Section 4: Occipital lobe:

1. Vision
Early Childhood
Temporal lobe
1. Hearing
Chapter 7: 2. Memory
Physical and Cognitive Development in 3. Language processing

Early Childhood Parietal lobe:

1. Spatial location
2. Motor control
1 3. Attention

PHYSICAL CHANGES

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE

Height And Weight

2 ½ inches and 5 to 7 pounds
– average child growth a year

Preschool years – boys and girl’s bodies lengthen 3 Three quarters adult size
6 95% adult size
End of preschool years – lost their top-heavy look 4 Hand-eye coordination
Brain – spurt of growth
Fatty tissue – girls 3 to 15 Dramatic anatomical changes
3 to 6 Frontal lobe
Muscle tissue – boys

Note: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

 Growth patterns differ individually.
 Variation is due to heredity.
Gross Motor Skills
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO HEIGHT DIFFERENCES:
3 years of age – simple movements: hopping, jumping and running
1. Ethnic origin
- pride and accomplisment
2. Nutrition

4 years of age – athletic prowess, adventuroues

The Brain
3 years of age – three-quarters of adult size 5 years of age – stunts, races, climbing objects

6 years of age – 95% of adult size 3 Simple movements

Hopping
Myelination – axons are covered and insulated by a layer of fat cells Jumping
that increases the speed and efficiency of travelling information. Running

4 years of age – hand-eye coordination Pride and accomplishment

4 Adventurous
3 to 15 years of age – brain undergoes dramatic anatomical changes
Athletic prowess
5 Stunts
4 years – brain experience spurt of growth
Races
Climbing object
NOTE:
 Overall size of the brain does not show dramatic growth in the
3- to 15- year age range.
Fine Motor Skills
3 to 6 years of age – rapid growth in frontal lobe
3 years of age – pincer grip
Frontal lobe:
1. Voluntary movement 4 years of age – put things perfectly
2. Thinking 5 years of age – intermodal perception
3. Personality
4. Purpose
3 Pincer grip
 4 Perfectionist
5 Intermodal perception 95th percentile – overweight

85th percentile – at risk of overweight

Sleep
NOTE:
 Overweight at 3 years of age are at risk of being overweight
10 to 13 hrs – sleep
at 12 years of age.
 Weight at 5 years of age is linked to weight at 9 years of
NOTE:
age.
 Amount of sleep and uninterrupted sleep is important.  Prevalence of being overweight persist to 4 to 11 years of
 Bedtime resistance associated with conduct problems and
age.
hyperactivity.
 Sleep duration linked to overweight.
Childhood obesity – most common
SLEEP PROBLEMS:
Type 2 diabetes – linked with obesity and low level of fitness in
1. Narcolepsy – extreme daytime sleepiness children as young as 5 years of age.
2. Insomnia – difficulty in going to sleep and staying asleep
3. nightmares
Exercise
Sleep problems show:
2 hrs:
1. depression
 1 hr structured play
2. anxiety
 1 hr free play
5 months of age – difficult temperament
3 to 5 years old - outdoor: inactive
17 months of age – anxiousness
Physical activities – influenced by family
3 to 8 years – adolescent problems
3 to 5 years old – incorporation of move and learn increases
activity level
NUTRITION AND EXCERCISE
Malnutrition in Young Children From Low-Income
Nutrition
Families
Saturated and trans fat – raise cholesterol and increase heart
disease Anemia – failure to eat inadequate amounts of quality meat and dark
green vegetables
430 calories – 1/3 of calorie intake recommended for 4 to 8 years
old
ILLNESS AND DEATH
Note:
 Eating behavior is influenced by caregiver’s behavior. The United States

Improves children’s eating behavior: Death:

1. Predictable schedule 1. Motor vehicle accident
2. Model eating healthy food 2. Cancer
3. Make mealtimes pleasant occasion 3. Cardiovascular diseases
4. Engage in certain feeding styles. 4. Accidental deaths:
a. Drowning
b. Falls
Sensitive responsive caregiver: c. Burns
1. Caregiver is nurturant d. Poisoning
2. Provide clear info wat is expected
3. Responds to child’s cues Parental smoking – develop wheezing symptoms and asthma

