates
that the assistant holds in po-
sition. (Reprinted from Clapp
et al, p 146.10)
58
Bennett may not have explored mandibular move-
ment thoroughly, but he certainly shed some light
on the subject.
Gysi: The “Gothic Arch” and
“Bennett Movement”
Alfred Gysi’s contributions to the understanding
of mandibular movement are considerable. How-
ever, this article will focus on only the early and
more notable recording instruments that he de-
Figure 6. (A) The Gysi Trubyte
Facebow, 1928. This com-
plete assembly consists of
the Incisor Path Marker, at-
tached to the maxillary oc-
clusion rim; the gothic arch
registering table, also at-
tached to the mandibular
occlusion rim; and the Sag-
ittal Condyle Register, fas-
tened to the gothic arch reg-
istering table by 2 anterior
horizontal rods. The tracing
flags are still held in posi-
tion by an assistant. (Re-
printed with permission.12)
(B) The Gysi Trubyte Face-
bow and Articulator, 1928.
This shows the Gysi Trubyte
articulator with the facebow
assembly in position with
mounted casts. The right
sagittal condyle path has
been set and verified at 30
degrees. By this time, Gysi
had abandoned the lateral
condyle path registration
for the controlling gothic
arch feature of the incisal
guide. (Reprinted with per-
mission.12)
veloped during the course of his investigations.
Gysi was inventive, clever, and tenacious and,
through his painstaking analysis of the work of
his predecessors, was able to develop new instru-
ments and establish concepts of mandibular
movements. Although his instruments have since
been superceded, many of his concepts remain
valid today.
In 1910, Gysi reported on his research of the
previous 20 years in a series of articles for the Dental
Cosmos.3-6 He stated that, in 1901, he had “con-
 59

Figure 7. The Snow facebow, 1924, the first instrument

used by B. B. McCollum to locate the “hinge axis.”
(Reprinted from McCollum, p 529.13)

Figure 9. (A and B) Two views of the first instrument

“to record the paths of motion of the mandible in
all three dimensions at one and the same time” (1934).13
The instrument had styli to record both the vertical and
lateral condylar paths. It also featured 2 anterior styli
located in the midline: 1 vertical to record the incisor
point and 1 horizontal to record the opening and closing
motion. (Reprinted with permission.14)

4
Figure 8. (A) Early in 1927, a 3-piece adjustable face-
bow had been developed. Cast metal clutches had
replaced the unreliable modeling plastic devices. A
maxillary facebow was added to “cover up the movable
skin to make the determination of the hinge axis more
precise.” (B) This double exposure photography shows
the “mouth dropped open” technique with only rota-
tion of the caliper pin. (Reprinted from McCollum, p
534.13)
60
structed a simple apparatus for measuring the slant
of the condyle paths to the occlusal plane [condylar
inclination].”
In the 3 photographs shown in Fig 3, Professor
Gysi demonstrates mandibular movement with an
early experimental tracing device. Figure 3A and B
shows tracings of the condylar path on the sagittal
plane and those at the symphysis that occur with a
straight opening and closing movement.
Gysi was not the first to determine the individual
condylar paths for articulator use, but he began to
improve and refine the process for clinical purposes.
He was the first, however, to register the paths of
the incisor point in the horizontal plane. He re-
ferred to the combined anterior lateral tracings as
the “Gothic Arch.” He was also the first to measure
the lateral condylar paths (“Balkwill-Bennett”
movements) and to incorporate this feature into an
articulator (Fig 3C). Gysi remarked that recording
the movement of these points on the mandible was
“the easiest part of the whole problem, but it took
seven years to make an articulator with which to
imitate these movements.”3 Gysi, of course, was
referring to the 2 adjustable articulators that pre-
ceded his “Adaptable,” introduced to US dentists in
1910 and patented in 1912. The “Adaptable” was
the first articulator to include the “Balkwill-Ben-
nett” movement feature.7 These 3 Gysi articulators
appeared in the Journal of Prosthodontics March 2001
article in this series.8
Figure 4A shows the various components of Gy-
si’s first practical clinical version of his condylar
graphic-tracing device (Gysi called it the “condyle
register”). In combination with his incisor point
marker (Fig 4B), these instruments were capable of
tracing the gothic arch as well as the condyle paths
on both the vertical and horizontal planes. The
major drawbacks in the design of the condyle reg-
ister were that it was necessary for an assistant to
hold the tracing surfaces (cardboard or glass) in
position and, that the vertical and horizontal con-
dylar tracings could not be accomplished at the
same time (Fig 5A and B).
When Gysi introduced the Trubyte articulator
in about 1928, the notable change in the accom-
panying condyle register was that the lateral
condylar path feature was no longer included (Fig
6A and B). By this time, Gysi had developed the
concept of setting the controls of the articulator
by following the guiding edges of the gothic arch
incisal table.
A Brief Look at the Origins
of Gnathology
Meanwhile, in Los Angeles, CA, Beverly B. McCol-
lum, Charles E. Stuart, and Harvey Stallard were
making history in a newly developing field of den-
tistry. In 1924, the field was given a name: gnathol-
ogy. Harvey Stallard, who coined the term, is gen-
erally regarded as the author of the language of
gnathology.
That same year, McCollum developed the first
method to locate the mandibular “hinge axis.” His
first attempt was with the use of an ordinary Snow
facebow. The facebow fork was modified and fas-
tened to the mandibular teeth with modeling plas-
tic (Fig 7). He subsequently developed a practical
adjustable mandibular hinge axis facebow with a
companion facebow-like device that was attached to
the maxillary teeth for securing the recording flags
in position under the styli (Fig 8A and B). The
devices used for fastening the components of the
hinge axis facebow to the maxillary and mandibular
teeth evolved from facebow forks to cast aluminum
custom clutches.
Also in 1924, Charles E. Stuart, a young grad-
uate of the University of Southern California
School of Dentistry, joined McCollum’s research
efforts. And with Harvey Stallard, Stuart was
the guiding force who brought to a successful
completion the work that McCollum had be-
gun but was unable to complete because of a
lengthy illness resulting from a stroke he had
suffered in 1949.14 He died in 1968. In 1926,
McCollum organized the Gnathological Society of
Southern California. The members and associates
were dedicated to McCollum’s quest to accu-
rately record and replicate mandibular move-
ment, and most of these men became passion-
ately involved in this new concept of gnathology.
Without the generous contributions of their time,
personal efforts and, of course, financial support,
this ambitious project would probably not have
been feasible.
From 1924 to 1928, 9 different models of exper-
imental articulators were made before McCollum
placed into production an articulator that met his
standards, the “Gnathoscope.”14 It would take an-
other 5 years, largely because of the efforts of
Stuart, to produce an instrument capable of mea-
suring mandibular movement in 3 planes. In 1934,
the prototype of the “Gnathograph” was demon-
strated at the annual meeting of the University of
 61

