Phase Diagrams

Introduction
 Phase diagrams are an important tool in the armory of an materials scientist
 In the simplest sense a phase diagram demarcates regions of existence of various
phases. (Phase diagrams are maps)
 Phase diagrams are also referred to as “equilibrium diagrams” or “constitutional
diagrams”. This usage requires special attention: through the term used is
“equilibrium”, in practical terms the equilibrium is not global equilibrium but
Microstructural level equilibrium.
 Broadly two kinds of phase diagrams can be differentiated* → those involving
time and those which do not involve time.
 In this chapter we shall deal with the phase diagrams not involving time.
This type can be further sub classified into:
 Those with composition as a variable (e.g. T vs. %Composition)
 Those without composition as a variable (e.g. P vs.T)
 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT) diagrams and Continuous-Cooling-
Transformation (CCT) diagrams involve time. These diagrams will be considered
in the chapter on Heat treatment.

*This is form a convenience in understanding point of view

 Definitions
Components of a system

 Independent chemical species which comprise the system. These could be Elements, Ions,
Compounds
Example: Au-Cu system : Components →Au, Cu (elements)
Ice-water system : Component→H2O (compound)
Al2O3-Cr2O3 system : Components→Al2O3, Cr2O3

Phase
 A physically distinct, chemically homogeneous and mechanically separable region or
portion of a material system (e.g. gas, crystal, amorphous…)
 Gases : Gaseous state always a single phase → mixed at atomic or molecule level.
 Liquids: Liquid solution is a single phase → e.g. Nacl in H2O and Liquid mixtures consists
of two or more phases → e.g. Oil in water (no mixing at the atomic level)
 Solids: In general due to several compositions and crystals structures many phases are
possible.
 For the same composition different crystal structures represent different phases. E.g.
Fe (BCC) and Fe (FCC) are different phases
What is a ‘PHASE’?, contd…
A phase has the following characteristics:
1. the same structure or atomic arrangement throughout;
2. roughly the same composition and properties throughout; and
3. a definite interface between the phase and any surrounding or adjoining phases.

Illustration of phases and solubility

(a) The three forms of water – gas, liquid, and solid –

are each a phase.
(b) Water and alcohol have unlimited solubility.
(c) Salt and water have limited solubility.
(d) Oil and water have virtually no solubility.
 Definitions
What kinds of phases exist?

 Based on state → Gas, Liquid, Solid

 Based on atomic order → Amorphous, Quasi-crystalline, Crystalline
 Based on band structure → Insulating, Semi-conducting, Semi-metallic, Metallic
 Based on Property → Para-electric, Ferromagnetic, Superconducting
 Based on stability → Stable, Metastable, Unstable
 Also sometimes- Based on size/geometry of an entity → Nanocrystalline, mesoporous,
layered.

Phase transformation

 Phase transformation is the change of one phase into another. For example
 Water → Ice and α-Fe (BCC) → γ-Fe (FCC)

Grain

 The single crystalline part of polycrystalline metal separated by similar entities by a grain
boundary
 Definitions
Solute
 The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to a lesser or minor extent;
the component that is dissolved in the solvent.

Solvent

 The component of either a liquid or solid solution that is present to a greater or major
extent; the component that dissolves the solute.

System

 System, has two meanings. First, ‘‘system’’ may refer to a specific body of material or
object. Or, it may relate to the series of possible alloys consisting of the same components,
but without regard to alloy composition

Solubility Limit

 For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature, there is a maximum
concentration of solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution; this
is called a Solubility Limit.
 Definitions
Microstructure
 (Phases + defects + residual stress) & their distributions
 Structures requiring magnifications in the region of 100 to 1000 times. (or) The distribution
of phases and defects in a material.

Phase diagram
 Map that represents various phases and their relative amounts in a material, gives
relationship between phases in equilibrium in a system as a function of T, P and
composition. Map demarcating regions of stability of various phases.
 It is also called as equilibrium phase diagram or constitutional phase diagram.
Variables/Axis of phase diagrams

 The axes can be:

 Thermodynamic (T, P, V)
 composition variables (%X)
 In single component systems (unary systems) the usual variables are T & P
 In phase diagrams used in materials science the usual variable are T & %X
 In the study of phase transformation kinetics TTT diagrams or CCT diagrams are also used
 Definitions
System Components

Phase diagrams and the systems they describe are often classified and named for the
number (in Latin) of components in the system:

Number of components Name of system or diagram

One Unary
Two Binary
Three Ternary
Four Quaternary
Five Quinary
Six Sexinary
Seven Septenary
Eight Octanary
Nine Nonary
Ten Decinary
 Coordinates of Phase Diagrams
 Phase diagrams are usually plotted with temperature, in degrees centigrade or
Fahrenheit, as the ordinate and the alloy composition in weight percentage as the
abscissa.
 The weight % of componentA: Weight of component A
WA = ×100
ΣWeight of all components
 The atom (or mol)% of componentA
number of atoms (or mols) of component A
XA = ×100
Σnumber of atoms(or mols) of all components

 The Conversion from weight percentage to atomic percentage may be made by the
following formulas:
Y  
M
X
Atomic percent of A = ×100  N 
M Atomic percent of B ×100
X+Y 
X + Y  
= M
 N
N 

M = atomic weight of metal A & N = atomic weight of metalB

X = weight percentage of metal A & Y = weight percentage of metal B
 Experimental Methods
Thermal Analysis

A plot is made of temperature vs. time, at constant composition, the resulting cooling curve
will show a change in slope when a phase change occurs because of the evolution of heat by
the phase change. This method seems to be best for determining the initial and final
temperature of solidification. Phase changes occurring solely in the solid state generally
involve only small heat changes, and other methods give more accurate results.

Metallographic Methods
This method consists in heating samples of an alloy to different temperatures, waiting for
equilibrium to be established, and then quickly cooling to retain their high temperature
structure. The samples are then examined microscopically. This method is difficulty to apply to
metals at high temperatures because the rapidly cooled samples do not always retain their high
temperature structure, and considerable skill is then required to interpret the observed
microstructure correctly.

X-ray diffraction
Since this method measures lattice dimensions, it will indicate the appearance of a new phase
either by the change in lattice dimension or by the appearance of a new crystal structure. This
method is simple, precise, and very useful in determining the changes in solid solubility with
temperature
 Gibbs Phase Rule
 The phase rule connects the Degrees of Freedom, the number of components in a
system and the number of phases present in a system via a simple equation.
 To understand the phase rule one must understand the variables in the system
along with the degrees of freedom.
 We start with a general definition of the phrase “degrees of freedom”.

Degrees of Freedom
'F’ is the number of degree of freedom, or the number of variables such as
temperature, pressure or composition, that are allowed to change independently
without changing the number of phases in equilibrium.