Restrictive feeding style

1.
Forceful
2.
Restrictive Secondhand smoke exposure:
3.
Not recommended
1. Sleep problems
Body mass index (BMI) – determines the category for obesity, 2. Sleep-disoriented breathing
overweight, and at risk of being overweight computed by a
formula that takes into account the weight and height of a child
6 years of age - lead poisoning
97th percentile – obese
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF LEAD POISONING: - expands mental world
1. lower intelligence - scribbles, language and pretend play
2. lower achievement
3. ADHD limitations:
4. elevated blood pressure
1. egocentrism
Children in poverty, higher rates of:  inability to distinguish between one’s own
5. death perspective and someone else’s perspective
6. accidents
 THREE MOUNTAIN TASK: children pick their
7. asthma
view rather than the doll’
 Preschool children show ability to consider
other’s perspective
The State of Illness and Health of World’s Children
2. animism
UNICEF – The State Of The World’s Children  belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities
and are capable of action
 example:
Under-5 mortality rate is cause by these factors: The three pushed the leaf off, and it fell down.
1. immunization
2. dehydration 3. symbolism
3. availability of maternal and child health  Drawings are fanciful and inventive
4. income
 Simple but strong, abstractions found in modern
5. food availability
6. clean water availability art.
7. safe sanitation
8. security
The Intuitive Thought Substage
1 of every 5 nations in the world:
1. hunger Intuitive thought substage
2. malnutrition
3. illness – 4 to 7 years of age
4. inadequate access to health care - use primitive reasoning
5. unsafe water - always asks questions
6. lack of security

5 years old – asks “why” questions

HIV/AIDS – common death
Intuitive – young children are sure about their their knowledge and
understanding yet are unaware of how they what they know.
2
COGNITIVE CHANGES Centration and the Limits of Preoperational Thought

Piaget’s PREOPERATIONAL STAGE Centration – centering of attention on one characteristics to the

exclusion of all others
Sensorimotor stage – organize and coordinate sensation and
perceptions with physical actions and movements Conservation – awareness that altering an object’s or a
substance’s appearance does not change its basic
Preoperational stage – 2 to 7 years of age properties.
- second stage
- represent world with words, images, and
drawings
- egocentrism, magical beliefs CONSERVATION TASK:

Preoperational – child does not yet perform operations

Operations – reversible mental actions

- adding and subtracting numbers

Preoperational thought – ability to reconstruct in thought what has

been established in behavior.

Children are presented with two identical beakers, each filled

The Symbolic Function Stage with the same level of liquid.
They are asked if the two beakers had the same amount of
Symbolic function substage liquid, they said yes.
– first substage, 2 to 4 Then the liquid from one beaker is transferred to another
- ability to represent an object that is not present beaker, taller and narrower.
 They are asked if the two beakers had the same amount of
liquid, they said no.
Because of the differing heights and width.

Conservation –of-liquid-task – sign that children are at the

preoperational stage

FAILURE SHOWED:
1. Centration
2. Inability to perform operations

NOTE: Lower limit – level of skills reached by the child working

 Child might be able to conserve volume but not independently
number.
Upper limit – level of additional responsibility that the child can
Rochel Gelman – attentional training in one dimension influences accept with the assistance of an able instructor
another dimension
Skills – can be accomplished only with assistance of a more skilled
person
- “buds” – aka “flowers” of development

“fruits” of development – child can accomplish independently

Scaffolding

Scaffolding – changing the level of support

- adjusting the amount of guidance to fit the child’s current
performance

NOTE:
 As competence increases, less guidance is given.

