Journal of Building Engineering: Darssni Ravichandran, Prabhat Ranjan Prem, Senthil Kumar Kaliyavaradhan, P.S. Ambily

Journal of Building Engineering 57 (2022) 104922
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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe
Influence of fibers on fresh and hardened properties of Ultra High

Performance Concrete (UHPC)—A review
Darssni Ravichandran, Prabhat Ranjan Prem ∗, Senthil Kumar Kaliyavaradhan,
P.S. Ambily
CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, Taramani, Chennai 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is one of the recently emerging technologies in the
Ultra High Performance Concrete construction industry. The strain hardening behavior, ductility, and toughness in UHPC are
Fibers primarily contributed by the presence of the fibers. The major considerations adopted for the
Workability
selection of fiber are: material properties should be compatible; fiber–matrix interaction must
Rheology
be sufficient to transmit stresses, and the aspect ratio must be optimal to ensure efficient
Compressive strength
Tensile strength
post-cracking behavior. The efficiency of fibers is mainly dependent on their nature, fiber
Durability combination, fiber orientation, fiber mechanical properties, and fiber geometry. As detailed
aforementioned, multiple criteria need to be satisfied for judicious selection of fibers. In view
of the same, a critical review is presented in this study to provide a ready reference to the
stakeholders regarding the effect of the fiber on the fresh and hardened properties of UHPC. In
the first part, the fiber-to-binder interaction mechanism, geometrical and strength properties of
metallic, inorganic, polymeric, carbon, and hybrid fibers adopted in UHPC are detailed. In the
second part, the impact of fibers dosage and geometry is studied on workability, rheology,
microstructure, compressive strength, tensile strength, and durability properties. Based on
the findings, future potential applications, current challenges, and an overall summary are
presented.
1. Introduction
The construction industry have acknowledged Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) as a revolutionary material. UHPC’s
features enable state-of-the-art technology for construction of bridges, roads, facades, wind concrete towers, repair and retrofit of
damaged structures, or in applications requiring higher design criteria, ductility, and durability [1–7]. The commercial availability
of UHPC in a number of countries like Austria [8], Canada [9], New Zealand, Australia [10], Germany, U.S.A [11,12], Italy [13],
France [14], Malaysia [15], Netherlands, Japan [16] and, Slovenia [17] have propelled its application for building construction,
infrastructure, and architectural domains. The global size of the UHPC market according to Grand View Research’s market research
was evaluated at USD $892 million in 2016 and is predicted to increase to USD $1867.3 million in 2025 [18]. Currently, several
private and government agencies aim to achieve sustainable construction with the application of UHPC [19,20]. UHPC mixes
have a minimum compressive strength of 150 MPa [21–23]. The key principles for producing UHPC are the elimination of coarse
aggregate, microstructure enhancement by heat curing, optimization of the granular mixture, addition of steel fibers for ductility,
densification of the cementitious matrix through vibration, and post/pre pressurizing. UHPC promotes environmentally friendly
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: prabhat@serc.res.in (P.R. Prem).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104922
Received 4 May 2022; Received in revised form 25 June 2022; Accepted 4 July 2022
Available online 6 July 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Ravichandran et al. Journal of Building Engineering 57 (2022) 104922
Table 1
Chronological advancement of ultra high performance cement composites from 1985s to the date.
Reference Year 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 [MPa] Name Remarks
[42] 1987 100 HPFRCC Steel fibers adopted for strain hardening
[43] 1992 – ECC Synthetic fibers incorporated for strain hardening
[44] 1994 > 150 UHPC Particle packing models proposed for optimization
[45] 1995 up to 800 RPC Basic principles proposed for mix development
[46] 1998 up to 200 DUCTAL First commercially available product
[47] 2000 up to 200 UHP-FRC Multi scale concept proposed
[48] 2004 – UHPC First International symposium on UHPC
[49] 2005 up to 140 CARDIFRC Proposed CARDIFRC as trade name for HPFRCC
[50] 2006 – UFC Japanese recommendation on UFC structures
[21] 2011 up to 290 UHP- FRC Developed UHPC without heat curing
[51] 2013 > 117 UHPC NPCA guidelines to UHPC elements
[22] 2016 150 UHPC The North American Structural Design Guide
[52] 2016 – UHPFRC AFNOR - National addition to Eurocode 2 for UHPFRC
[23] 2016 > 150 UHPFRC French Design standards
[53] 2016 − UHPC KoreanL-UHPC (KUHPC) design guidelines for bridge application
[54] 2017 > 120 UHPC UHPC guidelines developed based on Canadian
[55] 2017 120 UHPC Procedures for lab and field scale testing
[56] 2022 145 UHPC Developmental specification for UHPC connections
building by lowering material consumption and extending the service life of structures/components with minimal maintenance.
Over the last two decades, substantial research on UHPC design and development have been conducted around the world.
Table 1 lists a few of the important milestones related to the development of UHPC. Several studies also coin UHPC as ultra-
high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), high-performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCC &
CARDIFRC), reactive powder concrete (RPC), engineered cementitious composites (ECC), etc., The information regarding selection
of supplementary cementitious materials [24], mix design [25], hydration & microstructure [26], durability [27], application in
bridge engineering [28], rheology [29] have been critically reviewed. UHPC mix have a high particle packing density of solid
particles (0.825–0.855), low water-to-binder (w/b = 0.15–0.25) ratio, and high fiber volume dosage (2%–5%) [1,2,30–32]. The
presence of a dense matrix prevents the rapid ingress of carbon dioxide, sulfate, chloride and lead to very good durability [4,33].
Even though UHPC have exceptionally high strength, ductility, and durability, the material’s initial cost is significant. To lower
the cost of UHPC, numerous investigations in the literature have been carried out to develop UHPC without the need for special
curing conditions such as steam, heat, or pressure. Many studies have used coarse aggregates, alternate binders, and fine aggregate
materials to develop a sustainable mix. The modern UHPC comprises of (i) reduced use of silica fume (< 200 kg∕m3 ) and cement
content (< 850 kg∕m3 ) (ii) additional cementitious materials, such as limestone, rice husk, fly ash [5,34–36] (iii) replacement of
fine quartz sand with traditional concrete sand, slag etc., [37] (iv) replacing the steel fiber content by hybrid fiber system [38,39]
(v) adopting the standard curing methods to reduce consumption of energy [3,40,41].
The presence of fibers is a crucial factor that influences mechanical characteristics, creep, shrinkage, and cost. It improves
ductility, tensile strength, and energy absorption. In today’s UHPC, a variety of fibers are used based on their strength, size, and
shape. In structural design, fiber orientation, volume fraction, combination, and geometry all play a significant influence. Hence,
understanding the impact of fibers is critical for the growth of UHPC in large-scale applications. The current study explores: how
different types of fibers affect the workability, compression strength, tension strength, and durability of UHPC. This research has
not yet been fully examined, to our knowledge, and serves as the study’s impetus.
2. Review methodology
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (PRISMA) is adopted in the current study to
identify relevant research articles [57]. Based on the PRISMA guidelines, articles search criteria, inclusion, exclusion, quality criteria,
data extraction, and methods of synthesis are identified. The relevant research articles are examined in a structured manner via the
Scopus search engine which is extensively used for engineering research. The search categories are i) Fiber-reinforced Ultra High
Performance Concrete, ii) Several varieties of fibers used in UHPC, and (iii) Fresh and Hardened Properties. The individual key
terms within each block are combined with the boolean operator “OR”. The search keywords are further filtered by searching
through author keywords or indexed keywords. Each search block is then searched individually, and the search block results are
incorporated with the Boolean operator “AND”. The Scopus search is conducted in October 2021. (see Fig. 1(a)), describes the
country-wise publication on UHPC. It is found to be highest in China followed by the United States and South Korea. The pie
chart given in (see Fig. 1(b)), represents the number of articles, conference papers, book chapters, and review papers on UHPC.
The publications (see Fig. 1(c)) during the last 10 years (2012–2021) have an increasing trend for research on the application of
varieties of fibers in UHPC. With the help of Scopus search (((“uhpc”OR “ultra high performance concrete”) AND (“fiber”OR “fiber”)
AND (“steel fiber”OR “inorganic fiber”OR “carbon fiber”OR “polymeric fiber”OR “hybrid fiber”))), the number of paper-based on
the effect of fibers on UHPC are found to be 698. The number of articles after duplicates removal is 422. The filtering method is
the evaluation of (i) Title-Abstract-Keywords and (ii) publication language (English). The articles found after further screening the
scope of the review paper is found to be 213.
2
Fig. 1. Scopus search analysis.
The experimental data and observations reported in these articles are extracted and categorized. The articles are categorized
based on a fresh property (“Rheology”and “Workability”) and hardened properties (“Compressive strength”, “microstructure”,
“durability”,“tensile strength”) of fiber-reinforced UHPC. Both the categories are further classified into different groups (“Fiber type”,
“Fiber shape”, “Fiber content”, “Fiber length”, and “Fiber combination”). The term fiber combination represents the application of
hybrid fiber reinforcement in UHPC. Fig. 2 represents the flowchart adopted for analysis of the search results.
3. Fibers in UHPC
3.1. Fibers
3.1.1. Fiber interaction in cementitious composites

The selection of fiber for UHPC is very critical to impart strength, stiffness, and ductility. It plays a more role to enhance post-peak
ductility, toughness, and fracture energy. The reaction of UHPC against mechanical loading is improved with the incorporation of
fiber and can be distinguished by evaluating peak stress and toughness (see Fig. 3). It promotes multiple cracking, strain hardening
behavior, and prevents crack propagation. The functionality of fiber depends upon tensile strength, length, and diameter [58]. The
bridging stress caused due to fiber siding, fiber pull out and de-bonding reaction increase the fracture energy. In general, the behavior
of UHPC accounting fiber reinforcement can be predicted using stress versus crack width relationships [59–63]. The fiber–matrix
link, the volume of fiber, geometrical design, aspect ratio fiber, and orientation/distribution of fiber all have an impact on fiber’s
ability to offset strain localization. A superior flexural strength is demonstrated by the presence of straight steel fibers in UHPC,
whereas better pullout and cracking resistance is exhibited by twisted and curvilinear steel fibers [64–66]. On the basis of shape and
nature, the fibers are widely categorized into four groups: i) discontinuous fiber (diameter of short fiber in the range of 3 - 5 μm),
ii) continuous fiber (e.g. monofilament fiber), iii) particulates iv) whiskers (generally short and having low aspect ratio). Based on
the inter-filament configurations, the fibers are categorized into mono-filament and multi-filament fibers. The monofilament fibers
3
Fig. 2. Flow chart of scopus search results..
are carbon, steel, glass, PVA, linen, sisal, etc., [25,67,68]. The multi-filament fibers are further sub-categorized into (i) woven (e.g.
cotton fabric, glass mat etc.,) [25,69,70] and (ii) non-woven fibers (e.g. cotton, flax, luffa, PP etc.,) [25,70]. The other category of
fibers is cellulosic which includes sisal, flax, pulp, bamboo, sugarcane, jute, etc., [25,67,70]. These fibers are non-toxic, renewable
as well as biodegradable. The details of the fibers are given in Table 2 [25,67,68,70].
Steel fibers with a hooked end and spiral-shaped fibers have better compressive and tensile strength under dynamic and static
loading conditions. For the fiber matrix comprising wavy steel fibers, Singh et al. [73] observed a 32.05% increase in tensile
strength. For polypropylene and other synthetic fibers, surface treatment is used to improve mechanical anchoring and fiber binder
bonding. Other ways to improve bonding include hooked anchorage, crimping, surface indentations, corrugated surface, buttons,
longitudinal variance over the length, and fibers bundling. It is also found that short fibers or single-crystal whiskers, which
have a large specific surface area and bigger diameter of fibers, are more likely to have flaws, cracks, and faults. For such cases,
reduced fiber diameter is found to improve fiber strength and modulus of elasticity. This phenomenon is demonstrated for inorganic
whiskers [67], inorganic materials [74], wires, PVA fiber [75,76], glass fiber [77], alumina fiber, polycaprolactone [78], rayon
graphite fiber [79], polyacrylonitrile (PAN) [75]. Fig. 4a indicates varieties of fibers with varied surface textures and geometrical
configurations. The failure of the UHPC matrix by fiber pull-out rather than fiber breaking gives better flexure capacity, bond
strength, and toughness [71,80]. In order to improve, interfacial bonding between the fibers and UHPC matrix surface-modified
steel fibers is also recommended. The different types of surface treatment methods are chemical treatment (Zinc phosphating,
acid and acetone washing, nano-silica coating, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) electrolyte solution treatment) [81–83],
galvanization (brass or zinc alloy coating) [84] and oxidation [85]. For example, EDTA electrolyte solution treatment increases the
fiber surface roughness and enhances the fiber pullout resistance in the UHPC matrix by more than 80% compared to untreated steel
fibers [82,83]. Similarly, the acid and acetone washing treatment are effective methods because of its better cleansing effects [81].
3.1.2. Fiber orientation