F = C – P+n F – Degrees of Freedom

For a system in or C – Number of Components
equilibrium P – Number of Phases
F = C – P+2 n - environmental factors i.e. T & P

The degrees of freedom cannot be less than zero so that we have an upper limit to the
number of phases that can exist in equilibrium for a given system.
 Gibbs Phase Rule
Variables in a phase diagram
o C – No. of components
o P – No. of phases
o F – No. of degrees of freedom
o Variables in the system = Composition variables + Thermodynamic variables
o Composition of a phase specified by (C – 1) variables (If the composition is expressed in
%ages then the total is 100% → there is one equation connecting the composition variables and we
need to specify only (C - 1) composition variables)
o No. of variables required to specify the composition of all phases: P(C – 1) (as
there are P phases and each phase needs the specification of (C – 1) variables)
o Thermodynamic variables = P + T (usually considered) = 2 (at constant pressure (e.g.
atmospheric pressure) the thermodynamic variable becomes 1)

o Total no. of variables in the system = P (C – 1) + 2

o F < no. of variables → F < P (C – 1) + 2
 Gibbs Phase Rule
o For a system in equilibrium the chemical potential of each species is same in all the
phases
 If α, β, γ… are phases, then: μA (α) = μA (β) = μA (γ)…..
 Suppose there are 2 phases (α and β phases) and 3 components (A, B, C) in each phase then : μA(α) =
μA(β), μB(α) = μB(β), μC(α) = μC(β) → i.e. there are three equations. For each component there are (P –
1)equations and for C components the total number of equations is C(P – 1). In the above example the
number of equations is 3(2 – 1) = 3 equations.
 F = (Total number of variables) – (number of relations between variables)
= [P(C – 1) + 2] – [C(P – 1)] = C – P + 2
 In a single phase system F = Number of variables F=C–P+2
 P↑ → F↓ (For a system with fixed number of components as the number phases
increases the degrees of freedom decreases.

It is worthwhile to clarify a few terms at this stage:

 Components ‘can’ go on to make a phase (of course one can have single component phases as well e.g. BCC
iron phase)
 Phases ‘can’ go on to make a microconstituent.
 Microconstituents ‘can’ go on to make a microstructure (of course phases can also directly go on to make a
microstructure)
 Gibbs Phase Rule
A way of understanding the Gibbs Phase Rule : P + F = C + 2
The degrees of freedom can be thought of as the difference between what you (can)
control and what the system controls

F = C+2 - P

Degrees of freedom = What you can control - What the system controls
Can control the no. of System decided how many
components added and P&T phases to produce given the
conditions
Variation of the number of degrees of freedom with number of components and number of phases

C=2 No. of Total Variables Degrees of freedom Degrees of freedom

Phases P(C-1)+2 C-P+2 C-P+1
1 3 3 2
2 4 2 1
3 5 1 0
4 6 0 Not possible
 Unary Phase Diagram
 Let us start with the simplest system possible: the unary system wherein there is just one
component.
 Though there are many possibilities even in unary phase diagram (in terms of the axis and
phases), we shall only consider a T-P unary phase diagram.
 Let us consider the water (H2O) unary
phase diagram
 The Gibbs phase rule here is: F=C-P+2 (2
is for T&P) (no composition variables
here)
 Along the 2 phase co-existence (at B & C) C
lines the degree of freedom (F) is 1 → i.e. B
we can chose either T or P and the other A
will be automatically fixed.
D
 The 3 phase co-existence points (at A) are
invariant points with F=0. (Invariant point
implies they are fixed for a given system).
 The single phase region at point D, T and P
can both be varied while still being in the
single phase region with F = 2.
 Unary Phase Diagram

1600

δ
1200

Temperature (ºC) 800 γ

400
α ε

0
50 100 150
Pressure / kbar

The above figure represents the phase diagram for pure iron. The triple point
temperature and pressure are 490ºC and 110 kbars, respectively. α, γ and ε
refer to ferrite, austenite and ε-iron, respectively. δ is simply the higher
temperature designation of α.
 Unary Phase Diagram

Unary (single component) phase diagram of Mg

 Binary Phase Diagram
 Binary implies that there are two components. Binary equilibrium diagram is one
which describes the equilibrium between two components and is drawn as
temperature (⁰C) on y-axis and composition (wt% or atom %) on x-axis.
 Pressure changes often have little effect on the equilibrium of solid phases (unless
of course we apply ‘huge’pressures).
 Hence, binary phase diagrams are usually drawn at 1 atmosphere pressure.
 The Gibbs phase rule is reduced to:
 Variables are reduced to : F = C – P + 1 (1 is for T).
 T & Composition (these are the usual variables in materials phase diagrams)

Phase rule for condensed phases F=C–P+1

for T

 In the next page we consider the possible binary phase diagrams. These have been
classified based on:
 Complete solubility in both liquid & solid states
 Complete solubility in both liquid state, but limited solubility in the solid state
 Limited solubility in both liquid & solid states
 Overview of possible Binary Phase Diagram
Liquid State Solid State

Isomorphous Solid state analogue

of isomorphous
Complete Solubility in both Isomorphous with
liquid & solid states ordering

Isomorphous with
Phase separation

Eutectic Eutectoid
Complete solubility in liquid
state but limited solubility
in the solid state
Peritectic Peritectoid

Monotectic Monotectoid

Limited solubility in both liquid

Syntectic
& solid states
Metatectic
 Cooling curve

Cooling Curve for a Metal Cooling curve for solid solution alloy

The change in slope of the cooling curve at the liquidus temperature indicates that phase
transformation has started. The slope of the curve decreases as solidification continues to end.
The decreased cooling rate during solidification is due to the evolution of latent heat of fusion
surrounding the solid crystals.
(a) Cooling curve for a pure metal that has not been well-inoculated. The liquid cools as specific
heat is removed (between points A and B). Undercooling is thus necessary (between points B and
C). As the nucleation begins (point C), latent heat of fusion is released causing an increase in the
temperature of the liquid. This process is known as recalescence (point C to point D). The metal
continues to solidify at a constant temperature (Tmelting). At point E, solidification is complete.
The solid casting continues to cool from this point.
(b) Cooling curve for a well-inoculated, but otherwise pure, metal. No undercooling is needed.
Recalescence is not observed. Solidification begins at the melting/freezing temperature.
Cooling curve for Iron
 Isomorphous Phase Diagram
 Isomorphous phase diagrams form when there is complete solid and liquid
solubility while the other two category alloy systems are called eutectic systems.
 Complete solid solubility implies that the crystal structure of the two components
have to be same and Hume-Rothery rules to be followed and are called solid
solution type phase diagram
 Examples of systems forming isomorphous systems: Cu-Ni, Ag-Au, Ge-Si, Al2O3-
Cr2O3
 Both the liquid and solid contain the components Aand B.
 In binary phase diagrams between two single phase regions there will be a two
phase region → In the isomorphous diagram between the liquid and solid state
there is the (Liquid + Solid) state.
 The Liquid + Solid state is NOT a semi-solid state → it is a solid of fixed
composition and structure, in equilibrium with a liquid of fixed composition.
 In some systems (e.g. Cu-Ni system) there might be phase separation in the solid
state (i.e.,the complete solid solubility criterion may not be followed) → these will
be considered as a variation of the isomorphous system with complete solubility
in the solid and the liquid state.
 cooling curves : Isomorphous system