Language and Thought

VGOTSKY’S THEORY
Use of dialogue – role of language in child’s development
Children - describes as social creatures
Speech – to communicate and solve tasks
Cultural context – shape their mind
Language – to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior
Social interaction – develop their way of understanding and
thinking Private speech - for self-regulation
 egocentric
 immature
 tool of thought during the early childhood
 early transition in becoming more socially
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) communicative
 Private speech:
o when tasks are difficult
o made errors
o not sure how to proceed
o are more attentive
o improve their performance more

3 to 7 years old – transition from external to internal speech

- involves talking to oneself

Inner speech – internalized egocentric speech

- act without verbalizing
ZPD – range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone - thoughts
but can be learned with the guidance of a more knowledgeable
other Self- talk – egocentric
 reflects immaturity
 shaping thought
NOTE: View on Education plays a Education erely refine
education central role, helping the child’s cognitive
 All mental functions have external, social origins.
children learn the skills that have
 Children who use more private speech are more
tools of the culture emerged
socially competent. Teaching Teachers is a Teachers is a
 Private speech: facilitator and a facilitator and a guide,
implications
o When tasks are difficult guide, not a not a director
o Made errors director
o Not sure how to proceed
Provide support for
o Are more attentive
Establish many children to explore
o Improve their performance more
opportunities to their world and
learn in a real-world discover knowledge
setting
Teaching Strategies
Criticism:
VGOTSKY’S theory incorporated in classrooms:
 not specific enough about age-related changes
1. Assess the child’s ZPD
 the skilled helper presents the child with tasks of
 did not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional
capabilities contribute to cognitive development
varying difficulty to determine the best level at
which to begin instruction  overemphasize the role of language in teaching

2. Use the child’s ZPD in teaching

 teaching should begin toward the zone’s upper limit
INFORMATION PROCESSING
(level of additional responsibility that the child can
accept with the assistance of an able instructor)
 offer just enough assistance Information processing approach
 encourage  illuminates how children process information during the
preschool years
3. Use more-skilled peers as teachers

4. Place instruction in meaningful context

 Provide opportunities to experience learning in a Attention
real-world setting
Attention – focusing of mental resources on select information
5. Transform the classroom with Vgotskian ideas. - improves during preschool years
 Kamehameha Elemetary Education Program
(KEEP) in Hawaii 2 ASPECTS OF ATTENTION:
 20 minutes of “Center One” 1. executive attention
 scaffolding improves literacy skills  action planning
 allocating attention to goals
 error detection
Evaluating Vgostky’s Theory  compensation
 monitoring progress on tasks
Evaluation:  dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
1. development fits with the current belief that it is important to
evaluate the contextual factors in learning
2. sustained attention
 extended engagement with an object, task, event, or
social constructivist approach – emphasizes social contexts of
other aspect of the environment
learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed

2 WAYS A CHILD’S TO CONTROL ATTENTION IS

VGOTSKY PIAGET DEFICIENT:
Sociocultural Strong emphasis Little emphasis
1. salient versus relevant dimensions
context  children pay attention to stimuli that stand out
Constructivism Social constructivist Cognitive
(salient)
constructivist
 6 to 7 years old – attend more efficiently to stimuli
Stages No general stages Strong emphasis on
that are relevant
of development stages (SPCF)
proposed 2. planfulness
Key processes Zone of proximal Schema
 preschool children – use haphazard comparison
development Assimilation
strategy (not examining all details before making a
Language Accommodation
judgement)
Dialogue Operations
 elementary school age – use systematically
Tools of culture Conservation
comparison strategy (compare details one at a time)
Classification
Role of A major role Has a miniminal role
language Langauge plays a Cognition directs
powerful role in language
 3. Interviewing techniques can produces
distortions in children’s report about highly
salient events.

Strategies and Problem Solving

Strategies- deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of

information

TWO TYPICAL STRATEGIES:

1. Rehearsing
2. Organizing information

Hungary – provide activities that improve attention 3 to 4 years old – cannot understand that a single stimulus can be
describe in incompatible ways from two different perspectives
Computer exercises – develop attention
“rule of color” ˃ the “red one” ˃ the rabbit
Activities (4 to 6 years old)
1. use a joystick 4 years old – concept of perspectives : allows them to appreciate
2. working memory that a single stimulus can be described in two different ways
3. resolution of conflict

preschool children – sustained attention is related to school The Child’s Theory of Mind
readiness (achievement and language skills)

Theory of mind – awareness of one’s own mental process and

mental process of others
Memory
- view children as “a thinker who is trying to
explain, predict, and understand people’s thoughts, feelings
Memory – retention of information over time and utterances.”