Figure 10. The second de-

vice to record the movements
of the mandible in all 3
dimensions, 1935. It was
described as a simpler and
more universal apparatus.
Note that 2 anterior horizon-
tal tables have been added
and the vertical table has
been eliminated. (Reprinted
with permission.14)

Southern California Alumni Association (Fig 9A
and B). In 1935, the second instrument to record
movements in 3 planes was developed (Fig 10).
Besides styli to trace both the horizontal and verti-
cal condylar paths, it featured 1 anterior vertical
stylus for the gothic arch and 1 horizontal stylus for
tracing the opening and closing movements on the
sagittal plane. In 1937, the first “satisfactory re-
cording device,” the “Gnathograph,” was intro-
duced (Fig 11).
From the Gnathoscope and Gnathograph,
Charles Stuart would eventually develop his own
gnathological system, including an articulator and
pantograph for which he received a patent in 1955.

Figure 11. The “Gnatho-

graph,” “a satisfactory re-
cording device,” with the
“axis orbital plane indicator”
in position, c.1937. It fea-
tured horizontal and vertical
styli for tracing the condy-
lar inclination and Bennett
paths, as well as 2 anterior
vertical styli for tracing the
gothic arch lateral move-
ments. The custom-made
metal clutches had metal
plates attached, the lower
with a central-bearing screw,
the round end of which
rested on the upper plate
during all mandibular move-
ments. (Reprinted with per-
mission.14)
62
References
1. Campion GG: Some graphic records of movements of the
mandible in the living subject and their bearing on the
mechanism of the joint and the construction of articulators.
Dent Cosmos 1905;47:39-42
2. Bennett NG: A contribution to the study of movements of
the mandible. J Prosthet Dent 1958;8:41-54
3. Gysi A: The problem of articulation (Part I). Dent Cosmos
1910;3:1-19
4. Gysi A: The problem of articulation (Part II). Dent Cosmos
1910;3:148-169
5. Gysi A: The problem of articulation (Part III). Dent Cosmos
1910;3:268-283
6. Gysi A: The problem of articulation (Part IV). Dent Cosmos
1910;3:403-418
7. Gysi A: Dental Articulator. US Patent No. 1,041,270. Octo-
ber 15, 1912
8. Starcke EN: The history of articulators: The appearance and
early use of the incisal pin and guide. J Prosthodont 2001;
10:52-60
9. Clapp GW (ed): Prosthetic Articulation. New York, NY, The
Dentists’ Supply Company, 1914
10. Clapp GW, Tench RW (eds): Professional Denture Service.
New York, NY, The Dentists’ Supply Company, 1918
11. Hillyer E: Development of the anatomical articulator. Dent
Cosmos 1913;55:989-1005
12. Swenson MG (ed): Complete Dentures (ed 1). St. Louis,
MO, Mosby, 1940
13. McCollum BB: Fundamentals involved in prescribing restor-
ative dental remedies. Dent Items Interest 1939;61:522-535
14. McCollum BB, Stuart CE (eds): A Research Report (ed 1).
South Pasadena, CA, Scientific Press, 1955