L
L S
L
L TL
L TL TNi
L+S
L+S
Temperature (ºC)

L S
Pure Ni
TS
S
TCu S TS S
Cu-20%Ni
Pure Cu
Cu-10%Ni

t
Time (t)
 Revision : Solidification (cooling) curves

Pure metal Alloy

L L Soldification
begins
TL
L S L+S
Tm
TS
Solidification S
S
complete

Time (t) Time (t)

 Isomorphous Phase Diagram
T and Composition can both be
varied while still being in the single C=1
phase region
P=2
C=2 F=0
P=1 (liquid) Liquidus 1457ºC
F=2 Liquid (L)

C=2
L +S P=2 (L+S)
Temperature →

F=2

Solidus
1083ºC In the two phase
region, if we fix T
(and hence exhaust
our DOF), the
Solid (S) composition of
liquid and solid in
equilibrium are
automatically fixed
C=2 (i.e. we have no
P=1 (Solid) choice over them).
F=2 Cu % Ni → Ni Alternatively we
can use our DOF to
chose CL then T and
T and Composition can both be Cs are automatically
varied while still being in the single fixed.
phase region
Application of Phase rule to an isomorphous system, such as Cu-Ni system

• For each pure metal at its melting point, there is one component and two phases, liquid
and solid coexisting during freezing.
Therefore, F = 1-2+1 = 0, (i.e. the degree of freedom is zero) the system is invariant, and
the system must freeze at constant temperature.

• In the liquid or in solid phase region of the Cu-Ni equilibrium diagram, only one phase
exists.
Here, C = 2 and P = 1
So, F = 2 – 1 + 1 = 2
This implies that both the independent variables temperature and composition can
be varied within limits in the single phase region.
• In the two phase region, there are three variable:
o Temperature
o Composition of the liquid phase, and
o Composition of the solid phase
F=2–2+1=1
So, only one of the above three variables can be changed independently.

Suppose, the temperature is arbitrarily changed while two phases coexist, the other two
variables will be automatically fixed, i.e., the compositions of the two phases are fixed
automatically, as per the tie-line rule.
If the composition of one phase, e.g., the solid α, is specified, the composition of the other
phase (i.e. liquid) and the temperature are thereby fixed.
Let us consider a tie-line L3-3-S3 at temperature T3 in Cu-Ni alloy phase diagram for an alloy with
60% Ni in Cu. At T3:

Composition of liquid = 46% Ni (54% Cu) at L3 and

Composition of solid = 70% Ni (30% Cu) at S3.

This is applicable to any overall composition

of the alloy that lies along the tie-line within
the two phase region.

As the overall composition varies, the relative

proportions of the two phases will also vary.
The relative amount of the two phases can be
determined using lever rule.

Lever rule states that the relative amount of a

given phase is proportional to the length of the
lever arm of opposite side of the alloy point of
the lever (i.e. fulcrum of the lever).

The tie line L3S3 is taken to be the lever arm

with the fulcrum at the overall composition of
the alloy, i.e. 60% Ni (point 3 in the Cu-Ni phase
diagram).
Application of lever rule at point 3 of Cu-Ni phase diagram. L3S3 is the lever arm.
The fraction of the liquid fl for the overall composition (60% Ni) is given by the ratio of the lever
arm length on the other side of the fulcrum (S33) to the total length (S3L3) of the lever arm.

Stating the two rules together, for the above example, at temperature T3,

Fraction of the liquid of composition 46% Ni = 0.416 and

Fraction of the solid of composition 70% Ni = 0.584

Total = 1.00

0.416 x 46 + 0.584 x 70 = 60% Ni = overall composition of the alloy considered.

 Tie line and Lever rule
Chemical Composition of Phases Tie Line Rule

 To determine the actual chemical composition of the phases of an alloy, in

equilibrium at any specified temperature in a two phase region, draw a horizontal
temperature line, called a tie line, to the boundaries of the field . These points of
intersection are dropped to the base line, and the composition is read directly.

Relative Amounts of Each Phase Lever Rule

 To determine the relative amounts of the two phases in equilibrium at any

specified temperature in a two phase region , draw a vertical line representing the
alloy and a horizontal temperature line to the boundaries of the field.
 The vertical line will divide the horizontal line into two parts whose lengths are
inversely proportional to the amount of the phases present. This is also known as
Lever rule.
 The point where the vertical line intersects the horizontal line may be considered
as the fulcrum of a lever system.
 The relative lengths of the lever arms multiplied by the amounts of the phases
present must balance.
 Tie line and Lever rule
 We draw a horizontal line (called the Tie Line)at the temperature of interest (say
T0). Let Tie line is XY.
 Solid (crystal) of composition C 1 coexists with liquid of composition C 2
 Note that tie lines can be drawn only in the two phase coexistence regions (fields).
Though they may be extended to mark the temperature.
 To find the fractions of solid and liquid we use the lever rule.

 The portion of the horizontal line in the Arm of the lever

proportional to the
Arm of the lever
proportional to the
two phase region is akin to ‘lever’ with the Liquid Cooling Solid
fulcrum at the nominal composition (C0)

Temperature →
 The opposite arms of the lever are Y
proportional to the fraction of the solid and X
liquid phase present (this is lever rule)
Fulcrum of the lever
C0 − C1 C2 −C0
f liquid = f Solid =
C2 −C1 C2 −C1
A C1 C0 C2 B
% B→
 Tie line and Lever rule
Example
Cu – Ni System

At Co = 35 wt%Ni TA A
tie line
1300 L (liquid)
At T A : Only Liquid (L)

Temperature (ºC)
Wliquid = 100 wt%, Wsolid = 0 B
TB
R S
a
At T D: Only Solid ( S ) 1200 S (solid)
D
W L= 0, W solid= 100wt% TD

At T B : Both S and L 20 3032 35 40 43 50

CL Co Cs
S 43 − 35 % Ni→
WL = = = 73 wt%
R+S 43 −32 Notice: as in a lever “the opposite leg” controls with
a balance (fulcrum) at the ‘base composition’ and
R+S = tie line length = difference in composition
= R limiting phase boundary, at the temp of interest
WS = 27 wt%
R+S
 Variations of Isomorphous System
An alloy typically melts over a range of temperatures. However, there are special compositions which
can melt at a single temperature like a pure metal. There is no difference in the liquid and solid
composition. In certain alloy systems, the liquidus and the solidus may coincide at some composition
and become tangent to each other. It begins and ends solidification at a constant temperature with no
change in composition, and its cooling curve will show a horizontal line. Such alloys are known as a
congruent-melting alloys, sometimes known as a pseudo-eutectic alloy. Ex: Cu-Au, Ni-Pd.