2 TYPES:
1. implicit memory DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES….
2. explicit memory
18 months to 3 years:
FORMS OF EXPLICIT MEMORY: 1. Perceptions
1. short term memory 2 years of age – recognizes that we have different
 retain information for 30 seconds, if there is no perceptions
rehearsal of information
3 years of age – child realizes that looking leads to
rehearsal – repeating information after it has been knowing what’s inside the container
presented
2. Emotions
memory-span task – way to assess a short term memory Child can distinguish between positive (happy) and
- hear a shot list of stimuli presented at negative (sad) emotion.
a rapid pace then, you are asked to repeat the digits. 3. Desires
Toddler recognizes that if people want something, they
Note: will try to get it.
 Short term memory increases during childhood. Recognizing we have different desires
 Memory span varies from one individual to another.
 Speed improves dramatically across the childhood 18 months old – food preferences may not match
years. others

2. long term memory 3 to 5 years old – false beliefs (beliefs that are not true)
 memory becomes more accurate - Band aids box

Factors that influence accuracy:

1. There are age differences in susceptibility to
suggestion.
 preschoolers are more susceptible

2. There are individual difference in

susceptibility.
 ability to produce a high quality narrative was
linked to their resistance to attention
 KNOWLEDGE ON MORPHOLOGY RULES:
1. Use of plural nouns
2. Use of possessive nouns
3. Put appropriate ending on verbs
4. Use prepositions
5. Use articles
6. Use verb to be
7. OVERGENERALIZATION OF THE RULES

˂ 4 years old – do not understand false belief.

5 to 7 years old – deepening appreciation of the mind

Ambiguous line drawing – a drawing that can be perceived in two

different ways
CHANGES IN SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

SYNTAX

WH- QUESTIONS ˃ AUXIALIARY VERB ˃ SUBJECT

Where is going daddy?

auxiliary-inversion rule
˂ 7 years old – there is only right answer, and it was not okay to WH- QUESTIONS ˃ AUXIALIARY VERB ˃ SUBJECT
have two different opinions Where is daddy going?

Early adolescence – can have ambivalent feelings: person can SEMANTICS

both feel happy or sad about the same event  dramatic vocabulary development
- can have recursive thinking: thinking what
other people are thinking about. 18 to 6 years of age – one word per hour

14, 000 – words known by Grade 1

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES….

Executive function – describes several functions (inhibition and

planning) that are important for flexible, future-oriented behavior
ADVANCES IN PRAGMATICS

Autism: Pragmatics
 Better at reasoning tasks  engage in extended discourses
 Not a homogenous grp  talk to things that are not here
 Some have less severe social and communication problems  change speech style to suit situation (4 to 5 years old)
 Weaknesses in executive functioning may relate to theory of
mind tasks
 Process information in a detailed, almost obsessive way
YOUNG CHILDREN’S LITERACY

Important home literacy experiences:

1. literacy experience
2. quality of mother’s engagement with the child
3. provision of learning materials.

3 4
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

UNDERSTANDING PHONOLOGY AND VARIATIONS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

MORPHOLOGY EDUCATION

PHONOLOGY – more sensitive to sounds of spoken words Child-centered kindergarten

Child-centered kindergarten – emphasizes the education of the
whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive and
socioemotional development THE SELF

The Montessori Approach Initiative vs. Guilt

Montessori approach – educational philosophy in which children Initiative vs guilt – convinced that they are persons of their own
are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing - discover what kind of person they will become
activities and are allowed to one from one activity to another as - identify intensely with their parents
they desire.
- EQ ˃ IQ Initiative – children at this age exuberantly move out into a wider
social world
Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate
Conscience – great governor of initiative
Education
Guilt – lowers self-esteem
Developmentally appropriate approach – education that
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age-
appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (age-
appropriateness)
Self-Understanding and Understanding of Others

Desired outcomes: SELF-UNDERSTANDING…

 thinking critically Self-understanding – representation of self, the substance and the
 working cooperatively content of self-conceptions
 solving problems
 developing self-regulatory skills Self-recognition – distinguish themselves through body attributes,
 enjoying learning maternal possessions and physical activities.