The fresh and hardened properties of UHPC are greatly affected by the fiber orientation and distribution [86]. If the fibers are
aligned and dispersed in the direction of tensile stress, the fiber bridging is more effective in resisting external loads [86–88]. The
alignment of fibers in one dimension and along the loading plane is advantageous for members designed to resist bending and axial
load, but the random distribution of fibers will be critical for members subjected to bi-axial (e.g. - slab) or multi-axial loads [89]. The
cast UHPC in the direction of the tensile stress is said to enhance flexure capacity and resistance to quasi-static and impact loads.
Fiber alignment is diminished in specimens cast in a vertical direction (see Fig. 4b) [90,91]. Authors in other studies, however,
recommend casting at the center of the panels rather than at the edge or randomly to improve biaxial flexural performance [92,93].
The fiber orientation is influenced by extrusion of the mix, casting methods, electromagnetic field, wall effect of the form works,
and mix flowability [36,94]. For example, an increase in the plastic viscosity of the UHPC mix enhances the fiber orientation and
ultimately improves the porosity and durability [29]. Based on the orientation of fiber, a conductive network can be formed, which
enhances the self-sensing ability and decreases the electrical resistance of UHPC [95].
3.2. Fiber geometry
3.2.1. Longitudinal reinforcement cross section and geometry

Individual fibers are available in a variety of geometric forms and sizes. If the production procedures allow, pre-deforming the
fibers to give mechanical anchoring is preferred [96,97]. Fibers can have a cylindrical, prismatic, or polygonal cross-section, with
corrugated or smooth surfaces. Paddles, buttons, hooks, or longitudinal deformation via crimping and twisting fibers can be provided
4
Fig. 3. (a) Comparison of fictitious crack in fiber and plain concrete; b) strain hardening behavior observed in UHPC c) fiber embedded length [58,71,72]..
to improve anchorage (see Fig. 4a). Fibers also come with polygonal, uneven, and variable cross-sections. This can have corrugated
or smooth surfaces. The cross-section is further categorized based on the structure like solid, tubular structure (e.g. hemp and flax
fiber), coated (e.g. zinc-coated fiber, copper-coated fiber, etc.) [98].
3.2.2. Efficient and equivalent diameter of fiber

The efficient diameter of fiber represents the minimum diameter across the length of fiber that carries the maximum load
capacity. For non-circular fibers, a prismatic circular cross-section of the same is denoted by an equivalent diameter.
3.2.3. Aspect ratio of fiber

The aspect ratio is represented by the ratio of the fiber’s length to its diameter. The aspect ratio of steel fibers, natural fibers,
and synthetic fibers are ranging from (20–100), (30–650), and (90–600), respectively (Refer Tables 3–5).
3.2.4. Fiber denier

The fiber denier, often known as a den, is the unit of measurement for fiber linear mass density. One denier is expressed in
g/9000 m and can be evaluated by Eq. (1). The pre and post-mix denier units aid the conversion of the bundled form of fiber to
single fibers during the mixing process. To estimate the distribution nature and number of fibers in cementitious composites the
post-mix denier fiber should be taken into account.
√
𝐷
𝑑=𝛼 (1)
𝜌
where,
𝐷 = fiber denier
𝜌 = specific gravity of fiber
𝑑 = equivalent diameter
𝛼 = 0.0120 or 0.0005 for 𝑑 in mm or in.
5
Fig. 4. (a) Shape of fibers & b) Fiber orientation in UHPC matrix.
Fig. 5. Different types of fibers used in UHPC [99]..
6
Table 2
Physical and mechanical properties of different varieties of fibers used in UHPC.
Material variety Fiber Density (g/cm3 ) Elongation (%) Modulus of elasticity (GPa) Tensile strength (GPa)
Metallic Steel 7.80 0.5–0.4 200–250 0.28–2.8
Asbestos 2.75 0.3–0.6 84–140 0.50–0.98
Inorganic Basalt 2.65–2.80 3–3.15 89–110 3–4.84
Glass 2.74 2.5–3.5 70–80 1.4–2.5
Aramid 1.44 2.1–4.5 60 −120 2.5–3.1
Acrylic 1.18 9–11 16–23 0.8–0.95
Polyvinyl Alcohol 1.30 6–17 60–120 2.5–3.1
Polyethylene 0.96 3–4 5–6 0.2–0.3
Synthetic
Polyester 1.38 11–15 6–18 0.73–1.2
Polyethylene terephthalate 1.3–1.4 11.2 3.1–10 0.42–0.45
Polypropylene 0.91 15–25 3.5 −11 0.3–0.77
Nylon 1.16 18–20 4.2–5.2 0.90–0.96
Sisal 1.34–1.45 3–5 13–26 0.28–0.75
Palm 1.36–1.46 – 0.60 0.02–0.06
Wool 1.30 – 3.50 0.16
Hemp 1.40–1.50 1–3.5 23.5–90 0.27–0.90
Natural
Kenaf 1.40 1.5–2.7 14.5–53 0.22–0.93
Coir 1.15–1.46 15–51.4 2.8–6 0.09–0.23
Flax fabric 1.50 – 50–70 0.5–1.5
Bagasse 1.30 1.10 17–27 0.22–0.29
Carbon based Carbon nanotube – – 1000–1800 11–63
3.3. Fiber types and varieties
The fibers are broadly classified into five categories which are metallic fiber, inorganic fiber, synthetic fiber, natural fiber, and
carbon fiber (see Fig. 5). Table 2 provides the details on the mechanical properties of fibers. The characteristic nature of every fiber
is discussed in the following.
3.4. Steel fiber
Since the advent of UHPC, steel fibers are most commonly used fiber for enhancing the tensile strength of the cementitious
matrix. Their widespread use is fueled by their commercial viability and superior mechanical qualities. Table 3 details the properties
of steel fibers. Based on the production method and material properties, ASTM A820-16 [100] classifies them into (a) cut sheet (b)
cold-drawn wire (c) mill cut fibers (d) melt-extracted, and (e) modified cold-drawn wire. The elongation and tensile strength range
from (0.5 to 3.5%) and (310 to 2850 MPa), respectively [101–104]. It is suggested to have a minimum average tensile strength of
steel fiber as 345 MPa. Although steel fibers are widely used, corrosion is a major stumbling block to their widespread use [105].
Metallic fibers are utilized in the form of stainless steel alloys such as ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and austenitic or by zinc/copper
coatings to circumvent this corrosion constraint [106,107]. From the Table 3, it is found that Young’s modulus of steel fiber is
around 210 GPa, while the tensile strength of steel fiber varies from (0.69–2.94 GPa). The fiber diameter and length range from
(0.15–0.3 mm) and (6–30 mm) respectively [108–111].
3.5. Inorganic fiber
Inorganic fibers are rich in silica and alumina. Due to huge melting points, these fibers are used especially in refractories. These
fibers are having very high tensile strength, good insulation, are chemically stable and economical [67,126]. The important inorganic
fibers are briefed in the following section.
3.5.1. Silica fibers

Silica fibers are metal oxide fibers that include a large proportion of silicon dioxide and are commercially divided into a chemical
glass (C - glass), structural glass (S-glass), electrical glass (E-glass), and alkali-resistant glass (AR-glass) fibers. In a high alkaline
environment, varieties of glass fibers are susceptible to deterioration. In such situations, the alkali-resistant glass fibers are employed
in the mix formulation of UHPC composites to tolerate the high alkaline environment [69,127].
3.5.2. Basalt fiber

Basalt fiber is another variety of low-cost inorganic fiber which is broadly used in the application of cementitious matrix. Basalt is
obtained from volcanic rocks by melting at 1500–1700 ◦ C [128]. It possesses inert behavior with outstanding thermal and durability
properties. The abrasion resistance of these fibers are very high due to their very high Mohr hardness (range 8–9) [129]. The
applications of basalt can be found in regions that are prone to acid attacks [130], and require resistance against high thermal
environments. The basalt cementitious matrix is found to resists various temperatures ranging from very low (−200 ◦ C) to high
temperature (700–800 ◦ C) [131].
7
Table 3
Mechanical properties of different types of steel fibers adopted in UHPC.
Reference Steel Fiber type and shape Fiber properties
Length Diameter Aspect ratio Density Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity
(mm) (mm) (g/cm3 ) (GPa) (GPa)
[112] High strength Steel 13 0.20 65 – 0.69–1 210
Straight steel 13 0.20 65 – – 2.6
Hooked steel 30 0.38 79 – – 2.9
[113]
High twisted steel 30 0.30 100 – – 2.1
Low Twisted steel 30 0.30 100 – – 3.1
[114] Smooth micro steel 13 0.20 65 7.8 2.5 200
[115] Steel 6, 13 0.16 37.5, 81.25 – 2 –
13 0.20 65 – – –
[116] Hybrid Steel micro
10 0.15 66.60 – – –
[117] Smooth steel 13 0.20 65 7.8 2.5 200
8 0.20 40 – > 2.85 –
[118] Copper coated Steel 12 0.20 60 – > 2.85 –
16 0.20 80 – > 2.85 –
Micro steel brass coated 6 0.16 37.50 7.17 2.250 –
[119]
Hooked end steel 30 0.55 55 7.85 1.345 –
Micro steel Smooth 13 0.20 65 7.9 2.94 –
Micro steel Spiral 13 0.20 59 7.9 2.86 –
[120]
Micro steel Hooked A 13 0.20 59 7.9 2.94 –
Macro 30 0.60 50 7.9 1.89 –
Short straight steel (SS) 13 0.20 65 7.9 2.788 200
Medium length straight steel (SM) 19.5 0.20 97.5 7.9 2.5 200
[121] Long Straight steel (SL) 30 0.30 100 7.9 2.580 200
Long hooked steel (HL) 30 0.38 80 7.9 2.5 200
Long twisted steel ( TL) 30 0.30 100 7.9 2.428 200
[122] Steel 12.7 0.20 63.5 – – –
Smooth 13 0.20 65 7.9 2.940 210
[94] Hooked - A 20 0.25 80 7.9 2.860 210
Hooked - B 20 0.35 57 7.9 2.81 210
[108] Straight steel 13 0.16 – – – –
[109] Hooked Steel 30 0.50 60 7.8 0.850 –
[123] Straight high strength steel 13 0.20 65 – 1.9 203
[124] High strength hooked end steel 30 0.38 78.9 – – 201
Straight steel 30 0.30 100 7.9 2.580 200
[110]
Twisted steel 30 0.30 100 7.9 2.428 200
Steel 13 0.22 59.09 – – –
[111]
Hooked steel 16 0.20 80 – 2.8 –
[125] 13 0.19 68.42 – 2.2 200
High strength brass coated micro steel
6 0.13 20 – 2.2 200
3.6. Polymeric fibers
Polymer is a category of synthetic or natural material, comprising of a large chain of continual monomer units, which are
bonded together with well-built intermolecular interaction amount them [132]. Based on the nature of the chain of monomers, the
polymers are categorized into crystalline, semi-crystalline, and amorphous polymers [133]. In addition to that, the polymers can be
also classified into natural and synthetic fibers based on their manufacturing process and natural source. The rigidity, mechanical
properties, surface roughness, and environmental stability of the polymers can be improved by increasing the crystalline nature of
polymers.
3.6.1. Natural polymer

In order to develop sustainable mixes, cellulosic fibers like hemp, jute, sisal, bagasse, and kenaf are also employed for design of
UHPC [134].
Table 4 details the properties of natural fibers. The advantages of cellulosic fibers are their low cost, nontoxic behavior,
biodegradable, and bio-renewable properties with zero carbon footprint, and capability to recycle. Strength, toughness, stiffness,
and low density are all desirable mechanical and physical attributes of these fibers. The limitations of these fibers are low durability
strength and bond strength [134,135]. From the Table 4, it is found that the various types of natural fibers are palm [136],
kortta [137], flax [137], wallostonite [138] etc., The natural fibers are having fiber lengths ranging from (3–30 mm) with a fiber
diameter of (0.013 - 1.1 μm). The natural fibers have higher tensile strength (0.02–4.84 GPa) and modulus of elasticity (35–303 GPa)
when compared with synthetic fibers ( Table 5).
3.6.2. Synthetic fiber

The majority of synthetic fibers are made from recycled plastic. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), poly-
oxymethylene (POM), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are the most often utilized synthetic polymer fibers in
8
Table 4
Properties of natural fiber adopted in UHPC.
Reference Types of natural fiber Fiber properties
[136] Palm 30 – – – 0.02 –
[139] Cellulose 2.3 0.016 143.75 1.1 0.3 35
[39] Basalt 12 0.012 1000 2.65 2.1 100
[138] Wallostonite 3 0.1 30 3 – 303–530
[140] Basalt 6 0.013 461.54 – 4.84 –
[137] Flax 12 0.04–0.08 300–150 1.2–1.4 – –
Barchip 30 1.10 27.27 – 0.55 –
Kortta 30 0.50 60 – 0.55 –
[141] Basalt 12 0.016–0.018 750–666.67 2.8 2.4–4.8 –
Table 5
Physical and mechanical properties of different types of synthetic fibers used in UHPC.
Reference Types of synthetic fiber Fiber property
[39] Polyvinyl Alcohol 12 0.04 300 1.3 1.1 41
[39] Polyethylene 18 0.012 1500 0.97 2.7 88
[152] Polyethylene 18 0.012 1500 0.97 2.7 88
[153] Polypropylene 12 0.025 480 0.9 0.35 3.5
[154] Polypropylene 12 0.040–0.060 300–200 – 0.55–0.6 –
[140] Polyvinyl Alcohol 6 0.024 250 1.3 1.6 –
[146] Polypropylene 10 0.0031 3226 0.91 >0.4 >3.5
[155] Polypropylene 12 0.025 480 0.9 0.35 –
[156] Polypropylene 12 0.012 1000 – – –
[147] Polyvinyl Alcohol 6 0.015 400 1.3 1.2 –
[147] Polyethylene 18 0.03–0.032 562.5–600 0.96 2.9–3.16 –
[157] Polypropylene 12 0.03 400 – – –
[158] Polypropylene 12 0.03 400 0.91 >0.5 >5
[147] Short Polypropylene 6 0.021 285.71 0.91 >0.4 >1.4
[147] Long Polypropylene 19 0.03 633.3 0.91 0.3–0.75 1.4 −2.2
[159] Polypropylene 19 0.02 950 – – –
[147] Nylon 9 0.16–0.28 321.4–562.5 1.1 0.75–0.9 3.9–4.9
[148] Polypropylene 12 0.05 240 0.9 0.3 –
[160] Micro Polyvinyl Alcohol 6 0.013 461.53 1.3 – 29.5
[149] STRUX 90/40 1.55 0.017 90 – 0.090 –
[161] Polyvinyl Alcohol 12 0.031 387.09 0.9 >0.4 >3.5
[162] Polyethylene 12 0.024 500 0.97 0.3 88
[142] Polyoxymethylene 13 0.2 65 1.5 – 8.5
cementitious composites [132,142]. Table 5 details the information about these fibers. In general synthetic fibers are economical,
disperse easily in the mix, and due to their inert nature suitable for alkaline conditions [143]. However, the major drawbacks
of these fibers are their poor modulus of elasticity, low thermal resistance, and weak interfacial bonding with cementitious
composites [144–149]. Among the synthetic fibers, POM fiber is found to possess high tensile strength, a better resistance at
elevated temperatures, excellent toughness, and are chemically stable. The creep behavior of POM is higher than stainless steel and
carbon fiber [142,150,151]. POM fibers have less air entertainment and excellent dispersion which minimizes the adverse effect on
mechanical properties of concrete compared with other synthetic fibers. Overall, the diameter and length of synthetic fibers range
from (12–40 μm) and (6–18 mm) respectively. The tensile strength lies between (0.3–2.7 GPa) while the modulus of elasticity ranges
between (40–120 GPa).
3.7. Carbon fibers
Among all the reinforcing fibers, carbon fibers have the highest strength, toughness and are lightweight. It possesses high elastic
modulus, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansion. It is also chemically inert and thermally stable [163]. Due to high elasticity,
carbon fibers have excellent resistance against fatigue loading [164]. They are broadly divided based on their elastic modulus. The
categories are :(i) tensile to low (<200 GPa), (ii) fashionable (200–230 GPa), (iii) intermediate (230–300 GPa) (iv) excessive (>350
GPa) and (v) ultra-excessive (>600 GPa). Based on geometrical parameters the carbon fibers are further classified into polymeric
carbon and carbon nanofibers [165]. The carbon fibers are having a fiber diameter of 5–10 μm. The tensile strength (3–7 GPa) and
modulus of elasticity (200–500 GPa) are found to be comparatively higher compared with steel fiber (refer Table 3) [166–168].
9
3.8. Hybrid fiber
The combined application of multiple type of fibers with distinct forms or volume fractions is referred to as a hybrid combination.
The synergistic impact of fiber is found when multiple forms of fiber are combined [39,139,157,175]. Most of the studies have
adopted combination of rigid and flexible fiber. A hybrid combination of (i) steel, kortta, and bar chip fibers exhibit higher
flexural toughness (ii) PP fiber, carbon, and glass fibers decrease the chloride ingress [178] (iii) Ny and PP fiber improve the
fire resistance [147] (iv) macro and micro straight steel fibers increases normalized pullout energy and bond strength [180] (v)
steel and PE improves the energy absorption and strain hardening capacity [181]. Table 6 shows the different hybrid combinations
of fibers adopted in the literature.
Table 6
Physical and mechanical properties of Hybrid fibers used in UHPC.
Reference Type Fiber properties
Carbon 5 0.007 714.28 1.60 2.50 240
[169]
Steel 30 0.500 60.00 7.80 1.50 200
Palm 30 – – – 0.0212 –
[136] Barchip 30 – – – 0.55 8.2
Steel 30 0.56 54 – >1.1 –
Polypropylene 15 0.10 150 0.90 0.80 0.9
Hooked end steel 30 0.50 60 7.85 1.20 –
[139]
Double deformed steel 30 0.50 60 7.85 1.15 –
Cellulose 2.3 0.016 143.75 1.10 0.30 –
Steel 16.3, 19.5 0.20 81.5, 97.5 7.80 2.50 200
Basalt 12 0.012 1000 2.65 2.10 100
[39]
Polyvinyl Alcohol 12 0.040 300 1.30 1.10 41
Polyethylene 18 0.012 1500 0.97 2.70 88
Steel 16.3, 19.5 0.20 81.50 7.80 2.50 200
[152]
Polyethylene 18 0.012 1500 0.97 2.70 88
Steel 18 – – 7.90 1.150 200
[170]
Carbon 10 – – 1.83 3 276
Hooked end steel 50 1 50 7.80 1.10 200
[153]
Polypropylene 12 0.025 480 0.90 1.10 3.5
Polypropylene 12 0.025 480 – – 3.5
[171]
Hooked-end steel 50 1 50 – 1.10 200
Carbon Nano Tube 0.01 15 (nm) 667 1.20 11–63 270–950
[172]
Steel 13 0.20 65 7.90 2.50 200
Straight steel 13 0.20 65 – 1.90 203
[173] Hooked-end steel 30 0.50 60 – 1.90 203
PVA 8 0.038 210.52 – 1.40 –
Straight steel 65 13 0.20 65 7.90 2.788 200
Straight steel 97.5 19.5 0.20 97.5 7.90 2.500 200
[174]
Twisted steel 100 30 0.30 100 7.90 2.580 200
Carbon nanotube 0.01 1.5*10− 6 667 1.20 11–63 270–950
Copper coated steel 16 0.20 80 – 2.20 –
[159]
Polypropylene 19 0.02 950 – – –
Polypropylene 12 0.013 923.07 – – –
[158]
Steel 13 0.22 59.09 – 2 –
Straight steel 19.5 0.20 97.5 – – –
Polypropylene 6 0.021 285.71 – 4 –
[147] Polyvinyl Alcohol 6 0.021 285.71 – 1.20 –
Polyethylene 18 0.03–0.032 600–562.5 – 2.9–3.16 –
Nylon 9 0.016–0.028 562.5–321.42 – 0.75–0.9 –
Straight steel 13 0.20 65 7.85 0.96 –
[175]
Polypropylene 13 0.018 722 0.91 0.57–0.66 –
Straight steel 12 0.20 60 7.85 2.80 200
[176]
Polypropylene 8, 13.4, 19 0.048 167, 280, 396 0.91 0.40 4
Straight Steel 20 0.40 50 7.80 – –
[177] Hooked steel 30 0.70 43 7.80 – –
Polypropylene 0.018 330 0.91 – –
Steel 13 0.22 59.09 7.80 2 –
[137]
Flax 12 0.04–0.08 300–150 1.2–1.4 – –
Steel 25 0.70 35.71 – 1.15 –
Barchip 30 1.10 27.27 – 0.55 –
Kortta 30 0.50 60 – 0.55 –
[178]
Glass 12 0.017 705.88 – 1.50 –
Carbon 7 0.010 700 – 2.50 –
Polypropylene 12 0.018 666.66 – 0.40 –
[179] Recycled tyre steel 11.6 0.22 52.72 – 2.50 –
10
Fig. 6. Effect of different fiber dosage on slump flow of UHPC..
4. Effect of fibers on fresh properties
4.1. Workability
The workability of UHPC can be evaluated using flowability test (ASTM C230) [182], slump test (ASTM C143) [183], the time
required to pass the V-funnel (EFNARC-2002) [184] or rheological measurements of plastic viscosity and yield stress [185]. A
progressive increase in the material’s yield stress causes the material’s workability to deteriorate. The presence of fibers improves
the mechanical strength of UHPC, but an excessive dosage of the same reduces the workability and aids the development of voids,
cracks, fissures, and honeycombing. It is dependent on surface contact between the cementitious matrix and fibers and affected by
dosage, fiber aspect ratio, fiber equivalent diameter, etc., [68,186–189] If, the dosage of fibers in the cementitious composites is
increased above critical concentrations, the fibers tend to scatter unevenly, forming lumps, and even self-compacting UHPC mixes
cannot flow through a clogged fiber network [118,190]. Hence, to balance the fresh and mechanical qualities, careful selection of
fiber type and the dose is essential. Fig. 6 shows the variation of workability for the UHPC mix having different fibers.
The influence of several types of fibers, such as steel (micro, macro, long, hooked end, corrugated, smooth) and synthetic fibers
(PVA, PE, PP, Nylon) fibers, on the flowability of UHPC is shown in Table 7. Slump cone, mini cone, and flow table tests are
used to investigate the workability [88,118,120,124,136,148,160,190–194]. The corrugated and hooked end steel fibers have lesser
workability compared to straight fibers due to an increase in the internal friction between fibers and aggregates [88,120,192,195–
197]. The inclusion of 1% volume fraction of macro steel fibers provides a significant improvement in fluidity [124]. However, a
further increase in steel fiber dosage creates a coherent force between the matrix and the fibers. These forces lead to the higher
specific weight of macro steel fibers, due to increased air content reduction in the inter particular frictions [196]. The short fibers do
not affect the workability property of concrete as much as the long fibers. A large volume fraction of short brass coated steel fibers
balances the strength and workability [193]. Because of the following reasons, steel fibers have an impact on the workability of
fibered UHPC [196,198,199]: (i) rigid fibers adjust the granular skeleton and push away particles that are relatively larger compared
to the length of the fibers (ii) steel fibers with deformed shapes develop anchorage with the cementitious matrix (iii) increased
surface area of the fiber increases the cohesive forces. The optimal dosage of fibers suggested for fibered UHPC lies in the range
is 0.2%–2% [124,125,148]. It should be noted that the flow decreases from 650 mm to 550 mm when a 2% steel fiber dosage is
added to a plain UHPC mix. Hence the mix should be designed adequately . It is observed that if the stiff steel fibers are substituted
with a hybrid combination of palm and bar chip fiber, the flow can be improved [136]. Based on the dosage of silica fume (15%
to 40%) and PVA fibers (0 to 1.2%), the dynamic flow of the mix similarly lowers (up to 11 %) [160]. Microfibers such as nylon
absorb the water in the mix and lessen the slump [200]. The hydrophobic characteristic of PP fibers allows them to absorb the least
amount of water from the UHPC mix. Overall, it is observed that increasing fiber dosage reduces workability, hence choosing the
right water/binder ratio is critical for achieving the desired mix qualities.
4.2. Rheology
The rheological properties of UHPC composites, such as plastic viscosity, are principally responsible for the orientation and
dispersion of fibers. The effect of including different fibers such as straight, hooked end, polyvinyl alcohol, circular, polyethylene
terephthalate, macro and micro on the yield stress and plastic viscosity is given in Table 8. With the increase in viscosity of the mix,
the fiber dispersion coefficient also increases linearly. Steel fibers show fiber segregation in the suspended mortar at low viscosity
11
Table 7
Effect of varieties of fiber dosage on the slump flow of UHPC.
Reference W/C (W/B*) Fiber type Fiber length (mm) Fiber content (%) Flow (mm)
[190] 0.27 (0.25*) Steel 25 0 780
0.08 730
0.12 715
0.52 700
[136] – Steel 30 2 550
Steel + Palm 30 + 30 1.75 + 0.25 555
Steel + Palm 1 + 1 585
Steel + Palm +Barchip 30 + 30+ 30 1.5 + 0.25+ 0.25 570
Steel + Palm +Barchip 1 + 0.50+ 0.50 580
[196] 0.23 Long steel 2 288
long steel +short steel 0.5 + 1.5 300
Short steel 2 283
[118] – Steel 8 1 800
6 740
12 1 790
6 730
16 1 780
6 705
[120] – Microsmooth steel 13 1.75 205
Microspiral steel 13 1.75 365
Microhooked A 13 1.75 210
Macrohooked B 30 1.75 470
[88] 0.18* Straightsteel 0 198.15
1 145.17
3 61.034
Corrugatedsteel 0 200
1 138.21
3 45.17
Hookedend steel 0 199.75
1 128.30
3 22.88
[192] – – 0 248
Long steel 13 2 227
Long steel +short steel 13 + 6 1.5 + 0.5 235
Long steel +short steel 1 + 1 239
Short steel 6 2 223
[193] 0.22 Straight steel 7 1 270
3 255
5 225
0.22 Hookedend steel 13 2 250
0.22 Hookedend steel 35 2 240
[124] 0.135* Hookedend steel 30 0 410
1 695
2 315
[194] – Polypropylene 6 1.5 188
Barchip 50 1.5 190
Steel 35 1.5 198
[160] 0.17* Polyvinylalcohol 6 0 214
0.3 209
0.6 203
0.9 200
1.2 194
[148] 0.19* Steel +Polypropylene 13 + 12 0.5 + 0.03 255
Steel +Polypropylene 1 + 0.06 257
Steel +Polypropylene 0.75 + 0.03 260
Steel +Polypropylene 0.75 + 0.09 255
Steel +Polypropylene 1 + 0.09 250
[200] – Plain – 0 243
Nylon 4.5 1 179
4.5 2 103
Polypropylene 48 1 226
48 2 215
Polyvinylalcohol 6 1 211
6 2 189
Steel 13 1 236
13 2 224
12
Table 8
Effect of fiber dosage on the rheological properties of UHPC.
Reference W/C (W/B*) Fiber type Fiber content (%) Fiber length Plastic viscosity (Pa.s) Yield stress (Pa)
[201] 0.23* Micro steel 2 13 20 14
[34] Straight steel 2 13 20 14
2 36 16
2 60 19
2 78 20
2 112 26
[172] 0.2* Straight steel 0 13 35 –
1 40 –
2 45 –
3 55 –
4 62 –
5 70 –
Hooked end + straight steel 0.5 + 1.5 30 + 13 50 –
1 + 1 58 –
1.5 + 0.5 63 –
Hooked end steel 2 30 66 –
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) 2 8 56 –
[202] 0.20* Straight steel 0 13 10 28
1 36 23
2 52 26
3 66 29
[205] – Without steel 0 – 100 4
Waved steel 1 13 100 4
End hooks steel 1 13 143 7
Waved 1 17 170 13
Straight steel 2 10 – –
circular steel 2 10 – -
Waved steel 2.5 13 155 5
End hooks steel 2.5 13 246 10
Waved steel 2.5 17 347 15
[204] 0.24* Macro steel 0 13 10.24 38.43
0.5 8.36 36.52
1 6.57 35.38
1.5 11.49 63.56
2 13.18 69.24
Macro + micro steel 0.9 + 0.1 13 + 8 10.87 170.52
0.85 + 0.15 8.82 159.97
0.8 + 0.2 12.45 181.45
[203] 0.26* Macro steel 0 13 11.06 39.25
1.5 11.49 63.56
2 13.18 69.24
2.5 18.91 78.52
3 21.34 86.74
Macro + Micro steel 1.4 + 0.1 13 + 8 13.85 66.45
1.3 + 0.2 16.94 70.14
1.2 + 0.3 19.48 74.31
1.1 + 0.4 19.81 74.64
of UHPC mortar. However, when 1% Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA) is added to the UHPC mix, fiber distribution and orientation
improve significantly. Further, it is found that the fibers are in an aggregation state, as VMA is increased to 2% [201]. VMA like
Welan Gum powder with a dosage of 0.18% increases the plastic viscosity by 260% [202]. The inclusion of 2% macro steel fiber
in sulphoaluminate cement-based mixes raises the yield stress (see Fig. 7). If the dosage of macro steel fiber is low, the steel fibers
self-organize along the mixing direction and increase the yield stress. The macro steel fiber have a smooth surface texture which
enables the capability to break the flocculation structures [203]. Similarly, when the percentage of steel fiber increases, the fiber
network structure expands and increases the yield stress [204]. Steel fiber dosages of 2 to 5% enhance plastic viscosity by up to 55%.
The addition of PVA fibers and hooked end fiber (0.5 to 2%) raises the viscosity by 25% and 45%, respectively. Fiber agglomeration
happens when the dosage of steel fiber in the UHPC mix is increased, making casting and mixing increasingly difficult [173]. The
steady increase in the content of fiber leads to an increase in plastic viscosity and decreases the workability of mixes. Hooked-end
steel fibers with an increase in aspect ratio and volume fraction of more than 1% cause a negative effect on the fresh properties.
The use of circular fiber decreases the yield stress and plastic viscosity by nearly one-third of the straight steel fiber. To attain better
workability, the use of circular steel fiber with a higher aspect ratio and fiber content is recommended [205].
5. Effect of fibers on hardened properties
Based on the studies presented above, it is found that steel fiber and synthetic fibers are the most commonly adopted fiber. This
is due to their mechanical properties, commercial viability, and ease of application. Hence, the effect of hardened properties is only
13
Fig. 7. Effect of fibers dosage on yield stress and plastic viscosity of UHPC.
limited to steel and synthetic fibers, only. In the following, details about effect of fibers on microstructure, compressive strength
and tensile strength is presented.
5.1. Effect of fibers on the micro-structure
Fig. 8 represents the surface morphology of the bond strength between steel fiber and UHPC matrix under standard curing
(22 ◦ C) and autoclave curing (190–200 ◦ C). From the microstructure analysis, it is observed that under standard curing conditions
the surface texture of steel fiber is smooth in the UHPC matrix while under autoclave curing, the residual cement pastes are coated
on the surface of steel fiber which causes strong bonding [206]. If the polypropylene fibers are present in the UHPC mix, the
creation of water film occurs at the interface causing weak bonding strength. Fig. 9 shows the breakage in polypropylene fibers
during pullout [171] . On exposure to elevated temperatures of 200 ◦ C, it is found that the PP fiber totally vanishes from the matrix
and a fiber tunnel is formed leading to the formation of micro-cracks in the radial direction of the fiber tunnel. The microcracks
have the ability to form an interconnected structure which increases the permeability of UHPC at high temperatures (see Fig. 10).
However, for the same scenario, no defect is formed, if steel fiber is present. There is a formation of microcracks due to thermal
incompatibility between the UHPC matrix and steel fibers, but it does not allow an increase in the permeability of the UHPC matrix
(see Fig. 10) [157].
5.2. Compressive strength
The response for compressive strength in brittle materials is based on its pore structure, brittleness, micro-crack distribution,
and density. In the presence of external compression load, the brittle matrix forms micro-cracks by undergoing non-resilient volume
expansion in the direction parallel to the load. During fiber crack bridging in the composite matrix, more energy is required to
remove the fiber and promote fracture propagation. Fiber stiffness, fiber count, fiber orientation, distribution, and fiber binder
bondage are all factors that influence the amount of energy required. With the improvement of fiber anchoring, fiber length, fiber
count, and surface texture of fibers, the interfacial bond between fiber and matrix steadily rises [192,197].
5.2.1. Test setup

Compressive strength is measured by subjecting cubes or cylinders to increasing compressive loads until they fail. For
conventional concrete, various criteria govern the loading rates and size of test specimens. These practices are generally adopted to
UHPC, with minor modifications [207]. The test specimen sizes are not similar. The size for the small cube and large cube range from
40 mm–50 mm and 100–150 mm, respectively [94,108,119,120,122,173,192,208–215]. Similarly, the cylindrical specimen sizes
varies from 50–150 mm diameter [118,120–123,208,216–221]. Due to variations in the sizes of the test specimen, size effect studies
have been taken up in various studies [222,223]. The size effect diminishes when compressive strength rises and is more affected by
the mix design. These issues are however not well documented in the literature, are complex, and have not been explored extensively
accounting for fiber reinforcement. In the majority of studies, the compressive strength is measured according to standard guidelines
available in ASTM C39 [224], Chinese code (GB/T 17671-1999), Korean guidelines (KS F 2405) [225,226] and Eurocode (EN 12390
- 3:2009 - 7) [227]. The Chinese code CECS 13:2009 & ASTM standard C1609 are standards available for fiber-reinforced concrete
and generally adopted by several researchers for UHPC. Few of the studies such as Swiss guidelines [228], French standards [229]
and ASTM C39/C39M [55] specify themselves as standards for UHPC testing, however this documents on further reference direct
to standard codes of conventional concrete [227,230].
14
Fig. 8. SEM images of steel fiber under (i) standard curing: (a) before pull out (b) after pull out (ii) autoclave curing: (c) before pull out (d) after pull out [206].
Fig. 9. SEM images of polypropylene fiber:(i) before pull out (left side image) (ii) after pull out (right side image) [171].
5.2.2. Effect of steel fibers

With the inclusion of (0%–3%) steel fiber in UHPC mixes, compressive strength is increased. The crack propagation is slowed as
the fiber dosage is increased [38,118]. By absorbing the increased stresses at the fiber’s tip, the homogeneously dispersed steel fibers
minimize matrix material degradation, and subsequent crack development, and therefore enhance compressive strength [120]. The
effect of different varieties of steel fibers in compressive strength is shown in (see Fig. 11). The legend for each data set contains the
reference number followed by a short abbreviation. In, (Fig. 11), the details of abbreviation are: SMS — smooth steel fiber, SF —
steel fiber, SSF — straight steel fiber, MSF — micro steel fiber, HSF — hooked end steel fiber. The stress between the cementitious
matrix and fiber gets reduced, and crack propagation speed is reduced with the formation of multiple and new cracks [231,232].
The steel fiber with a hooked end have a greater compressive strength than the straight steel fiber for the same UHPC matrix. By
anchoring, friction, and having a superior interlocking mechanism, the hooked-end fiber boosts bonding strength [142,233–236].
With a higher dosage of steel fiber (>3%), balling between the fibers or lumps of cement or fibers in the matrix takes place with a
non-uniform distribution [108,237]
5.2.3. Effect of synthetic fibers

With the increase in the dosage of synthetic fibers in UHPC matrix the compressive strength of the UHPC matrix reduce [155,238].
This is due to weak bond strength, and poor fiber bridging compared to steel fibers (see Fig. 12). In Fig. 12, the details of abbreviation
are: PE — polyethylene fiber and PP — polypropylene fiber. The increase in dosage of polypropylene fibers decreases the density
and increases the porosity of the UHPC matrix. Due to increased porosity poor void regions are formed through which the failure
starts to propagate [147]. Apart from this, a higher dosage of soft polypropylene fibers forms clusters, makes the matrix highly
porous, and drastically reduces the strength capacity. An efficient way to improve the toughness and compressive strength of the
15
Fig. 10. SEM images of UHPC matrix (i) with polypropylene fiber a) before (top left) and b) - after exposure to elevated temperature of 200 ◦ C (top right) (ii)
with steel fiber a) before (bottom left) and b) - after exposure to elevated temperature of 200 ◦ C (bottom right) [157].
Fig. 11. Effect of steel fiber dosage on compressive strength of UHPC..
UHPC matrix is by a hybrid combination of steel fiber and synthetic fiber [142,148,157,239]. The compressive strength of UHPFRC
is improved when nylon fibers are partially replaced (50%) with polypropylene fibers. The nylon fibers in comparison with PP fiber
have small lengths and a meager aspect ratio which aids uniform dispersion in the matrix. Nylon fibers are stronger than PP fibers,
and they have been proven to be more successful in bridging cracks and preventing fracture growth [162]. From Fig. 13, it is found
that, with the increase in dosage of LPP, SPP, and NyF with a combination of SF the compressive strength decreases. For the case
of PVA and PE fibers with SF, there is slight increase in the compressive strength with the increase of dosage of 0.1%. However
further increase in dosage it leads to poor matrix development and ultimately reduction of compressive strength. In Fig. 13, LPP,
SPP, SF, NyF, and PVA denote long polypropylene fiber, short polypropylene fiber, steel fiber, nylon fiber, and polyvinyl alcohol
fiber, respectively. For example, the legend LPP + 1.5%SF denotes the UHPC matrix constituting of long polypropylene fibers with
a 1.5 percent dosage of steel fiber.
16
Fig. 12. Effect of synthetic fiber dosage on compressive strength of UHPC.
Fig. 13. Effect of hybrid combination of steel and synthetic fiber dosage on compressive strength of UHPC.
5.2.4. Modeling approach

For determining the structural response of UHPC material under various loading circumstances a constitutive stress–strain model
is required. It is found that the constitutive models available for normal strength and high-strength concrete [248–252] are extended
for fiber-reinforced concrete and UHPC [68,253,254] by accounting fiber dosage and reinforcement index. Most of the compression
models for UHPC consider peak stress, peak strain, toughness index, post-peak inflection, and reinforcement index. The theoretical
model by [250] is generally calibrated with the stress–strain shape of UHPC, obtained during experiments [215]. The list of the
compression models for UHPC is given in Table 9. It is found that the rate of compression strength development in an untreated
UHPFRC can be obtained by Weibull Cumulative function. With increasing compression strength, the model predicts a drop in
pre-peak nonlinearity and a rise in post-peak strain capacity [240]. The stress–strain shape for UHPC is found to have similar
geometry even under subject to higher temperatures (20 ◦ C– 900 ◦ C) and can be predicted using two parameters 𝛼 and 𝛽. 𝛼 is the
proportion of initial tangent modulus and peak secant modulus while 𝛽 represents the shape of UHPC under plastic and brittle state.
The ascending portion having a higher linear response is obtained by quintic polynomial while the descending curve having a more
flatter slope is modeled using rational fraction fit [241]. In another study by the same authors [243], the initial tangent modulus,
secant modulus, and area of the descending component of the stress–strain response are recommended to estimate fire resistance
behavior and toughness. At high temperatures, the suggested model predicts thermal expansion, compressive strength, peak strain,
modulus of elasticity, and stress–strain curves. In the studies by [215], the UHPC properties are predicted by modifying [250] model
17
Table 9
Modeling approach’s for compressive strength of fiber reinforced UHPC.
Reference Material Compression Models Parameter
[ ( ( ) )]
[240] Steel fiber ′ = 𝑓 ′ 1 − exp − 𝑡−0.9 0.6
𝑓𝑐,𝑡 ′ = Compressive strength of untreated UHPFRC at
𝑓𝑐,𝑡
𝑐 3
time t;
𝑓𝑐′ = Compressive strength of untreated UHPFRC at
28th day; t = Time after casting (days).
⎧ ( )
𝑇 ◦ ◦
⎪0.99 + 0.60 ( 1000 ) , 20 C ⩽ 𝑇 ⩽ 120 C
⎪ 𝑇 ◦ ◦
⎪1.09 − 0.28 ( 1000 ) , 120 C ⩽ 𝑇 ⩽ 300 C
⎪ 𝑇 ◦ ◦
⎪2.29 − 4.28 1000 , 300 C ⩽ 𝑇 ⩽ 400 C
[241] Steel fiber 𝜎pT∕ ∕𝜎p = ⎨ ( ) 𝜎𝑝 , 𝜎𝑝𝑇 = RPC compressive strength under room
𝑇 ◦ ◦
⎪0.89 − 0.79 1000 , 400 C ⩽ 𝑇 ⩽ 600 C temperature and elevated temperature conditions; T -
⎪ ( )
𝑇 ◦ ◦ heating temperature
⎪2.14 − 2.86 1000 , 600 C ⩽ 𝑇 ⩽ 700 C
⎪ ( )
𝑇
⎪0.07 + 0.30 1000 , 700◦ C ⩽ 𝑇 ⩽ 900◦ C
⎩
( ) ( )2
⎡ 𝜀 +𝐵⋅ 𝜀 ⎤
⎢ 𝐴⋅ 𝜀 ⎥
𝑌 = 𝜎𝜎 = ⎢
𝑝 𝜀𝑝 𝐴⋅𝑋+𝐵⋅𝑋 2
[242] Micro steel fiber
⎢ ( ) ( )2 ⎥⎥ = X = Normalized strain; Y = Normalized strain;
𝑝 1+𝐶⋅𝑋+𝐷⋅𝑋 2 𝜖 = Strain at anywhere on the curve;
⎢ 1+𝐶⋅ 𝜀 +𝐷⋅ 𝜀 ⎥
⎣ 𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑝 ⎦ 𝜖𝑝 = Strain at peak point;
𝜎 = Stress at anywhere on the curve;
𝜎𝑝 = Stress at peak point; A,B,C,D = Constants can be
found from the boundary conditions of the curve.
𝑓cT ( )
[243] Steel fiber = 0.99 − 1.02 𝑇 20◦ C ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 800◦ C 𝑓cT = Compressive strength at targeted temperature;
𝑓c′ 1000
𝑓c′ = Compressive strength at room temperature; T =
( ) Temperature
𝜎 𝛽 𝜀c ∕𝜀c,u
[215] Steel fiber 𝜎c,u = ( ) ; 𝜎, 𝜎c,u = Stress, peak stress;
𝛽−1+ 𝜀c ∕𝜀c,u 𝛽
𝛽 = 3.406 + 0.420(RI)−0.411 𝛽 = material parameter; 𝜖𝑐 , 𝜖𝑐,𝑢 = strain, peak strain;
RI = Reinforcement Index.
[( )( ) ( ) ]
𝐸0 ∕𝐸𝑠𝑐 𝜀∕𝜀0 − 𝜀∕𝜀0 2
[244] Steel fiber 𝜎𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐′ ( )( ) for 0 ⩽ 𝜀 ⩽ 𝜀0 ; 𝜎𝑐 = Compressive stress; 𝑓𝑐′ = Peak compressive stress;
1+ 𝐸0 ∕𝐸𝑠𝑐 −2 𝜀∕𝜀0 𝜖 = Strain; 𝜖0 = Strain with respect to peak stress;
[ ]
𝑓𝑐′
𝜎𝑐 = [{( ) } {( ) }] for 𝜀0 ⩽ 𝜀; 𝐸𝑠𝑐 = Secant modulus with respect to peak stress; 𝐸0
1+1∕4 𝜀∕𝜀0 −1 ∕ 𝜀𝐿 ∕𝜀0 −1 1.5 = Initial elastic modulus;
𝜖𝐿 = limiting strain
𝜀𝐿 =
√ ]
⎡( ) √ √( )2
𝐸 𝐸
𝜀0 ⎢ 1.25 0 + 4 + √ 1.25 0 + 4 − 4 ;
⎢ 10 𝐸𝑠𝑐 5 10 𝐸𝑠𝑐 5 5
⎣
( )0.35
𝜀0 = 750 𝑓𝑐′ × 10−6
( )1∕3
𝐸0 = 15050 𝑓𝑐′ ∕10 ;
𝐸𝑠𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐′ ∕𝜀0
( )
⎡ 𝜀 ⎤
⎢ 𝛽 𝜀 ⎥
0
[245] Hybrid steel fibers 𝑓 = 𝑓0 ⎢ ( )𝛽 ⎥⎥ f = Peak load; 𝑓0 =Peak stress; 𝛽 = Shape of
⎢
⎢ 𝛽−1+ 𝜀 ⎥ stress–strain curve;
⎣ 𝜀0 ⎦
𝛽= 1 𝜖 = Strain; 𝜖0 = Strain at peak stress; E = Elastic
𝑓0
1− modulus
𝜀0 𝐸
( )
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 𝑘1 𝛽 𝜀𝜀 ⎥
0
𝑓 = 𝑓0 ⎢ ( )𝑘 𝛽 ⎥⎥ 𝑘1 = Parameters which describes the compression
⎢ 2
⎢ 𝑘1 𝛽−1+ 𝜀 ⎥ toughness index 𝑘2 = Hybrid fiber content
⎣ 𝜀0 ⎦
{
𝛼𝑥 + (5 − 4𝛼)𝑥𝑥4 + (3𝛼 − 4)𝑥5 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
[246] Super-fine stainless wire (SSW) 𝑦= 𝑥 ,𝑥 ≥ 1 𝛼, 𝛽 = Coefficient;
𝛽(𝑥−1)2 +𝑥 𝜖 = Compressive strain; 𝜎 = Compressive stress;
𝑥 = 𝜖∕𝜖𝑝 ; 𝑦 = 𝜎∕𝜎𝑝 𝜖𝑝 = Compressive strength corresponding to the peak
strain;
𝜎 = Compressive strength corresponding to the peak
stress
( )
⎧ 𝛽 𝜀c ∕𝜀0
⎪ ( ) , 0≤𝑥<1
𝑓c ⎪ 𝛽−1+ 𝜀c ∕𝜀0 𝛽
[247] Steel fiber with the effect of coarse aggregate =⎨ ( ) 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = Compressive strength of UHPFRC; 𝑓𝑐 = Stress;
𝑓ck 𝐴 𝜀c ∕𝜀0
⎪ , 𝑥≥1 𝜖𝑐 = Strain; 𝑓c′ = peak stress;
⎪ 𝐴−1+(𝜀 ∕𝜀 )𝐵
⎩ c 0 𝜖0 = Strain with respect to the peak stress;
1 𝛽, A, B = Material parameters to represent the shape
𝛽= ,0 ≤ 𝑥 < 1
𝑓 of stress–strain curve
1− ck
𝜀0 𝐸
( ) ( )
[235] Steel fiber with composite material 𝑓𝑐 = 𝜂𝑛 𝑓𝑚 1 − 𝑉𝑓 + 𝜂𝜌 𝑓𝑚 1 − 𝑉𝑓 + 𝜎𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝑓𝑐 = Compressive strength; 𝜂𝑝 , 𝜂𝑛 = Positive and
negative influence factor for fiber; 𝑉𝑓 = Fiber volume
fraction; 𝜎𝑓 = stress of the fiber; 𝑑𝑓 , 𝑙𝑓 = Diameter,
length of fiber, 𝑎1 = Undetermined constant; 𝐸𝑓 , 𝐸𝑚 =
Young’s modulus of fiber, matrix
𝑙𝑓
𝜂 = 1 + 𝑎1 𝑉 𝑓
𝑑𝑓
( )
𝐸𝑓 𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑓 2
𝑓𝑐 = 1 − 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉 𝑓𝑚 + 𝑎1 𝑓𝑚 𝑉 − 𝑎1 𝑓𝑚 𝑉
𝐸𝑚 𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑓
𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑓 2 𝑙𝑓
𝑓𝑐 = 𝑓m + 0.14𝑓𝑚 𝑉 − 0.17𝑓𝑚 𝑉 , 100 ⩾ ⩾
𝑑𝑓 𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑓 𝑑𝑓
30, 3% ⩾ 𝑉𝑓 ⩾ 0
while Harish et al. [242] have calibrated the stress–strain response using [254] observations. The model is further extended by Wu
et al. [245], where authors integrate the effect of hybrid steel fibers (long and short steel fiber) with correction factors of k1 and k2
which reflects the shape of the curve. By using these correction factors the compression toughness index and hybrid fiber content
18
are well fitted with the experimental values. Dong et al. [246] propose that the uniaxial compressive stress–strain model based on
continuum damage theory characterizes the steel fibers’ damage inhibition effect under various loading circumstances. The model
by Wu et al. [247] incorporates the effect of coarse aggregate by proposing a rational fraction based on [250].
5.3. Tensile strength
5.3.1. Test setup

Direct tension testing and flexure tests are used to evaluate the tensile strength. Flexure tests are generally adopted compared
to direct tensile tests, owing to the ease of fabrication and flexibility of fixtures and test set up. Split tensile strength or dog bone
specimen tests, which indicate the elastic tensile strength, are also used to estimate direct tensile strength. Due to strain hardening
behavior of UHPC, even after formation of first crack, it displays higher post-cracking strength. The existing concrete standards,
which usually provide the first-cracking strength value, are less suitable for estimating the UHPC tensile strength. Several codes
like Eurocode 2 (under revision) plan to include post-cracking strength parameters. The impacts of fibers reinforcement on UHPC
flexural tensile strength is popularly tested by ASTM C1609 [255] and EN 196-1:2016 [256]. The standard size of the test specimen
shall have breadth and depth at least three times the maximum length of fibers, according to ASTM C1609 [255]. The results are
however reported to be influenced by differences in specimen size due to differences in fiber dispersion. The JSCE recommends a
dog-bone specimen with a length of 330 mm and an area of (30 mm × 13 mm) for the direct tensile test [39,257,258]. ASTM C496
(2011) [259] suggests the use of a cylindrical specimen (100 mm × 200 mm size) to find split strength [118,136,260].
5.3.2. Effect of steel fiber

The peak compressive load applied transversely to a cylindrical specimen prior to or at the start of cracking is reported by the
splitting tensile test. It is also known as indirect tensile strength test. With increasing fiber volume content, the splitting tensile
strength of steel fiber increases steadily (see Fig. 14). The legend for each data set contains the reference number followed by a
short abbreviation. In Fig. 14, the details of abbreviation are: TSF — twisted steel fiber, SF — steel fiber, SSF — straight steel
fiber, MSF — micro steel fiber, HESF — hooked end steel fiber, HSSF — high strength steel fiber, MSSF — micro smooth steel
fiber. The increased dose of implanted fibers slows the crack’s onset and propagation, resulting in a higher maximum tensile load
tolerance. Several investigations have demonstrated that a 2% steel fiber in matrix boosts the splitting tensile strength of plain
UHPC by around 1.5 times [109,118,136,215,257]. Few studies reveal that the inclusion of hybrid fibers (palm and bar chip) by a
volume fraction of (1.5–1.75%) boosts the splitting tensile strength by (35%–45%). The results reveal that composites with various
fiber types have a superior ability to bridge fracture progression in the composite [136]. Although a higher dose of steel fiber (6%
volume fraction) enhances tensile strength by four times [118], it is possible that the honeycombing and balling effects will occur.
Fibers bridge tensile cracks, delay crack propagation, transfer stress across the crack, and regulate crack development. Because
short-length steel fibers are very thin and their number in UHPC composites is significantly bigger than long-length steel fibers for
the same volume fraction of fibers, they are found to bridge micro-cracks more effectively [196]. The better tensile strength of UHPC
composites reinforced with micro steel fiber is also associated due to fiber orientation [119]. While the steel fibers not only increase
the deflection hardening and strain hardening behavior of UHPC it is also responsible for increasing the spalling resistance at high
temperature. An exponential relationship is observed between the dosage of steel fibers and resistance to spalling [241,261]. The
tensile strength of short size steel fibers is lower than that of long size steel fibers [262]. The concrete stress crack is spanned by the
fibers, preventing it from expanding further. For the same combination, hooked end fibers improved tensile strength by 12.45%,
whereas micro steel fibers enhanced it by 16.79%. Because tiny steel fibers have a stronger tendency to align in the cast direction,
they provide improved orientation [119]. The behavior of fiber strain hardening and repeated cracking is affected differently by
different types of steel fibers. The distorted shape of microfibers has a higher tensile strength than smooth steel fiber. Hooked-A -
fibers have three times the tensile strength of smooth fibers. The tensile strength varies owing to the bonding characteristics and
shape of the fibers [110,120,124,258].
5.3.3. Effect of synthetic fibers

UHPC specimens show spalling and explosion when exposed to fire conditions due to the presence of a dense matrix [263].
Hybrid fibers combination of steel, PP, and PVA fibers are effective in reducing spalling [241]. On increasing the dosage of steel
and PP fibers, the thermal conductivity of UHPC remains unaffected but the specific heat capacity of UHPC specimens reduces with
an increasing volume of steel fibers and PP. The presence of PP fibers does not increase the strength properties due to low elastic
modulus but substantially increases the spalling resistance subject to high temperature. A 0.9% volume fraction dosage of PP fibers
dosage is suggested to have optimal thermo-mechanical strength [261,264]. Park et al. [147] reported that synthetic fiber such
as Ny, PVA, PP, and PE fibers with the addition of volume fraction of fiber (1.5%–2%) shows a negative effect by decreasing the
tensile strength of UHPFRC. The tensile strength of UHPC decreases as the optimal dosage of synthetic fibers increases. Furthermore,
because polymeric fibers have a greater aspect ratio than steel fibers, adding polymeric fiber reduces the flowability of fresh UHPC.
UHPC composites’ post-cracking tensile strength is reduced due to the distribution and orientation of polymeric fiber in the UHPC
composites. The reduction in splitting tensile strength has also been documented by [155,157,239,258]. In (Fig. 15), the effect of
polypropylene fiber dosage on tensile strength of UHPC is shown while in (see Fig. 16) hybrid effect of synthetic fiber and steel fiber
dosage on tensile strength is presented. The legend for each data set contains the reference number followed by a short abbreviation
as described in Section 6.1.3.
19
Fig. 14. Effect of steel fiber dosage on tensile strength of UHPC.
Fig. 15. Effect of hybrid combinations of synthetic fiber and steel fiber on tensile strength of UHPC.
5.3.4. Modeling approach

Stress versus crack width relationships can be used to model UHPC’s tensile behavior. The method applies the principles
of fracture mechanics to evaluate, tensile strength, elastic modulus, peak load, and crack width based on inverse analysis. The
experiments consist of bending tests on notched prisms. The method offers fundamental principles to understand fracture process
zone, crack growth and size effect. Although this method is popular very limited codal guidelines on UHPC are available. Because
of this limitation, split tensile strength remains one of the most basic and straightforward test methods for predicting UHPC tensile
strength [99,265]. Table 10 shows the recommended models for estimating the splitting tensile strength of UHPC with compressive
strengths more than 150 MPa. The splitting tensile strength of UHPC is found to be influenced by the fiber bond factor, fiber aspect
ratio, and fiber volume fraction [266]. The fiber content of the mix is determined using the rule of mixing provided for flexural
strength evaluation [267]. The model is further improved by [268] considering an extended dataset [269–272] and applicable for
compressive strength between 120 to 200 MPa. Few studies reported by Zheng et al. [273,274] suggested that as temperature
increases there is decay in tensile strength. The proposed relationship is valid for temperatures of (20 to 900◦ C). In other studies,
Buttignol et al. [99] suggested that the tensile strength depends on the coefficient of load duration, coefficient of fiber orientation,
coefficient of thickness, and fabrication process.
20
Fig. 16. Effect of polypropylene and other synthetic fiber dosage on tensile strength of UHPC.
6. Effect of fiber on durability
The UHPC quality is evaluated based on freezing and thawing, resistance to thermal and chemical attack, sorptivity, resistivity,
porosity, resistance to the penetration of carbon dioxide, and migration of chloride ions [27,110,178,277–283,283–288]. In general,
the presence of corroded fibers (4%–6%) increases the surface roughness, causes complete pullout failure, and hence improves the
tensile strength [289]. The steel fiber dosage of up to 2.5% is found to have a negligible effect on chloride ion permeability. The
total charge passed based on Nordtest method NT Build 443 method [290] and rapid chloride permeability test [291] is less than
100 (Coulombs) as per the standard test method given in ASTM C1202[292], and found to be negligible [118,262,283,293–297].
The coefficient of chloride ion diffusion rate is found to occur in the range of (0.2 − 4.1) ∗ 10−13 [298,299] and depends on a variety
of factors like water/binder ratio, age of testing, solution concentration, fiber volume, and curing. The effect of steel fiber on RCPT is
summarized in Table 11. The passing electric charge is less than 200 coulombs for ambient and water curing [262,283,296,300–302].
The inclusion of steel fibers is not responsible for the effect of short-circuiting during the testing because fibers are short in length
and randomly dispersed [41,118,293,297]. It is crucial to note that if the steel fiber dosage is more than 2.5 percent then steel fibers
will act as a conductive material, and a 3D fiber network will be formed, which will promote electrochemical corrosion [303,304].
In the marine environment, it becomes more critical. For such cases, a hybrid combination of steel and PVA fibers is advised. PVA
fibers serve as an insulator and improve the UHPC’s ability to resist electrochemical corrosion [305].
Accelerated curing like steam treatment or heat treatment causes a kinetic effect and on subjected to high temperature the
porosity of the mixes reduces which improves the matrix densification and enhances the compressive strength [306–309]. In the
study reported by [310–314], the reduction in the porosity is reported in the range of 40%–80%. The UHPC matrix is found to be
impermeable to carbonation and is mostly independent of curing and fiber dosage (up to 2.5%). The UHPC specimens (exposed to 1%
CO2 atmosphere) exhibit 0.5 mm and 1.5–2.0 mm of carbonation depth after six months and one year, respectively. The deterioration
of UHPC from freezing and thawing consists of deterioration of joints because of D-cracking, surface scaling, and random cracking in
concrete which causes severe issues on the permeability and mechanical property of concrete [315,316]. UHPC demonstrates better
resistance to the freezing-thawing cycle due to its high impermeable cementitious matrix with minimum capillary porosity [27].
Several experimental tests found that the UHPC matrix showed no signs of deterioration after 600 freeze-thaw cycles with a durability
factor of greater than 100 and no mass loss [302,317]. The effect of freeze and thaw cycles on UHPC specimens are summarized in
Table 12. Liu et al. [299] found that even beyond the 800 cycles of the freeze-thaw process there is no considerable deterioration.
Wang et al. [318] reported that after 500, 1000, and 1500 freezing-thawing cycles, mass losses are 0.18%, 0.50%, and 0.62%,
respectively. It is to be noted that with the rise of freeze-thaw cycles, the UHPC matrix undergoes adverse effects like gain in mass
and relative dynamic modulus as shown in (see Fig. 17). It depicts an increase in dynamic modulus of elasticity, static modulus of
elasticity and compressive strength when compared with control reference specimens [300,319,320].
7. Applications
Within the past 20 years, considerable development has been undertaken for the development of UHPC as a future sustainable
building material [328]. It is a potential material for retrofitting and reinforcing existing structures, building new structures,
precast elements, and other applications [14,329–332]. It is now possible to reexamine the traditional bridge design method for a
variety of bridge elements [333,334]. In North America, Australia, Europe, and Asia, UHPC bridges for pedestrian traffic have been
21
Table 10
Modeling approach’s for splitting tensile strength of fiber reinforced UHPC.
Reference Material Split tensile model Parameter
[273] Steel fiber 𝑓tT ∕𝑓t = 𝑓𝑡 = tensile strength at room temperature ;
⎧ ( )
𝑇 𝑓𝑡 𝑇 = residual tensile strength of RPC after elevated
⎪ 0.99 + 0.45 1000 , 20 ◦ C ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 120 ◦ C,
⎨ ( ) ( )2 temperature; 𝑇 = temperature
𝑇 𝑇
⎪ 1.29 − 2.15 1000 + 1.14 1000 , 120 ◦ C ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 900 ◦ C.
⎩
⎧ ( )
𝑇
⎪0.93 + 3.25 1000 , 20 ◦ C ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 120 ◦ C
⎪ ( )
𝑓t𝑇 𝑇
[274] PPF fiber = ⎨ 1.57 − 2.04 , 120 ◦ C < 𝑇 ≤ 700 ◦ C 𝑓𝑡 = tensile strength of RPC at room temperature;
𝑓t
⎪ (1000 )
𝑇 ◦ 𝑓𝑡 𝑇 = residual tensile strength of RPC after elevated
⎪ −0.26 + 0.58 , 700 C < 𝑇 ≤ 900 ◦ C
⎩ [ 1000
temperature; 𝑇 = temperature
√ ( 2u
)]
[266] Steel fiber fsp = 0.095 fc + 10 F 3.0 − f 𝑓[𝑠𝑝𝑙] = splitting tensile strength; 𝑓𝑐 = compressive strength;
c
𝑙𝑓
F = 𝑑𝑓
𝑉𝑓 𝑏𝑓 , where 𝑏𝑓 bond factor based on the fibers type
with condition of 125 MPa ≤ 𝑓𝑐 ≤ 155 MPa
𝜂𝑡 ⋅𝜂ℎ ⋅𝜂𝑘∗ 𝑓 𝑐𝑡,𝑘
[99] Steel fiber 𝜎𝑐𝑡 = 𝛾𝑏
𝜎𝑐 𝑡 = Design tensile strength of UHPC;
𝜂𝑡 = coefficient of load duration generally 1;
𝜂ℎ = coefficient of UHPC fabrication and thickness process
generally 0.8 to 1;
𝜂𝑘 = coefficient with respect to fiber orientation generally
equal to 1
( 𝑙𝑓
)√
[268] Steel fiber 𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑙 = 0.94𝑉𝑓 × 𝑑𝑓
× 𝑏𝑓 + 0.67 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑙 = splitting tensile strength; 𝑓𝑐 = compressive strength;
𝑙𝑓
𝑉𝑓 = volume of fibers; 𝑑𝑓
= aspect ratio; 𝑏𝑓 = bond factor.
The equation relates the fibered UHPC with compressive
strength of 120 to 200 MPa
( ) 𝑙
[95] Steel fiber 𝜎𝑡𝑐 = 𝜎𝑡𝑚 1 − 𝑉𝑓 + 𝜂𝜃 𝑉𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝑓 𝜎𝑡𝑐 = Tensile strength for UHPC composites ; 𝜎𝑡𝑚 = Tensile
𝑓
strength of non-fibrous matrix;
𝜂𝜃 = co.efficient of fiber orientation; 𝑉𝑓 = Volume of fibers;
𝜏 = bond strength of in between non-fiber and fiber matrix;
𝑑𝑓 diameter and 𝑙𝑓 length of fiber
( )
𝑉𝑓
𝑙𝑓
arccos 2𝑧
𝑙𝑒
( ) ( )
[275] Steel fiber, orientation 𝜎𝑡𝑓 = 𝛼𝑛𝑓 𝐴𝑓
∫0 2 ∫0 𝑃 𝜃, 𝑙𝑒 , 𝛿𝜃 𝑝 𝑙𝑒 𝑝(𝜃)𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧 𝜎𝑡𝑓 = tensile stress with respect to steel fiber; 𝛼𝑛𝑓 =
Coefficient of actual fiber number
( )
𝑃 𝜃, 𝑙𝑒 , 𝛿𝜃 = 𝛼𝑓 𝑃𝜃
𝑙𝑓
( 𝑙𝑓
)
𝑙𝑒 = 2 − cos𝑧 𝜃 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2
2
𝑝(𝑧) = 𝑙
𝐴𝑓 𝑁𝑚
𝛼𝑛𝑓 = (
2
)
1 arccos 𝜖𝑒
𝑉𝑓 𝐴𝑐 ∫0 2 ∫0 𝑝(𝑙𝜖 )𝑝(𝜃)𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧
[235] Fiber 𝑓tp = 1.84𝜏max 𝜒f − 1.02𝜏max 𝜒f2 + 0.19𝜏max 𝜒f3 𝑓𝑡𝑝 = tensile strength of UHPC;
𝜏max = maximum bonding strength between UHPC matrix
and fiber; 𝜒f2 = fiber factor
⎧( 𝜀̇ )1.016𝛿
⎪ 𝜀̇ , 𝜀̇ < 30 s−1
[276] Steel fiber DIF𝑓𝑡 = ⎨ (𝑠 ) 1 𝐷𝐼𝐹𝑓 𝑡 = Dynamic increase factor for ultimate tensile
⎪𝛽 𝜀̇ 3
, 𝜀̇ ⩾ 30 s−1 strength strain rate; 𝑓𝑐′ = Compressive strength; 𝜖𝑠 = quasi
⎩ 𝜀̇ 𝑠
𝛿= 1
, log 𝛽 = 7.11𝛿 − 2.33 static strain rate
𝑓𝑐′
10+6 𝑓 ′
𝑐,0
( )
[245] Steel fiber 𝜎𝑡𝑐 = 𝜎𝑡𝑚 1 − 𝑉𝑓 + 𝜎𝑡𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝜎𝑡𝑐 = tensile strength of UHPFRC;
𝜎𝑡𝑚 = tensile strength of concrete matrix;
𝜎𝑡𝑓 = average tensile strength of fiber; 𝑉𝑓 = volume of fiber
built [9,335]. The components of UHPC or structural joints offer slender structure with reduced self-weight, superior durability, and
ease in implementation [300]. UHPC construction needs only half the section depth which reduces the self-weight of the structure
by 50%–70% [336]. It is deployed as bridge girders, protective layers, beams, cast joints between various structural elements, deck
panels, etc., [336–341]. UHPC technology have potential strength to use as a cover plates in high speed railways, retrofitting material
for the nuclear reactor walls [342–344], airport runway construction [335], river tunnel [9], hydraulic structures [345], nuclear
cooling towers [18]. It is effectively deployed as wind concrete towers for energy generation and signal receptors [34,346–349].
It has also gained considerable attention towards the building components like cladding, roof, and sunshade. Few applications like
Foundation Louis Vuitton pour la [350,351], MUCEM Museum of European, Mediterranean Civilizations [352], Shawnessy LRT
station, Olympic Museum [353,354] demonstrate its capabilities for construction of claddings, canopies, roofs, precast thin curve
shells [355]. Currently, there are more than 400 completed projects involving UHPC as one or more structural elements [356]. The
efficiency of material and lightweight elements of the UHPC constructions leads to sustainable construction technique [117].
22
Table 11
Total charge passed through the UHPC specimen in RCPT test.
Reference Steel fiber (%) Charge Age of testing (hr) Curing condition
[302] 1.8 10 28 Water curing for 7 d at 20 ◦ C + accelerated hot water curing for 3 d 90 ◦ C
[27] 2 84 28 3d Hot water curing at 90 ◦ C
[300] 2 18 28 15 d Standard curing + 2 d steam curing at 90 ◦ C
2 26 56 2 d steam curing at 60 ◦ C + standard curing for 56 d
2 39 28 Steam curing for 2 d at 60 ◦ C + standard curing for 28 d
2 76 28 Standard curing
2 360 28 Standard curing
[293] 2 75 28 Ambient air curing for 28 d
2 11 28 Thermally cured for 7 d
2 15 28 Thermally cured for 28 d
[297] 2 60 28 Steam curing for 2d at 90 ◦ C + standard water curing for 7 and 28 days
[262] 2 176 28 3 d water curing + hot air curing for 2 d at 200 ◦ C + water curing for 28 d
[295] 2 ≤ 100 28 Steam curing for 2d at 90 ◦ C
[309] 2.5 1.3 28 Hot water curing for 3d at 90 ◦ C
[118] 3 (8 mm) ≤ 100 28 Moist curing for 5 d at 20 ◦ C with RH > 95 + ambient curing for 28 d and 56 d
3 (12 mm) ≤ 100 28
3 (16 mm) ≤ 100 28
[296] 3 160 28 According to ASTM 1202 −12
[301] 2 ≤ 100 28 Standard curing
[283] 2 48 28 According to ASTM 1202 - 12
Table 12
Freeze and thaw cycles on UHPC.
Reference Steel fiber (%) Freeze-thaw cycles W/C W/B Relative dynamic modulus (%)
[321] 7 800 – 0.17 100
[322] 1.5 300 – 0.13 101.6
[323] 3 100 – 0.14 103
3 300 – 0.14 96
3 600 – 0.14 92
3 1000 – 0.14 90
[293] 6 300+ 0.2 – 101.57
6 300+ 0.2 – 100.29
[299] 2 1500 0.21 – 101
[324] 2 800 0.2 – 99.4
2 1200 0.2 – 99.96
2 1500 0.2 – 99.98
2 400 0.2 – 99.1
[319] 2.5 1098 – 0.12 100.4
2.5 1098 – 0.12 100.6
[325] 1 800 0.16 – 94.5
2 800 0.16 – 95.1
3 800 0.16 – 97.5
[326] 2 300 0.20–0.25 – 93.6
2 300 0.20–0.25 – 97.5
[327] 2 70 0.21 – –
3 70 0.21 – –
8. Future potential applications and challenges
8.1. Potential application
• The durability of reinforced concrete structures near the sea is always vulnerable to chloride-ion-caused corrosion. UHPC
have higher resistance and durable nature towards chloride ingress which can be used in extremely exposed environmental
conditions. Hence, the UHPC technology in marine environmental structures is a unique solution to reduce reinforcement
corrosion due to its extraordinary durability properties [335,352,357].
• Most of the bridges are constructed with UHPC because of their reduced self-weight, lower maintenance, remarkable durability,
and simple assembly with minimum cross-sectional members. In addition to this, UHPC has more promising capabilities for
overlays, repairing, rehabilitation, building construction, and strengthening of the seashore structures like oil platforms, piers,
etc., [358]
• The ductile nature of UHPC makes the structures and buildings more stable in a seismic zone. Several investigations have
discovered that reinforced UHPC beams or columns can release more energy during earthquakes than normal concrete
[359–361].
• By incorporating hybrid parts, it is possible to cut down the initial cost of UHPC. Structures can be constructed to handle
larger seismic loads by combining conventional concrete elements with UHPC elements in crucial zones.
23
Fig. 17. Effect of freeze and thaw cycles related to dynamic modulus of fibered UHPC.
• Due to self-compacting properties, UHPC may be cast into a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and architectural components. For
mass adoption and commercialization, the use of UHPC for buildings, cladding, and aesthetic aspects needs to be thoroughly
investigated [362,363].
8.2. Challenges
• UHPC has grown in prominence in the industry over the last two decades. However, one of the primary impediments to UHPC
implementation in the building industry is the lack of design codes and initial expenditures. The high initial cost of UHPC
materials and extensive energy usage (such as specific curing, high binder requirements, and superplasticizer dose) reduces
its sustainability and increases its cost compared to regular concrete. These drawbacks need to be overcome before realizing
the full potential of UHPC.
• The high cost of UHPC can be reduced by designing mixes with alternative building materials, industrial wastes, application
of hybrid fibers, etc., However, it is found that once the geographical location of source material changes, the performance
of mixes is very adversely affected. Hence, there is a need to develop a robust mix design that could be applicable for a wide
range of materials.
• The knowledge and experience gained from experimental research, field data, and model computing should be used to
develop guidelines for the building and design of UHPC. The international guidelines are difficult to process because of the
reasonable variety of UHPC in the different countries around the world. The construction and design for the methods of UHPC
constructions vary from the conventional construction methods [14,364].
• There are not a lot of studies on the life cycle assessment of UHPC structures. The building sector benefits from UHPC due of
its exceptional mechanical and durability features. When compared to traditional concrete structures, UHPC structures have a
longer service life, require less maintenance, and have lower repair costs [365]. This needs to be factored into the structure’s
design life.
• For the deployment of UHPC in field construction, the availability of competent experts, including information about engineers
and qualified architects, is limited.
• Material optimization is required to manufacture UHPC with locally available materials, which will necessitate extensive
research. The use of indigenous resources will help to ensure long-term sustainability and economic viability.
• The performance of UHPC is significantly influenced by creep and shrinkage as a result of the high binder dosage and fast
curing. For large-scale construction techniques, more research is needed to explore materials at the nano, micro, and macro
scales to correlate physical phenomena and structural behavior.
9. Conclusion
The physical and mechanical characteristics of various fiber types, such as steel fibers with straight or deformed shapes (twisted,
hooked-end, and corrugated), synthetic fibers (polyvinyl alcohol, nylon, polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyoxymethylene),
natural fibers (palm, kenaf), and a hybrid combination of fibers for their impact on fresh and hardened properties are examined.
The influence of fiber on rheology, workability, microstructure, compressive strength, tensile strength, and durability of UHPC
are examined in this study. Two hundred and thirteen research publications are critically reviewed in accordance with PRISMA
24
guidelines, and an additional one hundred and forty-nine papers are examined in the present study to support the findings. The
summary of the present work is as follows-
• Through slump cone, mini cone, and flow table experiments, the impact of various steel fibers and synthetic fiber on the
workability of fiber-reinforced UHPC is investigated. According to the review research, the flowability of the mix is significantly
influenced by the geometry of the fibers and the optimum dose of fiber in UHPC composites. The ideal amount of fiber in the
UHPC mixture is between (0.2 and 2%). When the fiber volume is over three percent, it has been shown that the fibers cannot
be dispersed evenly and display poor workability.
• The rheological characteristics of a fibered UHPC mix are influenced by the kind of fiber, dose, and presence of a viscosity
modifying agent. Plastic viscosity may be increased by up to 55% over time using dosages of (2 to 5%) steel fiber. Hooked
end fiber (0.5 to 2%) and polyvinyl alcohol fiber (0.5 to 2%) also increase viscosity by (25 and 45%), respectively. The fresh
properties are negatively impacted by steel strands with hooked ends. When compared to straight steel fiber, circular fiber
reduces yield stress and plastic viscosity by about one-third. Low plastic viscosity causes the fibers to separate. To counteract
this, a suitable dosage of one percent viscosity modifying agent is used to enhance rheological properties. Similarly, if the fiber
volume percentage in the mix exceeds the recommended dosage (lesser than 3%), fiber agglomeration occurs, making mixing
and casting more difficult.
• It is observed that up to a fiber dose of 3%, the compressive strength increased steadily from 170 to 210 MPa. A greater than
three percent increase in fiber content, however, results in uneven fiber distribution, lump formation, voids, and a decrease
in compressive strength. The compressive strength of steel fibers with hooked ends is greater than that of steel fibers with
straight ends. The matrix becomes extremely porous, clusters form, and the compressive strength is significantly reduced
when the polypropylene fiber dosage is increased above two percentage. UHPC with a compressive strength of more than 200
MPa may be created using a hybrid of nylon and polypropylene fibers. The stress strain response of UHPC under compression
is modeled by interrelating peak strain, peak stress, inflection point, toughness index, and reinforcing index.
• The tensile strength can be increased up to 38 MPa by increasing the steel fiber dosage (up to 6%). Hooked end steel fibers
increase tensile strength by 12.45 percent as compared to straight steel fibers. Short-length fibers have superior fiber dispersion,
alignment, and orientation. The inclusion of synthetic fibers (1.5%–2%) lowers the tensile strength because of insufficient
orientation and dispersion. The tensile strength is modeled using the coefficient of load duration, fiber orientation, aspect
ratio, fiber dosage, and manufacturing method.
• The UHPC matrix is found to be impermeable to carbonation and chloride permeability till the fiber dosage is less than 2.5%.
The effect of the freeze-thaw process does not cause considerable damage even beyond 800 cycles.
• Hybrid fiber combinations are made by combining different fiber varieties to benefit from the synergetic effects of each variety,
shape, and volume fraction of fiber. Rheology, compressive strength, tensile strength, and durability can be improved by the
use of a hybrid fiber combinations.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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34

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Journal of Building Engineering

Influence of fibers on fresh and hardened properties of Ultra High

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Fig. 1. Scopus search analysis.

3.1.1. Fiber interaction in cementitious composites

Fig. 2. Flow chart of scopus search results..

3.1.2. Fiber orientation

3.2. Fiber geometry

3.2.1. Longitudinal reinforcement cross section and geometry

3.2.2. Efficient and equivalent diameter of fiber

3.2.3. Aspect ratio of fiber

3.2.4. Fiber denier

Fig. 4. (a) Shape of fibers & b) Fiber orientation in UHPC matrix.

Fig. 5. Different types of fibers used in UHPC [99]..

3.3. Fiber types and varieties

3.4. Steel fiber

3.5. Inorganic fiber

3.5.1. Silica fibers

3.5.2. Basalt fiber

3.6. Polymeric fibers

3.6.1. Natural polymer

3.6.2. Synthetic fiber

3.7. Carbon fibers

3.8. Hybrid fiber

Fig. 6. Effect of different fiber dosage on slump flow of UHPC..

4. Effect of fibers on fresh properties

5. Effect of fibers on hardened properties

5.1. Effect of fibers on the micro-structure

5.2. Compressive strength

5.2.1. Test setup

5.2.2. Effect of steel fibers

5.2.3. Effect of synthetic fibers

Fig. 11. Effect of steel fiber dosage on compressive strength of UHPC..

Fig. 12. Effect of synthetic fiber dosage on compressive strength of UHPC.

5.2.4. Modeling approach

5.3. Tensile strength

5.3.1. Test setup

5.3.2. Effect of steel fiber

5.3.3. Effect of synthetic fibers

Fig. 14. Effect of steel fiber dosage on tensile strength of UHPC.

5.3.4. Modeling approach

6. Effect of fiber on durability

8. Future potential applications and challenges

8.1. Potential application

Declaration of competing interest

Data will be made available on request.

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