 Congruently melting alloys → just like a pure metal

 Is the DOF 1? No: in requiring that we have exhausted the degree of freedom. Hence T is
automatically fixed → DOF is actually Zero..!
 Variations of Isomorphous System
 Elevation in the MP means that the solid state is ‘more stable’ (crudely speaking the
ordered state is more stable) → ordering reaction is seen at low T.
 Depression in MP ‘means’ the liquid state (disordered) is more stable → phase separation
is seen at low T. (phase separation can be thought of as the opposite of ordering. Ordering
(compound formation) occurs for –ve values for ΔH mix).

 A – B bonds stronger than A – A and B – B bonds  A – A and B – B bonds stronger than A-B bonds
 Solid Stabilized → Ordered Solid Formation Liquid Stabilized → Phase separation in the solid
Case 1 Case 2
Examples of Isomorphous System with phase separation

Effect of size factor (remaining rules obeyed) on the form of the equilibrium diagram. As the
size difference increases (a) Cu-Ni type changes to (b) Ni-Pt with a minimum to (c) Au-Ni
with minimum and miscibility gap to (d) Cu-Ag with partial solid solubility.
Examples of Isomorphous System with phase separation
 Equilibrium Cooling

Figure: The above figure represents the very slow cooling , under equilibrium conditions, of a
particular alloy 70A-30B will now be studied to observe the phase changes that occur .
 Equilibrium Cooling
 This alloy at temperature T0 is a homogeneous single-phase liquid solution (a) and
remains so until temperature T1is reached. Since T1is on the liquidus line, freezing or
solidification now begins.
 The first nuclei of solid solution to form α1 will be very rich in the higher melting point
metal A and will be composed of 95A-5B (by tie line rule). Since the solid solution in
forming takes material very rich in A from the liquid, the liquid must get richer in B. Just
after the start of solidification, the composition of the liquid is approximated as 69A-31B
(b).
 When the lower temperature T2 is reached, the liquid composition is at L2. The only solid
solution in equilibrium with L2 and therefore the only solid solution forming at T2 is α2.
Applying tie line rule, α2 is composed of 10B. Hence, as the temperature is decreased,
not only does the liquid composition become richer in B but also the solid solution.
 At T2 ,crystals of α2 are formed surrounding the α1 composition cores and also separate
dendrites of αz (see figure in below).
 Equilibrium Cooling
 In order for equilibrium to be established at T2, the entire solid phase must be a
composition α2. This requires diffusion of B atoms to the A-rich core not only
from the solid just formed but also from the liquid. This is possible in crystal
growth (c).
 The composition of the solid solution follows the solidus line while the
composition of liquid follows the liquidus line, and both phases are becoming
richer in B.
 At T3 (d), the solid solution will make up approximately three-fourths of all the
material present.
 Finally, the solidus line is reached at T4, and the last liquid L4, very rich in B,
solidifies primarily at the grain boundaries (e).
 However, diffusion will take place and all the solid solution will be of uniform
composition α(70A-30B), which is the overall composition of the alloy (f).
 There are only grains and grain boundaries. There is no evidence of any difference
in chemical composition inside the grains, indicating that diffusion has made the
grain homogeneous.
 Equilibrium Cooling
 The very slow cooling , under Cu-Ni Phase Diagram
equilibrium conditions, of
L (liquid) L: 35 wt% Ni
particular alloy 65Cu - 35Ni will
now be studied.
1300 A
A – Homogeneous single phase L: 35 wt% Ni
(Liquid) a: 46 wt% Ni B
B 35 46
B - ‘B’ is on the liquidus line, 3C

Temperature (ºC)
C 43
2
solidification now begins. D
24 36 L: 32 wt% Ni
C – Solid surrounded by liquid a : 43 wt% Ni
1200 E E
crystals. L: 24 wt% Ni
D – ‘D’ is on the solidus line, a : 36 wt% Ni
solidification now ends.
S (solid)
E – Homogeneous single phase
(Solid) 1100
20 30 35 40 50
Cu Ni
Co
% Ni→
 Non Equilibrium Cooling - Coring
 In actual practice it is extremely difficult to cool under equilibrium conditions.
Since diffusion in the solid state takes place at a very slow rate, it is expected that
with ordinary cooling rates there will be some difference in the conditions as
indicated by the equilibrium diagram.

 Consider again 70A-30B alloy,

solidification starts at T1 forming
a solid solution of composition
α1 .
 At T2 the liquid is L2 and the
solid solution now forming is of
composition α2 . Since diffusion
is too slow to keep pace with
crystal growth, not enough time
will be allowed to achieve
uniformity in the solid, and the
average composition will be
between α1 and α2, say α’2.
 Non Equilibrium Cooling - Coring
 As the temperature drops, the average composition of the solid solution will
depart still further from equilibrium conditions. It seems that the composition of
the solid solution is following a “nonequilibrium” solidus line α1 to α’5, shown
dotted lines in figure.
 The liquid, on the other hand, has essentially the composition given by the
liquidus line, since diffusion is relatively rapid in liquid. At T3 the average solid
solution will be of composition α’3 instead of α3.
 Under equilibrium cooling, solidification should be complete at T4 ; however,
since the average composition of the solid solution α’4 has not reached the
composition of the alloy, some liquid must still remain. Applying lever rule at T4
gives α’4 = 75% and L4 = 25%.
 Therefore, solidification will continue until T5 is reached. At this temperature the
composition of the solid solution α’5 coincides with the alloy composition, and
solidification is complete. The last liquid to solidify, L5, is richer in B than the last
liquid to solidify under equilibrium conditions.
 Non Equilibrium Cooling - Coring
 The more rapidly the alloy is cooled the greater will be the composition range in
the solidified alloy. Since the rate of chemical attack varies with composition,
proper etching will reveal the dendritic structure microscopically (see below figure).
The final solid consists of a “cored” structure with a higher-melting central portion
surrounded by the lower-melting, last-to-solidify shell. The above condition is
referred to as coring or dendritic segregation.

Dendritic Structure

 To summarize, nonequilibrium cooling results in an increased temperature range

over which liquid and solid are present; Since diffusion has not kept pace with
crystal growth, there will be a difference in chemical composition from the center
to the outside of the grains. The faster the rate of cooling, the greater will be the
above effects.
 Cored vs. Equilibrium Phases
Consider Cu-Ni phase diagram case

First a to solidify has Csolid = 46 wt% Ni.

Last a to solidify has Csolid = 35 wt% Ni.

On Fast rate of cooling On Slow rate of cooling

Cored structure Equilibrium structure

First a to solidify: Uniform Csolid

46 wt% Ni 35 wt% Ni
Last a to solidify:
< 35 wt% Ni
 Homogenization
 Cored structures are most common in as-cast metals. From the earlier discussion
of the origin of a cored structure, it is apparent that the last solid formed along the
grain boundaries and in the inter-dendritic spaces is very rich in the lower-
melting-point metal.
 Depending upon the properties of the lower-melting-point metal, the grain
boundaries may act as a plane of weakness. It will also result in a serious lack of
uniformity in mechanical and physical properties and, in some cases, increased
susceptibility to intergranular corrosion because of preferential attack by
corrosive medium. Therefore, for some applications a cored structure is
objectionable.
 There are two methods for solving the problem of coring. One is to prevent its
formation by slow freezing from the liquid, but this result in large grain size and
requires a very long time. The preferred method industrially is to achieve
equalization of composition or homogenization of the cored structure by
diffusion in the solid state.
 At room temperature, for most metals, the diffusion rate is very slow; but if the
alloy is reheated to a temperature below the solidus line, diffusion will be more
rapid and homogenization will occur in a relatively short time.
 Eutectic Phase Diagram
 Very few systems exhibit an isomorphous phase diagram (usually the solid
solubility of one component in another is limited).
 Often the solid solubility is severely limited – through the solid solubility is never
zero (due to entropic reasons).
 In a Simple eutectic system (binary), there is one composition at which the liquid
freezes at a single temperature. This is in some sense similar to a pure solid which
freezes at a single temperature (unlike a pure substance the freezing produces a
two solid phases both of which contain both the components).
 The term Eutectic means easy melting → The alloy of eutectic composition
freezes at a lower temperature than the melting points of the constituent
components.
 Eutectic Phase Diagram
When the two components forming the alloy are soluble in liquid state but not soluble in each
other in the solid state then the phase diagram is called Eutectic type phase diagram.
Bi-Cd Phase Diagram
 Bi–Cd equilibrium phase diagram

(i) Cooling curves for 5 different compositions.

(ii) Cooling of 80Bi20Cd (hypoeutectic) alloy with schematic microstructures
at different temperatures and also for hypereutectic 75Cd25Bi alloy.
Solid composition of Bi-Cd alloys (a)20%Cd, (b) 40% Cd-60% Bi, and (c) 80% Cd-20% Bi
Cooling curves and R.T. Microstructures for a series of alloys of two metals that are
insoluble in the solid state. The upper dotted line indicates liquidus line and the lower
dotted line indicates solidus line.
Diagram showing the linear relationship between the parts of the microstructure
and alloy composition for the eutectic system
 Eutectic Phase Diagram

Eutectic type phase diagrams with partial solid solubility of component elements.
 Eutectic Phase Diagram
Liquidus
327ºC
Eutectic
L→ α +β L+β
α+L
Temperature (ºC)

232ºC
183ºC
α
β
Solidus

Solvus
α+β

Pb 19.2% % Sn → 62% 97.4% Sn

Eutectic reaction at 183ºC L → α + β

62%Sn → 19%Sn + 97%Sn
Cooling curve for hypoeutectic Pb-30%Sn alloy
 Microstructural Characteristics of Eutectic System
L: Co wt% Sn L: Co wt% Sn
400 400
L L
α L
300 L 300 α

Temperature (ºC)
α
Temperature (ºC)

L+
L+ α α: Co wt% Sn

200
α α
200
TE α: Co wt% Sn TE
α
β

α+β
100 100
α+ β
Co
Co

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Pb 2% wt% Sn→ , Pb wt% Sn→
 To reiterate an important point: Phase diagram do not contain microstructural information
(i.e. they cannot tell you what is the microstructures produced by cooling. Often
microstructural information is overlaid on phase diagram for convenience. Hence, strictly
cooling is not in the domain of phase diagram – but we can overlay such information
keeping in view the assumptions involved.
 Microstructural Characteristics of Eutectic System
 18.3 wt% Sn < Co < 61.9 wt% Sn
 Microstructure consists a crystals and a eutectic microstructure

L: Co wt% Sn →Just above TE :

α L
L C α = 18.3 wt% Sn
300 L α
CL = 61.9 wt% Sn
L+α W α = S = 50 wt%
Temperature (ºC)

200 α R S L+ β β
R +S
TE WL = (1- W α ) = 50 wt%
R S

→ Just below TE :
100 α +β
primary α C α = 18.3 wt% Sn
eutectic α
eutectic β C β = 97.8 wt% Sn
0 20 40 60 80 97.8100 W α = S = 72.6 wt%
Pb 18.3 61.9 Sn R+ S
wt% Sn→ W β = 27.4 wt%
 Microstructural Characteristics of Eutectic System
 Co = CE
 Microstructure represents Eutectic microstructure (lamellar structure) alternating
layers (lamellae) of a and b crystals.

Pb-Sn Eutectic Microstructure

L: Co wt% Sn
300 L
L+α
Temperature (ºC)

200
α 183°C L+ββ
TE

160
100 µm
α+β β: 97.8 wt% Sn
α: 18.3 wt%Sn

0 20 40 60 80 97.8100
Pb 18.3 CE Sn
61.9
→wt% Sn

45.1% α and 54.8% β

Hypo Eutectic – Eutectic – Hyper Eutectic

300
L

α L+α
200 L+ β β
TE
α+ β
100

20 40 60 80 100
Pb0 eutectic (61.9%Sn) Sn
Hypoeutectic Hypereutectic
Eutectic
α β
α β
α α β β
α β
α β
160 mm
175 mm 175 mm
eutectic micro-constituent
 Example : Cu-Ag Eutectic System
 Raoult’s law states that the freezing point of a pure substance will be lowered by
the addition of a second substance provided the latter is soluble in the pure
substance when liquid and insoluble when solidified. The amount of lowering of
the freezing point is proportional to the molecular weight of the solute.
1200
• Limited solubility: L (liquid)

Temperature (ºC)
α: mostly Cu 1000
α L+ α TE L+ β
β: mostlyAg
71.9 91.2 β
800 779°C
8.0
• TE : No liquid below TE 600
• CE : Min. melting TE α +β
400
Three single phase regions – (L, α, β)
exist at 71.9% Ag at 779°C commonly 200
0 20 40 60 CE 80 100
known as Eutectic. The reaction is as Cu Ag
follows…! wt% of Ag→
L(CE) α(CαE) + β(CβE)
 Special Eutectic Systems
 Consider the eutectic system without terminal solid solubility : Bi-Cd
 Technically it is incorrect to draw eutectic phase diagrams with zero solid solubility.
 This would imply that a pure component (say Bi in the example considered) melts
over a range of temperatures (from ‘p’ to 271 ºC) → which is wrong.
 Also let us consider an example of a point ‘p’ (which lies on the ‘eutectic line’ PQ).
At ‘p’ the phase rule becomes : F = C-P+1 = 1-3+1 = -1 !!!
 Application of Lever rule in Eutectic System
For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 150°C, find the phases present: α
Solved
and β, Composition of phases
Example

Pb-Sn Phase Diagram

300 L (liquid)

Temperature (ºC)
α L +α
200 L+ β β
183°C
18.3 61.9 97.8
150 R S
100 α+β

0 11 20 40 60 80 99100
Cα Co Cβ
wt% Sn→
 Application of Lever rule in Eutectic System
For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 150°C, find the phases present: α
Solved
and β, Composition of phases
Example

CO = 40 wt% Sn Pb-Sn Phase Diagram

Ca = 11 wt% Sn
Cb = 99 wt% Sn 300 L (liquid)

Temperature (ºC)
The relative amount of each phase L +α
by using lever rule α L+ β β
200 183°C
18.3 61.9 97.8
C -C 150
Wa= S = β O R S
R+S Cβ - Cα 100 α+β
= 99 - 40 = 59 = 67 wt%
99 - 11 88
C -C 0 11 20 40 60 80 99100
Wβ = R = O α Cα Co Cβ
R+S Cβ - Cα
wt% Sn→
= 40 - 11 = 29 = 33 wt%
99 - 11 88
 Application of Lever rule in Eutectic System
For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 220°C, find the phases present: α
Solved
and Liquid, Composition of phases
Example

Pb-Sn Phase Diagram

300 L (liquid)
L+ α

Temperature (ºC)
220 α
200 R S L+ β β
183°C

100 α+β

0 1720 40 46 60 80 100
Cα Co CL
Wt% Sn→
 Application of Lever rule in Eutectic System
For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 220°C, find the phases present: α
Solved
and Liquid, Composition of phases
Example

CO = 40 wt% Sn Pb-Sn Phase Diagram

Ca = 17 wt% Sn
CL = 46 wt% Sn
300 L (liquid)
L+ α

Temperature (ºC)
The relative amount of each phase
220 α
by using lever rule 200 R S L+ β β
183°C
CL - C O 46 - 40
Wa= C -C = 100
L α 46 - 17 α+β
6
= 29 = 21 wt%
0 1720 40 46 60 80 100
CO - Cα 23 Cα Co CL
WL = = = 79 wt%
C -C 29 Wt% Sn→
L α
 During the solidification of a off eutectic (Pb-Sn) composition (C0 ), 90
Solved
vol.% of the solid consisted of the eutectic mixture and 10vol.% of the
Example
proeutectic β phase. What is the value of C0 ?
Density data for β and α Let us start with some observations: ♦Pb is heavier than Sn and hence the density
of α is more than that of β ♦Since the proeutectic phase is β → the composition is
ρα = 10300 Kg/ m3 hypereutectic (towards the Sn side) ♦ The volume fraction (in %) are usually
ρβ = 7300 Kg/ m3 calculated by taking the area fractions by doing metallography (microstructure) and
Eutectic Data then converting it into volume fractions (usually volume fraction is assumed to be
183 ºC equal to area fraction
62 wt% Sn L α β
+
62%Sn 18%Sn 97%Sn
Using the fact that there is 10 Vol% β phase :
 Wt. of β = 0.1×7300
Wt. fraction of proeutectic β=
Wt. of the alloy  (0.1× 7300) + (0.9× ρ eutecticmix )
 
97 − 62 62 −18
Where, ρ eutecticmix = 10300( ) + 7300( ) = 4563 + 4066 = 8629Kg / m3
97 −18 97 −18
Substituting in equation (1): Wt. fraction of proeutectic β = 0.086

C0 − 0.62
Using lever rule : 0.086 = ,C0 = 0.650 =65.0%
0.97 − 0.62
 Strength of Eutectic Alloys

Each phase in the eutectic alloy is, to some degree, solid solution strengthened.

In the Pb-Sn system, α, which is solid solution of tin in lead, is stronger than pure lead.

Some eutectic alloys can be strengthened by cold working.

Eutectic Grain size

Each of the Eutectic grains nucleate and grows independently.
Within each grain, the orientation of the lamellae in the eutectic microconstituent is identical.
The orientation changes across the eutectic grain boundary.

The eutectic grain size can be refined by suitable inoculants.

A fine grain size results in improved strength properties.

Grains/colonies in lead-tin eutectic

 Strength of Eutectic Alloys

Interlamellar spacing
• Interlamellar spacing (λ) of a eutectic is the distance
from the centre of one α lamellae to the centre of the
next α lamellae.

• A small interlamellar spacing indicates that the

individual lamellae are thin and consequently the
amount of α-β interface area is large.

• As the interlamellar spacing

decreases the strength of the
eutectic increases.

• A faster rate of cooling past

eutectic temperature results in
finer eutectic structure.

(a) Atom redistribution during lamellar growth of a lead-tin eutectic

(b) Photomicrograph of eutectic microconstituent
 Strength of Eutectic Alloys
Amount of eutectic
By changing the composition of the alloy in the hypoeutectic or hypereutectic region, the amount
of eutectic reduces and proeutectic microconstituent will form.

The properties of the alloy can be controlled by controlling the amounts of the primary
microconstituent and the eutectic.

The above statement can be explained by taking the example of lead-tin alloy system.

Effect of composition on percent eutectic and beta phase in Pb-Sn alloys.

 Strength of Eutectic Alloys

Effect of composition and strengthening

mechanisms on tensile strength of Pb-Sn alloys.
 Strength of Eutectic Alloys

Microstructure of hypoeutectic Microstructure of Pb-Sn eutectic

Pb-Sn alloy showing intimate mixture of two
phases, Sn (light constituent β) and Pb
(dark constituent, α)

Microstructure of hypereutectic Pb-Sn

alloy showing primary Sn (light
constituent β) in a matrix of Pb-Sn
eutectic.
 Strength of Eutectic Alloys

Shape of the eutectic

The shapes of the two phases in
the eutectic microconstituent are
influenced by the cooling rate,
the presence of impurity
elements, and the nature of the
alloy.

In some alloys, the eutectic

microconstituent is composed of
thin, discontinuous plates of a
brittle phase, e.g. Al-Si alloy.

Al-Si Phase Diagram

 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Microstructure of Al-Si hypoeutectic. Al-Si eutectic showing needle like Si

Alpha dendrites surrounded by eutectic plates surrounded by continuous alpha
microconstituent. phase. Si particles appear to be
interconnected
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys
The microstructure of the slowly cooled Al-Si eutectic alloy as obtained by
sand casting is coarse grained and imparts poor strength and ductility
properties.

The refined microstructure can be obtained by permanent mould casting or

by modification of Al-Si eutectic or slightly hypereutectic alloy.

The microstructure of sand mould casting of Al-Si alloy of eutectic

composition or slightly hypereutectic can also be modified by adding a
modifying agent as a mixture of NaF and NaCl in the ratio 2:1 into the melt
before pouring it into the sand mould.

The amount of the modifying agent (generally 2% of the melt by weight) is

so selected as to retain 0.005 to 0.02 % (preferably about 0.001%) Na as
residual element in the casting.
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Aluminium-silicon phase diagram under equilibrium conditions (solid

lines) and as chill-cast or sodium-modified (dashed lines) showing
eutectic temperature and composition displacement resulting
preferential undercooling of the silicon phase.
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Modification of Al-Si alloys can also be done by addition of strontium (0.03

to 0.05%) in the form of Al-Sr or Al-Sr-Si alloy into the melt of Al-Si alloy
before pouring into the sand mould.

In this case the modified effect is retained even after re-melting and casting
though the effect is destroyed when modification is done by sodium.
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Fine rounded Si rods in the modified Al-Si eutectic

surounding the dendritic α-phase (light)
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Microstructure of eutectic Al-Si Alloy

(a) needle-like Si plates (unmodified) and
(b) rounded small Si-rods (Modified)
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Microstructure of Hypereutectic Al-Si alloy showing

coarse primary Si (β) in Al-Si eutectic.
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

Effect of phosphorous on microstructure of hypereutectic Al-Si alloy

(a) coarse primary Si
(b) fine primary Si refined by addition of phosphorous.
 Modification to Al-Si Alloys

The effect of wt% Si and modification on the tensile

strength and % elongation of Al-Si alloys
 Properties of Al-13%Si alloy

State of Alloy T.S., MPa % Elongation Hardness,

HB

Unmodified sandcast 125 02 50

Modified sand cast 195 13 58

Normal chill cast 195 3.5 63

Modified chill cast 220 08 72

Ag-Cu Alloy
Ag-Cu Alloy
Ag-Cu Alloy
Ag-Cu Alloy
 Peritectic Phase Diagram

1772ºC
Peritectic
L+α→ β
L+α
Liquid (L)
Temperature (ºC)

(Pt) 1186ºC
TP
α L+β
961.9ºC
(Ag)
α+β
β

Pt 10.5 42.4 66.3 90 Ag

Weight Percent SilverAg→
Peritectic
L α Cool β
+
Reaction 66.3%Ag 10.5%Ag 1186ºC
42.4%Ag
 Peritectic Phase Diagram
 Like the eutectic system, the Peritectic reaction is found in systems with complete
liquid solubility but limited solid solubility.
 In the Peritectic reaction the liquid (L) reacts with one solid (α) to produce
another solid (β). L+α → β
 Since the solid β forms at the interface between the L and the α, further reaction
is dependent on solid state diffusion. Needless to say this becomes the rate
limiting step and hence it is difficult to ‘equilibrate’ peritectic reactions (as
compared to say eutectic reactions).

 In some Peritectic reactions (e.g. the Pt-Ag system – previous page). The (pure)
β phase is not stable below the Peritectic temperature (TP = 1186 ºC for Pt- Ag
system) and splits into a mixture of (α+β) just below TP.
 Monotectic Phase Diagram
 In all the types discussed previously, it was assumed that there was complete
solubility in the liquid state. It is quite possible, however, that over a certain
composition range two liquid solutions are formed that are not soluble in each
other.
 Another term for solubility is miscibility. Substances that are not soluble in each
other, such as oil and water, are said to be immiscible. Substances that are partly
soluble in each other are said to show a miscibility gap, and this is related to
Monotectic Systems.
 When one liquid forms another liquid, plus a solid, on cooling, it is known as a
Monotectic Reaction.
 It should be apparent that the Monotectic reaction resembles the eutectic reaction,
the only difference being that one of the products is a liquid phase instead of a
solid phase.
 An example of an alloy system showing a Monotectic reaction is that between
copper and lead given in next page. Notice that in this case the L1 + L2 is closed.
 Also, although the terminal solids are indicated as α and β, the solubility is
actually so small that they are practically the pure metals, copper and lead.
 Monotectic Phase Diagram

1100
1083 L1
991.6
1000 36 87
953 L2
900
α+L1 L1 + L2
800
Monotectic
Temperature (ºC)

700 L1 → L2+α
600
α+L2
500

400
326 327.5
300 99.94
←α β→
200
30 40 50 60 70 80
Cu 10 20 90 Pb
Weight Percent Lead Pb→
In Cu-Zn Phase diagram the eutectoid reaction occurs
At 560 ºC with 75% Zn
 The Eutectoid Reaction
 This is a common reaction in the solid state. It is very similar to the eutectic
reaction but does not involve the liquid . In this case, a solid phase transforms on
cooling into two new solid phases. The general equation may be written as..!
Cooling
Solid1 Solid2 + Solid3
Heating

 The resultant Eutectoid mixture is extremely fine, just like the eutectic mixture.
Under the microscope both mixtures generally appear the same, and it is not
possible to determine microscopically whether the mixture resulted from a
eutectic reaction or eutectoid reaction.
 An equilibrium diagram of Cu-Zn, illustrating the eutectoid reaction is shown in
figure (see in next page).
 In copper (Cu) – Zinc (Zn) system contains two terminal solid solutions i.e. these
are extreme ends of phase diagram α and η, with four intermediate phases called
β, γ, δ and ε. The β’ phase is termed an ordered solid solution, one in which the
copper and zinc atoms are situated in a specific and ordered arrangement within
each unit cell.
Cu-Zn Phase Diagram - Eutectoid Reaction

1200

α +L Liquid (L)
1000 β+L
Eutectoid
δ → γ+ε
Temperature (ºC)

800
γ+L
α β
γ
+ β δ+L
+δ
600 β + δ
598ºC

γ 560ºC
η+ L
α γ ε+L
β’ ε
400 α β’ γ+ε η
+ + ε+η
β’ γ
200
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cu Zn
Composition (Wt% Zn→)
 Cu-Zn Phase Diagram - Eutectoid Reaction
 In the diagram, some phase boundary lines near the bottom are dashed to indicate
that there positions have not been exactly determined. The reason for this is that
at low temperatures, diffusion rates are very slow and inordinately long times are
required for the attainment of equilibrium.
 Again only single- and two- phase regions are found on the diagram, and the
same and we can utilize the lever rule for computing phase compositions and
relative amounts.
 The commercial material brasses are copper-rich copper-zinc alloys: for example,
cartridge brass has a composition of 70 wt% Cu-30 wt% Zn and a microstructure
consisting of a single α phase.
In Cu-Zn Phase diagram the eutectoid
reaction occurs at 560 ºC with 75% Zn
Cooling
δ γ + ε
Heating