EDUCATION FOR YOUND CHILDREN WHO ARE 4 to 5 years of age – use psychological traits and emotion terms
DISADVANTAGED Optimism – don’t distinguish between desired competence and
actual competence
Curriculum Controversy - confuse ability and effort

child-centered, constructivist approach

vs UNDERSTANDING OTHERS…
academic, direct-instruction approach 4 to 5 years of age – use psychological traits and emotion terms

Universal Preschool Education 3 years of age – children mistrust others by a single error
- recognizes joint commitment
NOTE:
4 years of age – consider a relative frequency of errors before
 Quality preschool program increase the likelihood that they
mistrust
will be retained in a group or drop-out.
 Bring considerable cost savings.

NOTE:
CONTROVERSIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
 CHILDREN ARE NOT EGOCENTRIC.
EDUCATION

Head Start Program - a government-funded program that is

Emotional Development
designed to provide children from low0income families with the
opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for
school success. NOTE:
- serve children from birth to 3 years  Growing awareness of self is linked to the ability to feel and
expanding range of emotions.
Chapter 8:
Expressing Emotions
Socioemotional Development in Early
Childhood Self-conscious emotions – children must be able to distinctly
refer to themselves from others.
- 18 months of age
1
EMOTIONAL & PERSONALITY Understanding Emotions
DEVELOPMENT
NOTE:
 Increased understanding of emotion
 Emotion knowledge was positively related to 3- to 5-
year-olds’ social competence and prosocial
behavior.
 Emotion knowledge was negatively related to 3- to 5-
year-olds’ internalizing and externalizing problems.
2 to 4 years of age – increase number of terms they use to
describe their emotions
- learn about causes and consequences of
feelings
4 to 5 years of age – ability to reflect on emotions
- ability to understand that a same event can
elicit different feelings in different people
5 years of age – determine emotions
2 to 4 years of age Terms to describe emotions
Causes and consequences of feelings
4 to 5 years of age Reflect on emotions
Different feelings
5 years of age Determine emotions
Regulating Emotions
Emotion regulation – ability to manage the demands and conflicts
they face in interacting with others
EMOTION-COACHING AND EMOTION-DISMISSING
PARENTS…
Emotion-coaching parents
– monitor their children’s emotions,
- view their children’s negative emotions as opportunities for
teaching,
- assist them in labeling emotions, and
- coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.
- use more scaffolding and praise
- interact in a less rejecting manner
- focus their attention better
Emotion-dismissing parents – deny, ignore, or change the
negative emotions.
REGULATION OF EMOTION AND PEER RELATIONS…
 Ability to modulate one’s emotion is an important skill that
benefits children in their relationship with peers.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral development – involves the development of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about
what people should do in their interactions with other people.
Moral Feelings
Feelings of anxiety and guilt – central to the account of moral
development
Superego – moral element of personality
Empathy – responding to another person’s feelings with emotions
that echoes the other’s feelings
Perspective taking – ability to discern another’s inner psychological
states.
Moral Reasoning
Distinct stages according to Piaget:
1. Heteronomous morality
 4 to 7 years of age
 Justice and rules as unchangeable properties
2. Transition
 7 to 10 years of age
3. Autonomous morality
 10 years old and older
 laws and rules are created by people
 consider intentions and consequences
 intentions ˃ consequences
immanent justice – if a rule is broken, punishment will be melted
out immediately
NOTE:
 Older children : punishment occurs only if someone
witnesses the wrongdoing and that, punishment is not
inevitable.
 Changes in moral reasoning occur in mutual-give-
and-take-relations
 Parent-child relations are less likely to advance
moral reasoning.
Moral Behavior
Moral behavior – processes of reinforcement, punishment and
imitation explain the development.
NOTE:
 What children do in one situation is often only weakly related
to what they do in other situations
 Ability to resist temptation is tied to self-control.
 Self-control is a result of delayed gratification
Conscience
Conscience – internal regulation of standards of right an wrong that
involves an integration of all three component of moral
development: moral thought, feelings, and behavior.
NOTE:
 Young children’s willingness to embrace the values of their
parents that flows from a positive, close relationship.
Relativist – doing whatever makes you happy.
  Natural selection favored males who adopted short-
Parenting and Young Children’s Moral Development term mating strategies.
 Female:
Aspects that contribute to children’s moral development: o Improved when they secured resources that ensured
1. Relational quality that their offspring would survive
2. Parental discipline
3. Proactive strategies Criticism:
4. Conversational dialogue  Hypothesis backed by speculations
 Little attention to cultural and individual variations
NOTE:
 Mutually responsive orientation and a decrease in parents’
use of power assertion in discipline a young child is linked of
Social Influences
an increase in child’s internalization an self-regulation

