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Green advertising revisited

a a
Patrick Hartmann & Vanessa Apaolaza-Ibáñez
a
University of the Basque Country
Published online: 07 Jan 2015.

To cite this article: Patrick Hartmann & Vanessa Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2009) Green advertising
revisited, International Journal of Advertising: The Review of Marketing Communications, 28:4,
715-739

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 Green advertising revisited
Conditioning virtual nature experiences
Patrick Hartmann and Vanessa Apaolaza-Ibáñez
University of the Basque Country

In green advertising research, images of pleasant nature scenery have been classified
as vague, unspecific and possibly ineffective green claims, as opposed to substantive,
informational claims. In this study, the concept of virtual nature experiences is introduced
to point out a perceptual mechanism through which the association of a brand with
nature imagery may indeed lead to significant advertising effects. Consumers’ exposure
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to specific nature imagery in green brand communications may lead to pleasant feelings
analogous to those experienced in ‘real’ nature. If adequately conditioned, these ‘virtual
nature experiences’ may enhance the consumer’s attitude towards a given brand. The
perceptual and attitudinal effects of substantive green claims and nature imagery are
analysed in the scope of an experimental study. The field study consisted of a national
survey, allowing for the relative statistical representativeness of the sample. Results of the
study confirm significant perceptual and attitudinal effects of both informational claims
and virtual nature experiences. The latter are identified as a distinct perceptual dimen-
sion of green brand associations, and turn out to wield additional positive influences on
the consumer’s attitude towards the brand.

Introduction
After a surge in green advertising in the 1990s, the use of green advertis-
ing claims decreased for nearly a decade. At present, however, a revival
of green advertising can be observed. Many major companies are again
stressing their involvement with the environment, most often through
advertisements depicting beautiful imagery of pristine nature, as seen in
the recent corporate or product branding campaigns of Toyota, General
Motors, Volkswagen, BP, Shell, Esso/Exxon, Total, Renault, etc. Following
this development, although the first publications on green consumer
behaviour and marketing appeared around 1970, a boom in environmen-
tal behaviour research was observed throughout the 1990s. Research on

International Journal of Advertising, 28(4), pp. 715–739

© 2009 Advertising Association
Published by the World Advertising Research Center, www.warc.com
DOI: 10.2501/S0265048709200837 715
 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

the specific topic of green advertising has been relatively scarce, however
(e.g. Peterson 1991; Kilbourne 1995; Zinkhan & Carlson 1995; Easterling
et al. 1996). Most studies on the subject dealt with a descriptive analysis of
environmental advertising claims. In the context of these studies, nature
imagery has been identified as a salient ingredient of green advertising,
but was also classified as a vague, unspecific and possibly ineffective green
claim – as opposed to a substantive, informational claim. Furthermore,
with few exceptions (e.g. Hem et al. 2003), a review of relevant literature
did not reveal any kind of scientific approach to advertising effects of spe-
cific nature representations in advertising – this applying to both green
and conventional advertising. Still, it seems plausible to suppose that con-
sumers’ exposure to nature scenes represented in advertising should lead
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to differentiated patterns of perceptual and behavioural consequences.

In this study, the concept of virtual nature experiences is introduced with
the aim of pointing out a perceptual mechanism through which the asso-
ciation of a brand with nature imagery in the scope of a green advertising
campaign may indeed lead to significant advertising effects. The underly-
ing perceptual processes are based on accepted communication theories
such as Petty and Cacioppo’s (1983) model on central and peripheral routes
to persuasion, and the classical conditioning theory. Furthermore, a stream
of research from anthropology and environmental psychology is reviewed
that may clarify the understanding of affective reactions towards visual
representations of nature. The hypothesised processes are addressed in a
field study, in which a national sample with relative representativity was
exposed to a set of experimental green advertisements. A structural equa-
tion model on the persuasive effects of both informational environmental
claims and nature imagery is tested on the data, focusing on understanding
the extent to which attitude towards the brand can be affected, depending
on the kind of green appeal. The final purpose of this study is to contrib-
ute to the development and improvement of communication methods for
a more effective promotion of sustainable consumption.

Green advertising claims

A review of the literature reveals that most research in green advertising
– carried out in the mid-1990s – dealt with a descriptive analysis of green
advertising claims that lead to diverse classification schemes. The surge

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 Green advertising revisited

of green advertising resonated with the general increase in public environ-

mental concern and media coverage of environmental issues, which was
characteristic of many western countries. Green advertising varied in the
extent to which it addressed environmental issues: from simple claims on
the environmental friendliness of products, to corporate image campaigns
stressing the environmental credential of large companies, to public
campaigns promoting environmentally responsible behaviours (Iyer &
Banerjee 1993).
Indeed, defining the concept of ‘green advertising’ is far from being
straightforward. Banerjee et al. (1995, p. 22) consider green advertising any
ad that meets one or more of the following criteria:
1) Explicitly or implicitly addresses the relationship between a product/service
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and the biophysical environment. 2) Promotes a green lifestyle with or without

highlighting a product/service. 3) Presents a corporate image of environmental
responsibility.