Cu 70, Zn 30 (wt%),
recrystallied
annealing twins
 The Peritectoid Reaction
 This is a fairly common reaction in the solid state and appears in many alloy
systems. The peritectoid reaction may be written as
Cooling
Solid1 + Solid2 Solid3
Heating
 The new solid phase is usually an intermediate alloy, but it may also be a solid
solution .The peritectoid reaction has the same relationship to the peritectic
reaction as the eutectoid has to the eutectic. Essentially, it is the replacement of a
liquid by a solid.
 The peritectoid reaction occurs entirely in the solid state and usually at lower
temperatures than the peritectic reaction, the diffusion rate will be slower and
there is less likelihood that equilibrium structures will be reached.
 Consider Silver (Ag) – Aluminium (Al) phase diagram (in next page) containing
a peritectoid reaction.
 If a 7% Al alloy is rapidly cooled from the two phase area just above the
peritectoid temperature the two phases will be retained, and the microstructure
will show a matrix of γ with just a few particles of α. When we cool at below the
peritectoid temperature by holding we get single phase μ.
Peritectoid Reaction : Ag-Al Phase Diagram
Weight percent aluminium →
10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100
1000 0
960.5
Cooling
900 Solid1 + Solid2 Solid3
Heating
800 780
727 Liquid
700 β
660
Temperature (ºC)

600 610
566
αAg αAg+γ αAl
γ
500
448 6.8%Al
400
Peritectoid
μ αAg+γ → μ
αAg
300
μ+
200 +μ γ

100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ag Atomic percent aluminium → Al
Monotectoid Reaction : Al-Zn Phase Diagram

800

700 Monotectoid
Liquid
α→ α‫׳‬+β
660
600
L+α
500 L+β
Temperature (ºC)

400 Al (α) 381

420
351 83.1 94 β
α+β
300 277 α+α‫׳‬
32.4 96.3
77.7
200
α‫׳‬+β Zn→
100

0 80 90 100
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Al
Weight percent Zinc → Zn
Syntectic Reaction : Ga – I Phase Diagram
Weight Percent Iodine
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

L1
L2
Temperature (ºC) L 1+L 2

271ºC

211ºC 214ºC
205ºC
Syntectic
L 1+L 2↔GaI 160ºC
70.2
113.6ºC

GaI3
GaI2
29.7ºC GaI (I)
(Ga)
0 50 65.5 75 100
Ga Atomic Percent Iodine I
 Metatectic Reaction : Fe - Sc Phase Diagram

Metatectic

 In the above Fe-Sc system represents a Metatectic reaction,

δ Fe ↔ γFe + L at 1360 ºC
 Summary of Invariant reactions

Name of reaction Phase equilibrium Schematic representation

L+S1 L L+S2
Eutectic L ↔ S1 + S 2 S1 S2
S1 +S2
L+S1
Peritectic S1 + L ↔ S2 S1
S1 +S2 S2 L+S2
L

L+S1 L1 L1+L2
Monotectic L1 ↔ S1 + L2 S1
L+S2 L2
S1+S2 S1 S1+S3
Eutectoid S1 ↔ S2 + S3 S2 S3
S2+S3
S1+S2
Peritectoid S1 + S2 ↔ S3 S1
S1+S3 S3+S2
S2
S3
S1b+S1a S1a S1a+S2
Monotectoid S1a ↔ S1b + S2 S
1b
S
2
S1b+S2
S2+S1 S1 S1+L
Metatectic S1 ↔ S2 + L S2 L
S2+L
L1+L2
Syntectic L1 + L2 ↔ S L1 L2
L1+S S S+L2
 Allotropic Transformations
 As we discussed earlier that several metals may exist in more than one type of crystal
structure depending upon temperature , Iron, Tin, Manganese and Cobalt are examples
of metals which exhibit this property , known as Allotropy.
 On an equilibrium diagram, this allotropic change is indicated by a point or points on
the vertical line which represents the pure metal. This is illustrated in below figure. In
this diagram, the gamma solid solution field is ‘looped’. The pure metal Fe and alloys
rich in Fe undergo two transformations.
2000
Liquid 1907
1800
1538
Temperature (ºC)

1600

Liquid + α
1400

1200
γ α
1000 γ+α
912
800
α+σ σ
600
α+σ
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Weight Percent Chromium →
 Allotropic Transformations: Fe-Fe3C System

Peritectic L
Eutectic
L+δ→ 1493ºC
L → γ + Fe3C
γ δ
L+γ
0.1 %C γ 2.06 1147ºC

Eutectoid γ + Fe3C
γ → α + Fe3C
723ºC
α

0.025 %C α + Fe3C
T →

Fe Fe3C
0.16 0.8 4.3 6.7
Fe-Cementite diagram %C →
 Order-disorder Transformations
 Ordinarily in the formation of substitutional type of solid solution the solute atoms do not
occupy any specific position but are distributed at random in the lattice structure of the
solvent. The alloy is said to be in a ‘disordered’condition.
 Some of these random solid solutions, if cooled slowly, undergo a rearrangement of the
atoms where the solute atoms move into definite positions in the lattice. This structure is
known as an ordered solid solution or superlattice.
 Ordering is most common in metals that are completely soluble in the solid state, and
usually the maximum amount of ordering occurs at a simple atomic ratio of the two
elements.
 For this reason, the ordered phase is sometimes given a chemical formula, such as AuCu
and AuCu3 in the gold-copper alloy system. On the equilibrium diagram, the ordered
solutions are frequently designated as α ‫׳‬, β ‫׳‬, etc. or α ‫׳‬, α ‫״‬, etc., and the area in which they
are found is usually bounded by a dot-dash line.

CuAu Cu3Au Fe3Al

 Order-disorder Transformations
 When the ordered phase has the same lattice structure as the disordered phase, the
effect of ordering on mechanical properties is negligible. Hardening associated
with the ordering process is most pronounced in those systems where the shape of
the unitcell is changed by ordering.
 Regardless of the structure formed as a result of ordering, an important property
change produced, even in the absence of hardening, is a significant reduction in
electrical resistance. Notice the sharp decrease in electrical resistivity at the
compositions which correspond to the ordered phases AuCu and AuCu3.

Figure : Effect of (a) temperature, (b) composition, and (c) deformation on the resistivity of
copper-gold alloys
 Note
 Some of the equilibrium diagrams discussed under the simple types are the same
as actual ones. Many alloy systems have diagrams which show more than one
type of reaction and are generally more complex than the simple types.
 However, even the most complex diagrams show mainly the reactions that have
been covered. The student should be able to label a phase diagram completely;
understand the significance of every point, line and area; determine the various
reactions that occur at the horizontal lines; and describe the slow cooling and
microstructure of any alloy on a binary equilibrium diagram.