Proactive strategies – using diversion, such as distracting or SOCIAL THEORIES OF GENDER…

moving them to alternative activities. (younger) 1. Social role theory
 gender differences result from contrasting roles of
male and female
Conversational dialogue – talking to them about values they
 social hierarchy and division of labor are important
deem to be important (older)
causes of differences in power, assertiveness, and
nurturing.

GENDER 9 DIFFERENCES:
a. women ˃ men
Gender - characteristics of people as male or female nonverbal
conform grp pressures
perform better
Gender identity - sense of being male or female which most life satisfaction
children acquire by the age of 2 ½ years old.

b. men ˃ women
Gender role – sets of expectations that prescribe how female or leaders
male should think, act and feel helpful
aggressive
Gender typing – refers to the acquisition of traditional masculine
or feminine role 2. Psychoanalytic theory of gender (PHALLIC : 3 to
6)
 preschool develops sexual attraction towards the
opposite-sex parent
Biological Influences  Oedipus and Electra Complex

CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES… 3. Cognitive theory of gender

XX – female (LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
 children observe and imitate behavior and through
XY - male being rewarder and punished for gender-appropriate
and gender-inappropriate behavior
2 Main classes of sex hormone:
STAGES:
1. Estrogen (estradiol)
 released by ovaries a. gender identity
 influence development of female physical sex b. gender stability (4 to 6)
characteristics c. gender constancy (6 to 7)

2. androgen
 released by testes
 influence development of male physical sex PARENTAL INFLUENCES…
characteristics MOTHER FATHER
More obedient More involved with the
NOTE: More responsible promotions of intellectual
More restrictions development
 low level of androgen = normal development of female
More attentive
sex organs Engage in more activities

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY VIEW…

evolutionary psychology – adaptation during human evolution PEER INFLUENCES…
produced psychological differences in male and females Peers – extensively reward and punish gender behavior
- greater pressure for boys to conform to their traditional male
NOTE: role
 Children:
o unhappy
o fearful
o anxious about comparing themselves with others
Aspects of peer relations:
o fail to initiate activity
1. gender composition o weak communication skills
3 years old Same-sex playmates
4 to 12 increases 2. authoritative
- parent encourage their children to be independent but
still place limits and controls on their actions
2. group size (5 years onward) - extensive verbal-give-and-take is allowed
Boys Girls - patents are warm and nurturant
clusters (6 children) dyads or triads - associated with children’s social competence
organized group games
Children:
3. interaction in same sex group o cheerful
Boys Girls o self-reliant
Rough-and-tumble play Collaborative discourse o self-controlled
competitive - talk and act in a reciprocal o achievement oriented
Conflict manner o tend to maintain healthy relations with peers
Ego displays o cope well with stress
Risk taking o neglectful parenting
Dominance o indulgent parenting