Kilbourne (1995, 2004) suggests that this concept is even more complex,
arguing that there are at least five different types of green advertising that
can be positioned in a two-dimensional framework with political (reform-
ism to radicalism) and human positional (anthropocentric to ecocentric)
dimensions that include environmentalism, conservationism, human
welfare ecology, preservationism and ecologism. In the scope of this
study, green advertising is understood as advertising a product or brand
with environmental claims. In a similar manner, the concept of a green
or environmental brand will be understood as a brand associated with
environmental features or claims. Generally, it will be assumed that these
environmental claims are genuine and that advertisers are sincere in their
efforts to be ecologically responsible, even if there is empirical evidence
that shows otherwise.
Thus, with respect to the information content of advertising claims in
green advertising copy, in several studies a significant number of environ-
mental ads were judged to be vague or even misleading (Kangun et al.
1991; Carlson et al. 1993; Iyer et al. 1994). Banerjee et al. (1995) found that
most ads in their sample addressed the impact of the product or advertiser
on the environment in general terms, using visuals depicting ‘the beauty
of nature’. These authors noted that a typical example was an ad placed
by a major oil company that contained pictures of scenic mountains and

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

valleys and the copy consisted of the slogan, ‘We care about the environ-
ment.’ Very few of the ads studied clearly articulated the environmental
benefits of a product or discussed the specific environmental actions of
a company. The difficulty of determining a product’s or an organisation’s
true environmental stance has resulted in worldwide scepticism regard-
ing green advertising (Kangun & Polonsky 1995; Kilbourne 1995, 2004;
Scammon & Mayer 1995; Zinkham & Carlson 1995).
Following Carlson et al.’s (1993) classifications, environmental claims
can be considered either substantive or associative. Substantive claims
present concrete, tangible benefits and reflect an intent to maintain or
enhance consumers’ perception of an organisation as environmentally
responsible or of a product as environmentally sound. Such claims provide
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information that enables and facilitates individual consumption decisions

that are advantageous to the physical environment. Consumers, however,
as the results of Cude’s (1993) study show, often do not understand envi-
ronmental claims correctly. Conversely, associative claims are image related
or present environmental facts. These claims are more intangible than
the substantive claims discussed above. Image-related claims merely link
the organisation to an environmental cause. The use of nature imagery in
green advertising also falls into this category.
The fact that persons interested in buying green are often sceptical
about advertising in general leads to the implication that advertisers must
be careful not to alienate such consumers with misleading, inaccurate or
non-defensible claims (Shrum et al. 1995). If such care is not taken, a back-
lash may occur whereby consumers develop negative perceptions of the
brand (Shrum et al. 1996). However, though recommending that advertis-
ers avoid image-related and environmental fact claims, because they fail
to provide information that facilitates consumption decisions based on
sound environmental reasoning, Carlson et al. (1996) also recognised that,
ostensibly, when processing an ad with associative claims, consumers cog-
nitively associate the two to create a more benevolent perception of the
organisation or product. An international comparison found that, though
US ads tended to stress at that time associative claims, ads from Australia,
Great Britain and Canada appeared to emphasise process- and product-
based claims (Carlson et al. 1996).
No specific reference is made in the above-mentioned classification
schemes to the use of nature imagery, other than that it is ‘widely used’.

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 Green advertising revisited

The approach of Merten (1993), with its analysis of 600 advertisements

from 1992 is somehow more explicit with regard to nature imagery in
green advertising, identifying three categories of green claims, all of
which refer to the role of nature: (a) the ad pretends to establish a direct
relationship of the product with nature, stressing, for instance, its reduced
environmental impact; (b) nature as the origin of the product (what comes
from natural sources must be of good quality and/or healthy); and (c)
vague and principally visual associations with nature through the use of
images of landscapes or the colours green and blue.

Persuasion processes involved in green advertising

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With the exception of a few studies (Ellen et al. 1991; Obermiller 1995;
Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius 1995; Manrai et al. 1997), minimal attention
has been devoted to understanding how the design of the green claim
itself affects the processing of the message and its effectiveness.
Most of the above-mentioned research analyses persuasion processes
from the central route processing perspective of Petty and Cacioppo’s
(1983) elaboration likelihood model (ELM). Persuasion process para-
digms such as ELM, or, more recently, the affect-reason-involvement
model (ARI) proposed by Buck et al. (1995, 2002) distinguish between at
least two conceptually different types of persuasion process: central and
peripheral modes of persuasion in the case of the first model, and rational
and emotional processes in the second. In both models, a higher involve-
ment of the subject subsequently leads to a higher amount of cognitive
elaboration. Additionally, in the ARI model a stronger emotional involve-
ment leads to a deeper emotional elaboration. According to ELM, attitude
formation through the central route takes place under a high amount of
cognitive elaboration. Attitude formation or change is then the result of a
person’s diligent and rational consideration of information that is central to
the object (Ajzen & Fishbein 1980).
In light of the central route processing perspective, it is understand-
able that most authors emphasise the efficiency of cognitive persuasion
strategies in green advertising, assuming the consumer’s high involvement
regarding environmental issues as a consequence of a growing environ-
mental consciousness (Kinnear et al. 1974; Cope & Winward 1991; Carlson
et al. 1996; Shrum et al. 1996; Swenson & Wells 1997). In the context of

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

central persuasion strategies, as the findings of Davis (1993) show, envi-

ronmental claims perceived as specific foster positive perceptions of the
product and are significantly more likely versus claims perceived as vague
to be persuasive and to lead to higher levels of product purchase intent.
Chan (2000) and Chan et al. (2006) demonstrated that, in the context of
high-involvement purchases, substantive environmental claims generate
more favourable attitudinal responses than do associative environmental
claims if the country image of the product is also eco-friendly. However,
Chan’s findings also indicate specifically for the case of service products
that environmental claims enhance the communication effectiveness of
advertisements for both high- and low-involvement products. The follow-
ing hypothesis is suggested:
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H1: The association of a brand with information on specific envi-

ronmental product features leads to a positive effect on brand
attitude­.

Still, a green advertising approach limited to the assumption of generally

highly involved consumers and central processing of green advertising
claims falls short of a holistic understanding of the phenomenon and does
not reflect green advertising practice, which uses non-cognitive appeals
extensively. In the scope of Petty and Cacioppo’s (1983) model, attitude
formation through the peripheral route – that is, in the absence or reduc-
tion of cognitive elaboration of information – occurs either through sim-
ple inference processes (Mitchel & Olson 1981) or as a result of feelings
associated with the brand. A brand can be conditioned – that is, emo-
tional experiences can be associated with that brand as a consequence
of the consumer’s exposure to emotional brand advertising (Burke &
Edell 1987). The theories on ‘brand conditioning’ or ‘emotional condi-
tioning’ (Kroeber-Riel 1984) are derived from Pavlov’s (1927) classical
conditioning theory. Conditioning mechanisms in human behaviour have
been extensively researched as a means to address persuasion situations,
through which a ‘transfer of affect’ takes place from one stimulus to
another (Gorn 1982; Allen & Madden 1985; Bierly et al. 1985; Stuart et al.
1987; Allen & Janiszewski 1989; Shimp 1991; Brown & Stayman 1992;
Janiszewski & Warlop 1993; Kim et al. 1996; Kim et al. 1998). The role
of nature representations in green advertising can be understood in this

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 Green advertising revisited

context. Through peripheral persuasion processes, such as emotional con-

ditioning or transformational advertising (Aaker & Stayman 1992), green
brands can be associated at a perceptual level with imagery of nature.
The association of a brand with nature imagery through advertising may
lead to non-cognitive emotional processes, which in turn influence brand
attitude formation. Unlike other types of vague green claims, the use of
nature imagery may not lead to negative persuasive outcomes in the same
way as vague claims contained in the green ads’ copy, as it may elude the
cognitive control of the consumer. In the following section, the specific
mechanisms are addressed through which the association with nature may
lead to more favourable emotional responses towards a brand.
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Behavioural effects of nature imagery

A review of research on nature discourses in advertising reveals that,
despite numerous studies on advertising messages in the broadest sense,
there has been surprisingly little research on the representation of nature.
Furthermore, the very few studies that mention this topic are focused,
with hardly any exceptions, on environmental advertising claims. As
mentioned earlier, the visual representation of nature played a prominent
role in many of these campaigns. Without dealing in particular with green
advertising, Hansen’s (2002) analysis of the relative prominence of differ-
ent uses of nature in 467 British television advertisements – probably the
most informative and up-to-date study of the field – confirms that nature
imagery is used extensively in television advertising. His results show
that the most prominent images of nature in television advertising draw
on and invoke the idea of nature as a nice place to be (40.2%), nature
as intrinsically good (37.9%) and nature as a space for human recreation
(20.5%). The advertisements in these groups call on nature imagery in
classic advertising fashion: as a means of invoking the idyll, tranquillity
and beauty for which the stressed city dweller supposedly longs; as a
means of underwriting the ‘genuine’, ‘good’, ‘authentic’ quality and prop-
erties of the advertised product; and as the embodiment of (or home of)
values and traditions, which have been marginalised or eradicated in the
urban centres or in the spheres of work and production. Nature – whether
in the form of exotic holiday locations, trips to the seaside or trips to the
countryside – thus also becomes, in many of these advertisements, the

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

space/location for family intimacy, togetherness and enjoyment. Finally,

though nature is predominantly cast as the countryside or wild/unculti-
vated nature, a substantial proportion of advertisements equate it with the
domesticated/tamed/controlled nature of the garden.
The prominence of nature imagery in advertising can be explained by
the fact that the attraction towards nature is considered a significant aspect
of human behaviour. Wilson’s (1984) biophilia hypothesis is one of the
most popular hypotheses suggesting an innate human attraction towards
nature. This emotional ‘affinity with nature’ has been widely documented
(Lockwood 1999; Mayer & McPherson 2004). Also, the overall prefer-
ence for natural scenery has been shown repeatedly in on-site studies
and in studies employing slides and photographs (Calvin & Curtin 1972).
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Overall, numerous studies have demonstrated humans’ preference for

environments with natural elements over those that are predominantly
built (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989; Purcell et al. 1994; Cackowski & Nasar 2003).
Thus, natural settings are generally over-represented among favourite
places and under-represented among the unpleasant places (Newell 1997;
Hartig et al. 2001; Korpela et al. 2001). Also, shifting from urbanised, com-
plex environments to more natural environments has been considered an
intrinsic value for human beings. Numerous research findings in health,
medicine and psychology appear to be supportive of the proposition that
nature has some inherently positive effects on physical and psychological
well-being for humans (Frumkin 2003). For instance, in a series of experi-
ments, the exposure to images of nature led to more positive influences on
psychophysiological states than urban scenes. There was also a consistent
pattern for nature, especially water, to have more positive influences on
emotional states (Ulrich 1981; Ulrich et al. 1983). Also, records on recovery
after surgery were examined to determine whether assignment to a room
with a window view of a natural setting might have a restorative influence.
Patients assigned to rooms with windows overlooking a natural scene had
shorter post-operative hospital stays, received fewer negative evaluative
comments in nurses’ notes, and took fewer potent analgesics (Ulrich
1984). Furthermore, there is prominent evidence of greater restorative
effects arising from experiences in nature, compared to urban environ-
ments (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989; Hartig et al. 1991; Kaplan 1995). Contact
with nature seems to play a vital role in human health and well-being,
and is suggested as an effective population-wide health strategy (Maller

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 Green advertising revisited

et al. 2006). It is therefore not surprising that further findings indicate that
the perceived value of residential property is higher when street trees are
present (Orland et al. 1992).
With regard to the preference structure towards different types of
nature scenery, the human preference for specific natural landscapes has
been analysed from an anthropological perspective (Williams & Cary
2002). There is considerable evidence that humans prefer landscapes
that are relatively open and smooth (Kaplan et al. 1989). These seem-
ingly universal preferences are most commonly attributed to inherited
predispositions. Orians (1980) argued that innate preference for very open
landscapes provided an evolutionary advantage for hunters and gatherers
living on the ancient savanna of East Africa at the time when the human
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brain – including structures associated with emotion – was developing,

suggesting the highest human affinity towards savanna-type landscapes:
wide horizons, grasslands with low and homogeneous vegetation, dis-
persed round-shaped trees and the presence of water. These more open
landscapes provided the best shelter, hunting and disease-free environ-
ments. Processes of natural selection have ensured that innate attraction to
such landscapes still influences the attitudes of humans today. Other writ-
ers have attributed preference for open landscapes to other survival needs
of humans, including the need to see potential predators and prey without
being seen oneself (Appleton 1975), and to navigate and move through a
landscape with ease (Kaplan 2001). Although several studies support the
evolutionary theory of human landscape preferences (e.g. Balling & Falk
1982), other research challenges the evolutionary theory. For instance,
in Lyons’ (1983) study, subjects’ preferences were highest for the most
familiar biome. No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that
landscape preference is shaped by innate or evolution-determined fac-
tors. Further research suggests that biodiversity has a positive relationship
with landscape beauty ratings, but that perceived biodiversity differs with
educational and occupational background of respondents (Van den Berg
et al. 1998).

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

Virtual nature experiences and affective attitude

formation
The above-mentioned findings lead to the conclusion that contact with
nature may, in general, lead to positive emotional experiences, and pos-
sibly particular behavioural consequences. For instance, Kals et al. (1999)
identified the human affinity towards nature, such as ‘loving nature’ or
‘feeling one with nature’, as a motivational basis to protect natural envi-
ronments. The subjective experienced content of ‘nature experiences’
has been addressed by environmental psychology (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989;
Kaplan 1995). Following Calder and Gruder (1989), a specific emotional
experience arises from the combination of emotional responses and cogni-
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tive elements stored in memory as semantic, auditory or visual cognitions.

An emotional experience related to nature may thus consist, for example,
of cognitive elements, such as visual nature imagery, the scent of a forest,
stored in the subject’s memory, which are strongly associated with feelings
of well-being, pleasure, relaxation, freedom, health, etc. It is possible that
emotional experiences analogous to those experienced in contact with
‘real’ nature may be experienced as a consequence of commercial media’s
representation of beautiful nature – for instance, in advertisements depict-
ing nature imagery. As Levi and Kocher (1999) suggested, consumers
increasingly may tend in the future to experience ‘virtual nature’ in simu-
lated media environments instead of real nature. Using adequate commu-
nication techniques – that is, emotional brand conditioning – these ‘virtual
nature experiences’ could be associated in the consumer’s perception with
a green brand. Supposing that emotional responses to nature imagery are
positive, effects of the attitude transfer on brand attitude should, overall,
be favourable. Consumers would then experience additional experiential
or hedonic brand benefits (Hirschman & Holbrook 1982; Holbrook &
Hirschman 1982; Park et al. 1986), compared to the situation in which a
green brand has been advertised merely delivering information on envi-
ronmental product features. The following hypotheses on the perception
of virtual nature experiences as a consequence of brand conditioning with
nature imagery and their effect on attitude towards a green brand are sug-
gested. The hypothesised model of the conceptual framework is depicted
in Figure 1.

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 Green advertising revisited

Figure 1: Conceptual framework

Green advertisement

Informational claim:

Environmental Central Green utilitarian

product features persuasion brand associations

Brand attitude
Affective claim:
Emotional Virtual nature
Nature imagery
conditioning experiences
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H2: The conditioning of a brand with pleasant nature imagery leads

to specific emotional experiences that are perceived as a distinct
perceptual dimension of green brand associations.

H3: The association of a green brand with virtual nature experiences

in addition to the presentation of information on specific environ-
mental product features leads to an additional favourable effect
on brand attitude.

Method
An experimental field study was carried out to address empirically the
hypothesis proposed in the scope of the conceptual framework – that is,
the formation of green utilitarian brand associations and virtual nature
experiences, as well as the attitudinal effects of these perceptual dimen-
sions. For this purpose, several experimental brands and print advertise-
ments were developed to construct the three experimental conditions of
the study. Each of the participants was randomly exposed to one of three
different kinds of brand advertisement. The first kind of advertisement
showed a conventional brand, not initially perceived as environmen-
tally friendly (e.g. ‘Nokia 7370’). The second kind of advertisement
showed an experimental brand in which the original brand was modi-

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

fied and repositioned­ as a green brand (e.g. ‘Nokia greenmotion’). The

ad contained information on the environmental features of the brand.
However, other than this particular modification, the visual style of the
original print ad was identical. For the third type of experimental ads, a
new visual design was developed to evoke nature experiences through
the ad’s imagery. This category of ads consisted of the representation
of the modified brand name (e.g. Nokia greenmotion) and information
on the environmental features of the brand, both integrated in visual
representations of pleasant nature scenery. Pictures chosen showed, for
instance, trees with green leaves in the sunlight, wild creeks, waterfalls,
sunflowers, rainbows and butterflies. The visuals were not related to
the technical features of the promoted brands. The selection of pictures
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was based on previous qualitative research, consisting of several sessions

of focus groups and in-depth interviews, in which participants were
asked to point out pictures from a wide selection of images of nature
scenery that would best evoke feelings of pleasure and happiness while
in contact with nature. These three different types of advertisement were
developed for five different brands from five different product catego-
ries – that is, mobile phone, washing machine, car, fuel and dishwashing
detergent – to minimise possible effects of specific product categories.
Thus, overall, 15 ads were designed for this study (see Appendix 1).
The fieldwork of the survey was carried out by a professional market-
ing research institute. A total of 360 participants were interviewed in
their homes, in five Spanish cities (Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Vitoria
and San Sebastián). Participants were selected by random route sam-
pling following a quota criterion. The composition of the sample was
54% female, 46% male, aged between 20 and 65 years. The quota of
the sample guaranteed a sample composition covering different social
strata, and focusing on middle-class and ‘medium-aged’ consumers.
Each participant was exposed for 50 seconds to one single, randomly
chosen ad from the 15 ads in the study. The prolonged forced exposure
was meant to simulate conditioning effects. This supposes a limitation
of the method applied, as proper classical conditioning requires multi-
ple exposures of the participants to the stimuli. Still, in the literature it
is also suggested that conditioning effects can take place after a single
exposure (e.g. Gorn 1982; Bierly et al. 1985; Stuart et al. 1987).

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 Green advertising revisited

The perception of environmental features and brand attitude was

measured subsequently in the scope of a questionnaire. In line with the
study’s aim of exploring and testing the perception of substantive informa-
tional environmental claims and virtual nature experiences and its effect
on brand attitude, scales containing items to measure a brand’s associa-
tions related to environmental product features, as well as virtual nature
experiences, were developed. Items consisted of statements represent-
ing environmental brand features (e.g. ‘respects the environment’, ‘does
not cause pollution’). In addition, several statements were developed to
assess the extent to which a brand evoked feelings comparable to those
experienced in contact with nature (e.g. ‘evokes the sensation of being in
nature’, ‘makes me imagine nature, fields and forests’). These statements
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were tested in previous qualitative research consisting of focus groups and

in-depth interviews. Respondents’ agreement or disagreement with the
statements was measured on five-point Likert-type scales anchored by
‘strongly agree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ (Appendix 2).
On the other hand, consistent with accepted measures in attitude
research (Mitchel 1986; Petty et al. 1991; Allen et al. 1992; Herr & Russell
1993; Kim et al. 1998), attitude towards the brand was measured as a three-
dimensional construct through the indicators ‘overall evaluation’, ‘positive
feeling’ and ‘purchase intention’. Participants were asked to rate their
agreement with single-phrase statements on five-point Likert-type scales
also anchored by ‘strongly agree’ and ‘strongly disagree’.
The proposed measurement model was tested by confirmatory factor
analysis (Table 1). The resulting measurement model can be considered
satisfactory, as criteria for model fit (Steiger & Lind 1980; Jöreskog &
Sörbom 1984; Bentler 1990; Hu & Bentler 1995; Kaplan 2000; Byrne 2001)
indicate an adequate fit of the factor structure to the underlying data. The
dimensionality of the constructs was established following Anderson and
Gerbing (1988). Factor loadings of all indicators are significant (p < 0.001)
and exceed minimum recommended values. Furthermore, the variance-
extracted measures exceed the square of the correlation estimate in all
cases. Also, variance-extracted and construct reliability exceed recom-
mended thresholds (Fornell & Larcker 1981; Bagozzi & Yi 1994; Hair et al.
1999). Thus, the proposed factor structure can be considered adequate.

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

Table 1: Confirmatory factor analysis: regression coefficients (standardised,

unstandardised), correlations, variance extracted, construct reliability, model fit
(p < 0.001 in all regression coefficients)

Factor
Indicator Environmental Nature experience Brand attitude
Respects environment 0.92; 1.09
Helps protecting environment 0.95; 1.16
Does not pollute 0.83; 1.03
Imagine nature 0.95; 1.17
Evokes sensation of being in nature 0.94; 1.17
Feeling close to nature 0.90; 1.16
Overall evaluation 0.79; 0.59
Positive feeling 0.94; 0.79
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Purchase intention 0.62; 0.66

Correlations
Nature experience 0.70
Brand attitude 0.53 0.57
Variance extracted 0.81 0.86 0.63
Construct reliability 0.93 0.95 0.83
Model fit RMR = 0.05; GFI = 0.96; AGFI = 0.92; NFI = 0.98; CFI = 0.98; RMSA = 0.08.

Note: RMR = root mean square residual; GFI = Goodness-of-Fit Index; AGFI = Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index; NFI = Normed Fit
Index; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.

Results
The further steps of the analysis addressed the effect of the experimental
factor ‘kind of advertisement’ – that is, non-environmental, environmental
and nature ad – on the participant’s brand perception and attitude towards
the brand. For this purpose, in the first step of the analysis, mean values
of measurement variables were compared across the three experimental
conditions (Table 2). In this study, only differences in the kind of ad
(non-environmental, environmental, nature) were considered as different
experimental conditions. Different brands were not treated as individual
experimental factors in order to minimise possible side effects caused by
the perception of different brands and product categories. The specific
purpose of the study included the measurement of perceptual effects
within different product categories to allow for a higher degree of gener-
alisation of the results compared to an experimental design based on one
single kind of product.

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Table 2: Perceptual effects of the experimental factor: mean value differences

(F, p)

Mean Mean
difference non­ difference
environmental/ environmental/
Measurement Experimental Standard Typical environmental nature
variable condition N Mean deviation error F, p F, p
Environmental Non-environmental ad 117 2.18 0.84 0.08 198.28
Environmental ad 109 3.71 0.78 0.08 p < 0.001 9.97
Nature ad 125 4.03 0.77 0.07 0.002
Nature Non-environmental ad 117 1.83 0.84 0.08 42.45
experience Environmental ad 109 2.66 1.08 0.10 p < 0.001 28.84
Nature ad 125 3.42 1.07 0.09 p < 0.001
Brand attitude Non-environmental ad 117 3.34 0.66 0.06 24.02
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Environmental ad 109 3.79 0.70 0.07 p < 0.001 7.50

Nature ad 125 4.04 0.71 0.06 0.007

The MANOVA analysis carried out to compare the mean values of the
measurement variables between the different conditions of the experi-
mental factor reveals significant differences as a result of the type of adver-
tisement. Brands experimentally advertised with environmental features
show environmental brand associations not observable in the group of
participants exposed to the original non-environmental brands (variable
environmental). Furthermore, brands presented in the context of pleasant
nature imagery seem to evoke virtual nature experiences in the partici-
pants’ perception (variable nature experience). It is remarkable that the
mere association with environmental product attributes leads also to a cer-
tain degree of virtual nature experiences, as compared to the control group
exposed to the non-environmental ad, whereas the participants exposed to
nature imagery in the brand advertisement also perceive a higher degree
of utilitarian environmental brand features. Finally, regarding the attitudi-
nal effects of the experimental factor, brands advertised with information
on environmentally friendly product features score significantly higher
on brand attitude than brands in the non-environmental control group. In
addition, and central to the purpose of this study, participants exposed to
ads containing environmental claims and displaying nature images show
a significantly higher degree on attitude than participants exposed to ads
without nature images.

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Table 3: Structural equation analysis: regression coefficients (standardised,

unstandardised, model fit)

Variable Environmental Nature experiences Brand attitude

Experimental factor 0.46; 0.62a *
Type of advert 0.71; 1.21* 0.59; 0.89* 0.03; 0.05b NS
Environmental 0.35; 0.33*
Nature experiences 0.40; 0.44*
Model fit: RMR = 0.04; GFI = 0.95; AGFI = 0.90; NFI = 0.98; CFI = 0.98; RMSA = 0.08

Note: RMR = root mean square residual; GFI = Goodness-of-Fit Index; AGFI = Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index; NFI = Normed Fit
Index; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.
a. Direct effect not mediated.
b. Direct effect if total effects mediated by latent variable ‘environmental’ and ‘nature’ experiences.
*p < 0.001
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Subsequent to the comparison of mean values of the indicators, a struc-

tural equation analysis was conducted to assess the effect of the latent
variables on the attitude construct (Table 3). Also in the case of this model
fit, measures indicate an adequate representation of the underlying data by
the proposed factor structure. Furthermore, the structural equation analysis
indicates significant positive influences of both utilitarian environmental
product attributes (standardised regression coefficient [SRC] = 0.35; p <
0.001) and the ‘virtual nature experiences’ construct (SRC = 0.40; p < 0.001)
on brand attitude, with the highest influence in the case of the latter.
In addition, Baron and Kenny’s (1986) test on mediator effects was
carried out to assess if the effect of the experimental condition on brand
attitude was mediated by the two intervening perceptual variables – that
is, the perception of environmental product features, and the virtual
nature experiences construct, as proposed in the scope of the conceptual
framework. The direct effect of the experimental factor on the attitude
construct was highly significant in the absence of the mediators, but
turned non-significant when the mediator variables were introduced into
the model, indicating that, indeed, strong mediator effects were present.
Thus, also the structural equation analysis supports the significant effect
of the experimental factor ‘type of advert’ on the brand attitude. However,
this effect is not direct but mediated by the also significant positive effects
of the variables perception of environmental product features and virtual nature
experiences on attitude towards the brand.

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 Green advertising revisited

Discussion and implications

The results of the different steps of the data analysis proved support-
ive overall for the hypotheses developed in the scope of the conceptual
framework. As hypothesised, both substantive claims and the associations
with nature imagery led to significant positive effects on the consumer’s
attitude towards the brand.
With regard to the suggested hypotheses, the communication of substan-
tive environmental claims – that is, information on specific environmental
product features – led overall to an enhanced brand attitude by enriching
the brand with associations on environmental features (Hypothesis 1).
Furthermore, pleasant nature imagery led to the association of specific
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emotional experiences with the brand that are to some extent comparable
to those experienced in contact with nature. These ‘virtual nature experi-
ences’ are perceived as a distinct perceptual dimension of green brand
associations, differentiated from the perception of utilitarian environmen-
tal product features (Hypothesis 2). Finally, and central to the purpose of
this study, the findings also confirmed that the adequate conditioning of
a green brand with virtual nature experiences led to a significantly higher
degree of brand attitude, as compared to the sole effect of substantive
informational claims (Hypothesis 3).
Consumption experiences analogous to emotions experienced in ‘real’
nature may satisfy the hypothetical generalised human need or desire for
contact with natural environments. Consequently, green consumption may
be stimulated by adding emotional experiences of the ‘nature-feelings’
kind to benefit the perception of environmental brands. This approach
may even turn out to be effective with regard to further pro-environmental
behaviours, besides product consumption. The case of the experimental
green brands in the study illustrates how a brand, initially not perceived
as environmentally friendly and not associated with nature, can be trans-
formed to be perceived as environmental friendly and to evoke virtual
nature experiences in the consumer’s perception by employing persua-
sive communication strategies – that is, through classical conditioning. As
Levi and Kocher (1999) suggested, because our society has become more
urbanised and it is increasingly difficult for people to gain access to nature,
people will tend to experience simulated nature experiences through their
exposure to virtual nature in the media. To the extent that this captures

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

their experience of nature, it is meeting the human desire to experience

nature and gain the psychological benefits (pleasure, stress reduction,
etc.) of interacting with nature. Accordingly, the present research gives
support to the hypothesis that, in societies in which real nature experi-
ences are becoming scarce while life is becoming increasingly virtual,
the consumption of green products – adequately conditioned with virtual
nature experiences – may serve as a surrogate for the ‘real’ contact with
nature. In green advertising research, nature imagery has been classified
as a vague and possibly ineffective green claim. However, when images
of pleasant nature scenery are presented together with substantive infor-
mational environmental claims – as in the scope of this study – they may
in fact be central to green advertising effectiveness. The purpose of this
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research is to highlight the role of virtual nature experiences with the aim
to contribute to the effectiveness of communication methods applied by
green marketing practitioners who genuinely wish to preserve, or even
improve, the quality of the environment.
Regarding the limitations of this study, the results should be treated
with some caution, as the study was experimental and not conducted in
a real-life setting. Yet the results are to a certain extent representative
because of the sample characteristics and the fact that the experimen-
tal stimuli consisted of multiple brands from different product catego-
ries. Furthermore, the findings can probably be transferred to different
national or cultural settings because the literature on the subject indicates
that the behaviours analysed are not culture specific but universal human
reaction patterns. The weakest point of the study perhaps lies within the
single exposure of the participants to the stimulus. Proper conditioning
effects should be expected to occur after a higher number of exposures to
the same stimulus. Still, the relatively long and forced exposure may have
made up, to some extent, for the reduced number of exposures and, after
all, observed effects were significant – that is, transfer of emotional experi-
ences did indeed take place. In a more real-life setting, with an advertis-
ing budget allowing for a high number of advertising exposures, stronger
persuasion effects could possibly be expected.

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Appendix 1: Experimental advertisements (selection

from a total of 15 experimental ads)
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Appendix 2: Measurement scale for the assessment of

green brand associations

Brand X respects the environment

Brand X helps protect the environment
Brand X does not cause pollution
Brand X is environmentally friendlier than other competing brands
Brand X makes me imagine nature, fields and forests
Brand X evokes the sensation of being in nature
Brand X makes me feel close to nature

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their
helpful comments and suggestions, which have significantly contributed
to the improvement of this article. This study received financial support
from research project EHU07/04.

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 International Journal of Advertising, 2009, 28(4)

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About the authors

Patrick Hartmann, PhD, is Professor of Marketing and Communication at
the University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain. His current interests
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are in brand communications, environmental consumer behaviour and

green advertising.
Vanessa Apaolaza-Ibáñez, PhD, is Professor of Marketing at the
University of the Basque Country, Bilbao, Spain. Her current research
focuses on advertising effects, female psychology, environmental advertis-
ing and music in advertising.
Address correspondence to: Patrick Hartmann, Departamento de
Economía de la Empresa y Comercialización, (Economía Financiera II),
Facultad de CC. Ec. y Empresariales, University of the Basque Country,
Avda. Lehendakari Aguirre, 83, 48015 Bilbao, Spain
Email: dr.patrick.hartmann@gmail.com; patrick.hartmann@ehu.es

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