3. neglectful parenting
Cognitive Influences - parent is very uninvolved in the child’s life
- associated with social competence, especially a lack
of self-control
Mechanisms by which gender develop:
1. imitation
Children:
2. rewards
3. punishments o low self-esteem
o immature
o alienated from family
gender schema theory – gender-typing emerges as children o truancy
gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender- o delinquency
appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
4. indulgent parenting
schema – cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide - parents are highly involved with their children but
individual’s perceptions place few demands or control on them
- associated with social competence, especially a lack
gender schema – organizes the world in terms of female and male of self-control
- fuels gender-typing
Children:
o rarely respect
o difficulty in controlling their behavior and peer relation
o domineering
o egocentric
o noncompliant
Accepting, Rejecting,
responsive unresponsive
Demanding, Authoritative Authoritarian
controlling
2 Undemanding, Indulgent neglectful
uncontrolling
FAMILIES
Factors of correlation:
1. authoritarian parents
PARENTING
2. aggressive children
3. share genes
Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Four types of parenting styles:
1. authoritarian Parenting Styles in Context
- restrictive, punitive style in which parents encourage
their children to follow their directions and respect their
work and effort.
Asian-American parents – continue aspects of traditional Asian
- places firm limits and controls on the child child-rearing practices as authoritarian
- allows little verbal exchange
- associated with children’s social competence Latino – positive, and encourage development of self
African-American – use physical punishment
Types of Child Maltreatment:
Why do African-Americans enforce physical punishment? 1. Physical abuse
- To enforce rules in dangerous environment in which they are - infliction of physical injury
most likely to thrive - parent may not intend to hurt the child
- injury resulted from excessive physical punishment

2. Child neglect
Punishment - failure to provide the child’s basic needs
- can be physical (abandonment), educational (child
truancy), or emotional (inattention).
Corporal (physical) punishment – necessary and even desirable - most common form of maltreatment
method
- most likely to remember 3. Sexual abuse
- fondling a child’s genitals, intercourse, incest, rape,
Physical punishment was linked with: sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation
1. Antisocial behavior through prostitution or the production of pornographic
a. cheating materials
b. telling lies
c. being mean to others 4. Emotional abuse
d. bullying - acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that
e. getting into fights have cause, or could cause serious behavioral,
f. disobedient
cognitive, or emotional problems.

Physical punishment was associated with:

The Context of Abuse
1. higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression
2. lower levels of moral internalization
3. mental health NOTE:
4. adolescent depression  No single factor causes child maltreatment.
5. externalized problems
 Parents are involved in an intergenerational transmission of
abuse.
Reasons for avoiding spanking:
1. Parents present out-of-control models for handling stressful
situations. Hence, children may imitate their aggressive, out-
of-control behavior. Developmental Consequence of Abuse
2. Punishment can instill fear, avoidance, or rage.
3. Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to
Consequences:
do.
4. Punishment can be abusive. 1. poor emotion regulation
2. attachment problems
3. problems in peer relations
Time out – child is removed from a setting that offers a positive 4. difficulty in adapting to school
reinforcement 5. psychological problems
6. difficulty in maintaining healthy intimate relationships
7. violent romantic relationship
8. sexual risk taking
Physical punishment must be: 9. substance abuse
1. Mild
2. Infrequent
3. Age-appropriate institutional neglect – foster children who were neglected
4. Used in context of a positive parent-child relationship
TREATMENTS EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING CHILD
MALTREATMENT:
Coparenting 1. home visitation
2. parent-infancy psychotherapy

Coparenting – support that parents provide one another in jointly

raising a child
SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS AND ORDER

CHILD MALTREATMENT Sibling Relationships

Child abuse – refers to both neglect and abuse 2 to 4 years of age – conflict every 10 minutes

Child maltreatment - does not have the same emotional impact Parents react in three ways:
and can include diverse conditions 1. intervene or try to help them resolve the conflict
2. admonish or threaten them
3. do nothing at all

Types of Child Maltreatment Characteristics of sibling relationships:

 1. emotional quality of relationship
2. familiarity and intimacy of the relationships Cross-Cultural Studies
3. variation in siblings relationship
Positive:
 Openness
Birth Order
Ethnicity
First born: acculturation – cultural changes that occur when one culture
 most intelligent comes in contact with another
 achieving
 adult-oriented
 helpful
SES
 conforming
 self-controlled
Lowes SES:
 conscientious  More concerned with their children’s expectations
 Create a home atmosphere
 Use physical punishment
Later-born:  More directive
 agreeable  Less conservational
 liberal
 rebellious
Higher SES:
 More concerned with developing children’s initiative
Only child:  Delay of gratification
 spoiled brat  Home in equal participants
 lack of self-control  Less likely to physical punishments
 self-centered behavior  Less directive
 More conservational

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING

SOCIETY

Working Parents

NOTE:
 Overworking parents tend to be irritable at home.
 Children of working member engage in less gender
stereotyping and have more egalitarian views.
3
Children in Divorced Families
PEER RELATIONS, PLAY, AND TELEVISION

NOTE: PEER RELATIONS

 Children from divorced families show poorer adjustment that
nondivorced families. peer – children at about the same age or maturity level
 Acrimonious relationships have negative effects.
 Poorer adjustment due to divorce Peer Group Functions
 Gender differences are less pronounces and consistent than
was previously believed
Withdrawn children – rejected by peers or are victimized and feel
 Joint custody family was better adjusted than children in sole-
lonely are at risk for depression
custody families.
 Boys adjust better in father-custody families.
Aggressive – risk for developing a number of problems, including
delinquency and dropping out of school

Gay and Lesbian Parents

Friends
NOTE:
 There are only few differences between children growing up Friend – someone to play with
with heterosexual parents and gay and lesbian parents.
 No differences are found in adjustment and mental health of Preschool children – has friends of different ethnicity and gender
children.

The Connected Worlds of Parent-Child and Peer

CULTURAL, ETHNIC, AND SOCIOECONOMIC Relations
VARIATIONS
NOTE:
 Lifestyle decisions by parents determine the child’s pool of
friends. B. Pretense/Symbolic Play:
 In times of stress, children turn to parents for support. Pretense/symbolic play – child transforms the physical
environment into a symbol
Linked to social competence and social acceptance: - 18 months of age
 Warmth - peaks at 4 to 5 years of age
 Advice giving - preschool years – “golden age”
 Provision of opportunities
18 months – pretend play – siya lang
Social competence – prosocial behavior, low aggression
3 to 5 years old – role play
Social acceptance – well liked by peers and teachers - socio-dramatic play
- town with fire
Child’s peer relations ˃˃ attachment security and marital quality - extinguish fire
- imagine with other kids

PLAY
Social Play:
Play – pleasurable activity in which children engage for its own sake, Social play – involves social interactions with peers
and its function and forms vary.
STAGES:
1. unoccupied behavior
Play’s Functions - no play
- no objective
Functions:
1. master anxieties and conflicts 2. solitary play
2. cope with problems - egocentrism
3. work off excess physical energy - play different toy on his own
4. release pent-up tensions
5. important for cognitive development 3. unlooked behavior
6. a child’s work - suggest
7. permits to practice their competencies and acquire skills - no interaction
8. symbolic and make-believe plays - observation

play therapy – allow children to work off frustrations and to analyze 4. parallel paly
- immature to mature
children’s conflicts and ways of coping with them
- mimic other kid

NOTE: 5. associative play

 Parents should encourage imaginary play because it - play with the same toy
advances creative thought. - no teamwork

play – exciting and pleasurable 6. cooperative

- satisfies our exploratory drive - self-identification
- with teamwork

exploratory drive – involves curiosity and desire for information

about something new or unusual
Constructive Play:
Social interactions the benefit literacy skills: Constructive play – play that combines sensorimotor and repetitive
1. negotiation activity with symbolic representation of ideas
2. discussion - occurs when children engage in self-regulated
creation or construction of product of a solution
- manipulate objects
Types of Play - focus: fingertips
- sandbox
A. Sensorimotor and Practice Play:
1. sensorimotor play
- derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor
Games:
schemes
- 6 months Games – activities engaged in pleasure that include rules and often
competition with one or more individuals
2. practice play
- repetition of behavior when new skills are being Example: card game
learned or when physical or mental mastery and
coordination of skills are required for games or sports
- throughout life
TELEVISION NOTE:
 Exposure to TV violence caused the increased
aggression in the children in this investigation
POSITIVE INFLUENCES:
 Playing violent games Is linked to aggression in both
1. motivating educational programs
2. increasing their information about the world beyond their sexes.
immediate environment
3. providing models of prosocial behavior Effects of TV on Child’s Prosocial Behavior

NOTE:
Effects of TV on Child’s Aggression
 SESSAME STREET --- IMITITATE POSTIVE SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR