Anatomy and
perform a special function.
Physiology
Anatomy
- science of the structure of an
organism and the
relationship of its parts
A. Gross anatomy—study of the body
and its parts relying only on the
naked eye as a tool for observation
B. Microscopic anatomy—study of
body parts with a microscope
● Cytology—study of cells
● Histology—study of tissues
C. Developmental anatomy—study of
human growth and Development
D. Pathological anatomy—study of
diseased body structures
E. Systemic anatomy—study of the
body by systems
Physiology
- science of the functions of
organisms; subdivisions named
according to:
1. Organism involved—human or
plant physiology
2. Organizational level—molecular or
cellular physiology
3. Systemic function—respiratory
physiology, neurophysiology, or
cardiovascular physiology
Introduction to the
Human Body
● The human body - is a single
structure but it is made up of
billions of smaller structures of four
major kinds: cells, tissues, organs,
and systems.
● An organ - is an organization of
several different kinds of tissues so
arranged that together they can
● A system - is an organization of
varying numbers and kinds of
organs so arranged that together
they can perform complex
functions for the body.
- Ten major systems include
the skeletal, muscular,
nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic,
respiratory, digestive,
urinary, and the
reproductive system.
● Body functions - are the
physiological or psychological
functions of body systems. Survival
of the body depends on the body's
maintaining or restoring
homeostasis, a state of relative
constancy, of its internal
environment.
● Human life process includes
organization, metabolism,
responsiveness, movements,
reproduction, growth,
differentiation, respiration,
digestion, and excretion. All these
processes work together, in
fine-tuned balance, for the
well-being of the individual and to
maintain life.
● Life depends on certain physical
factors from the environment,
which include water, oxygen,
nutrients, heat, and pressure.
Anatomical
Terminology
Anatomical Position
 - It is a discussion about the body,
its position, how it moves, and its
relationship from one body part to
another.
- It is the reference position that
gives meaning to the directional
terms that is used to describe body
parts and regions
Bilateral Symmetry
- The right and left sides of the body
are mirror images of each other
and only one plane can divide the
body into left and right halves.
Ipsilateral
- are on the same side of the body
in anatomical position
Contralateral
- are on opposite sides of the body
in anatomical position
Directional Terms
- describe the positions of structures
relative to other structures or
locations in the body.
Superior or cranial - toward the head end
of the body; upper
- example: the hand is part of the
superior extremity(limb of the body,
such as the arm or leg).
Inferior or caudal - away from the head;
lower
- example: the foot is part of the
inferior extremity.
Anterior or ventral - front
- example: the kneecap is located
on the anterior side of the leg.
Posterior or dorsal - back
- example: the shoulder blades are
located on the posterior side of the
body.
Medial - toward the midline of the body
- example: the middle toe is located
at the medial side of the foot.
Lateral - away from the midline of the
body
- example: the little toe is located at
the lateral side of the foot.
Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or
the point of origin of a part
- example: the proximal end of the
femur joins with the pelvic bone.
Distal - away from or farthest from the
trunk or the point or origin of a part
- example: the hand is located at
the distal end of the forearm.
Planes of the Body
Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A
vertical plane running from side to side;
divides the body or any of its parts into
anterior and posterior portions.
Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical
plane running from front to back; divides
the body or any of its parts into right and
left sides.
Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A
horizontal plane; divides the body or any
of its parts into upper and lower parts.
Median plane - Sagittal plane through the
midline of the body; divides the body or
any of its parts into right and left halves.
 Body cavity
- spaces within the body that contain
the internal organs, or viscera.
- hollow area or hole. It may
describe a body cavity (such as the
space within the abdomen).
- The two main cavities are called
the ventral and dorsal cavities.
- The ventral cavity - is the
larger cavity and is
subdivided into two parts
(thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities) by
the diaphragm, a
dome-shaped respiratory
muscle.
a. Thoracic cavity
- The upper
ventral,
thoracic, or
chest cavity
Body Cavities
contains the
heart, lungs,
trachea,
oesophagus,
large blood
vessels, and
nerves. The
thoracic
cavity is
bound
laterally by
the ribs
(covered by
 costal cavity, and a
pleura) and lower
the portion, the
diaphragm pelvic cavity.
caudally - The Dorsal cavity - its
(covered by name implies, it contains
diaphragmati organs lying more posterior
c pleura). in the body.
b. Abdominopelvic - Divided into two portions:
cavity 1. the upper portion,or
- contains the the cranial cavity -
liver, houses the brain
gallbladder, 2. the lower portion or
stomach, vertebral canal -
pancreas, houses the spinal
intestines, cord.
spleen,
kidneys, and
ureters. The
bladder,
certain Peritoneal Cavity
reproductive - space or opening between the two
organs membranes in the abdomen
(uterus, Parietal Peritoneum
uterine - refers to the actual wall of a body
tubes, and cavity or the lining membrane that
ovaries in covers its surface.
females; - The membrane lining the inside of
prostate the abdominal cavity
gland, Visceral Peritoneum
seminal - Refers to the thin membrane that
vesicles, and covers the organs, or viscera,
part of the within a cavity.
vas deferens - The membrane that covers the
in males), organs within the abdominal cavity.
and part of
the large
intestine Cell Structure &
(namely, the
sigmoid Function
colon and
rectum) lie in
the pelvic
cavity.
- Has an
upper
portion, the
abdominal
 sites,
function as
carrier
molecules,
and provide
identification
markers.

● NUCLEUS
- is a structure
Cell inside the
- the smallest structures capable of cell that
maintaining life and reproducing, contains the
compose all living things, from nucleolus
single-celled plants to and most of
multibillion-celled animals. the cell’s
- the smallest unit that can live on its DNA. It is
own and that makes up all living also where
organisms and the tissues of the most RNA is
body. made. The
- A cell has three main parts: the cell cytoplasm is
membrane, the nucleus, and the the fluid
cytoplasm. inside the
cell. It
● CELL MEMBRANE contains
- surrounds other tiny
the cell and cell parts
controls the that have
substances specific
that go into functions,
and out of including the
the cell. Golgi
- is a double complex, the
layer of mitochondria
phospholipid , and the
molecules. endoplasmic
- Proteins in reticulum.
the cell
membrane ● CYTOPLASM
provide - is where
structural most
support, chemical
form reactions
channels for take place
passage of and most
materials, proteins get
act as made. The
receptor human body
 has more and a
than 30 specific role
trillion cells. in the
- the gel-like function of
fluid inside the cell.
the cell - Examples of
- It provides a cytoplasmic
platform organelles
upon which are
other mitochondrio
organelles n,
can operate ribosomes,
within the endoplasmic
cell reticulum,
- All of the golgi
functions for apparatus,
cell and
expansion, lysosomes.
growth and Cell Function
replication - Cell functions include movement of
are carried substances across the cell
out in the membrane, cell division to make
cytoplasm of new cells, and protein synthesis.
a cell
- Within the 1. Movement of substances across
cytoplasm, the cell membrane
materials - The survival of the cell
move by depends on maintaining the
diffusion, a difference between
physical extracellular and
process that intracellular material.
can work - Mechanisms of movement
only for short across the cell membrane
distances include:
● Cytoplasmic - Simple diffusion:
organelles movement of particles
- are "little (solutes) from higher to
organs" that lower solute concentration.
are - Osmosis: diffusion of
suspended solvent or water molecules
in the through a selectively
cytoplasm of permeable membrane.
the cell. - Filtration: utilizes pressure
- Each type of to push substances through
organelle a membrane.
has a - Active transport: moves
definite substances against a
structure
 concentration gradient from
lower to higher
concentration; requires a
carrier molecule and uses
energy.
- Endocytosis: formation of
vesicles to transfer particles
and droplets from outside
to inside the cell.
- Exocytosis: secretory
vesicles move substances
from inside to outside the
cell.
2. Cell division
● Cell division is the process
by which new cells are
formed for growth, repair,
and replacement in the
body.
● This process includes:
- Division of the
nuclear material
- Division of the
cytoplasm
- All somatic cells
(body cells except
gametes) reproduce
by mitosis.
● Egg and sperm cells
(gametes) are produced by
meiosis, a special type of
nuclear division where the
number of chromosomes is
halved.
● Division of the cytoplasm is
called cytokinesis.
● Somatic cells reproduce by
mitosis:
- Results in two cells
identical to the
parent cell
- Interphase: period
between successive
cell divisions, the
longest part of the
cell cycle
- Stages of mitosis:
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase,
telophase
- Cytokinesis occurs
during telophase
● Meiosis:
- Special type of cell
division for
producing gametes
(eggs and sperm)
- Gametes have 23
chromosomes, half
the number found in
somatic cells
- Fertilization restores
the chromosome
number to 46, with
23 chromosomes
from the egg and 23
from the sperm
3. DNA replication and protein
synthesis
- Proteins synthesized in the
cytoplasm function as:
- Structural materials
- Enzymes that regulate
chemical reactions
- Hormones
- Other vital substances
- DNA in the nucleus directs
protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm.
- A gene is a portion of a
DNA molecule that controls
the synthesis of one
specific protein molecule.
- Messenger RNA (mRNA)
carries genetic information
from the DNA in the
nucleus to the sites of
protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm.

BODY TISSUES
Tissues
- group of cells with similar structure
functioning together as a unit
● Intercellular matrix:
- Nonliving material filling
spaces between cells
- May be abundant or
minimal, depending on the
tissue
- Can contain special
substances (salts, fibers)
unique to specific tissues,
giving distinctive
characteristics
● Four main tissue types in the body:
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
● Widespread throughout the body
● Forms covering of all body
surfaces
● Lines body cavities and hollow
organs
● Major tissue in glands
● Functions include: Protection,
Secretion, Absorption, Excretion,
Filtration, Diffusion, Sensory
reception
● Characteristics:
- Cells are tightly packed with very
little intercellular matrix
- Cells have one free surface not in
contact with other cells
- Opposite the free surface, cells
are attached to underlying
connective tissue by a non-cellular
basement membrane (mixture of
carbohydrates and proteins)
● Cell Shapes and Arrangements:
- Squamous
- Cuboidal
- Columnar
- May be arranged in single or
multiple layers
● Specific Types and Locations:
1. Simple cuboidal epithelium:
found in glandular tissue
and kidney tubules
2. Simple columnar
epithelium: lines the
stomach and intestines
3. Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium: lines portions of
the respiratory tract and
some tubes of the male
reproductive tract
4. Transitional epithelium: can
be distended or stretched
5. Glandular epithelium:
specialized to produce and
secrete substances
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● Functions:
1. Bind structures together
 2. Form a framework and
support for organs and the
body
3. Store fat
4. Transport substances
5. Protect against disease
6. Help repair tissue damage
7. Occur throughout the body
● Characteristics:
- Abundance of intercellular
matrix with relatively few
cells
- Cells can reproduce but not
as rapidly as epithelial cells
- Most have a good blood
supply, but some do not
● Numerous cell types found in
connective tissue:
● Fibroblast
● Macrophage
● Mast cell
● Types of connective tissue:
● Loose connective tissue
● Adipose tissue
● Dense fibrous connective
tissue
● Elastic connective tissue
● Cartilage
● Osseous tissue (bone)
● Blood
MUSCLE TISSUE
● Composed of cells with the ability
to shorten or contract to produce
movement
● Highly cellular and well supplied
with blood vessels
● Cells are long and slender, often
called muscle fibers
● Muscle fibers are usually arranged
in bundles or layers surrounded by
connective tissue
● Contains contractile proteins actin
and myosin
● Categories of muscle tissue:
- Skeletal muscle tissue:
- Cylindrical fibers
- Multinucleated
- Striated
- Under voluntary control
- Smooth muscle tissue:
- Spindle-shaped cells
- Single, centrally located
nucleus
- Lack striations
- Involuntary control
- Cardiac muscle tissue:
- Branching fibers
- One nucleus per cell
- Striated
- Intercalated disks
- Involuntary contro
NERVOUS TISSUE
● Found in the brain, spinal cord,
and nerves
● Responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities
● Functions are:
- Stimulates muscle
contraction
- Creates awareness of the
environment
- Plays a major role in
emotions, memory, and
reasoning
● Communication:
 - Cells in nervous tissue
communicate via electrical
nerve impulses
- Cells that generate and
conduct impulses are called
neurons or nerve cells
- Neurons have three
principal parts:
- Dendrites:
extensions that
carry impulses to
the cell body
- Cell body: main
part carrying out
general functions
- Axon: extension
that carries
impulses away from
the cell body
● Supporting cells:
- Nervous tissue includes
non-impulse-transmitting
cells called glial cells
(neuroglial cells),
collectively termed
neuroglia
- Functions of glial cells:
- Bind neurons
together
- Insulate neurons
- Some are
phagocytic and protect
against bacterial invasion
- Provide nutrients
by binding blood vessels to
neurons
MEMBRANES
Body membranes
- are thin sheets of tissue that cover
the body, line body cavities, and
cover organs within hollow organs.
They can be categorized into
epithelial membranes and
connective tissue membranes.
Connective tissue membrane
Epithelial membranes
- consist of epithelial tissue and the
connective tissue to which it is
attached. The two main types are:
1. Mucous membrane
- Epithelial tissue that
is attached to the
underlying loose
connective tissue.
- Located at the line
body cavities that
open to the outside
(e.g., digestive,
respiratory,
excretory,
reproductive tracts).
2. Serous membrane
- Line body cavities
not open to the
outside, and cover
organs within these
cavities.
- Covered by a thin
layer of serous fluid
secreted by the
epithelium.
- Lubricate the
membrane to
reduce friction and
abrasion during
organ movement.
- Examples:
- Pleura:
lines thoracic cavity
and covers lungs.
-
Peritoneum: lines
abdominal cavity and
covers abdominal
organs.
-
Pericardium:
surrounds the heart
within the
pericardial cavity.
 - contain only connective tissue. The - Functions of Saliva
two types are:
1. Synovial membrane
- Lines cavities of
freely movable
joints (e.g.,
shoulder, elbow,
knee).
- Secretes synovial
fluid into joint
cavities to lubricate
and reduce friction
between bones.
- No epithelium:
Unlike serous
membranes,
synovial
membranes do not
have a layer of
epithelium.
2. Meninges
- Connective tissue
covering the brain
and spinal cord
within the dorsal
cavity.
- Provides protection
for these vital
structures.
*These membranes play crucial roles in
protecting, supporting, and lubricating
various parts of the body.*
1. Cleansing Action on Teeth:
- Saliva helps
cleanse the teeth by
washing away food
particles and
bacteria.
- It contains
antibacterial agents,
such as lysozyme,
that help protect
against oral
infections.
2. Moistens and Lubricates
Food:
- Saliva moistens and
lubricates food to
facilitate chewing
(mastication) and
swallowing.
- This lubrication
makes it easier to
form a bolus (ball of
food) that can be
swallowed.
3. Dissolves Food Molecules:
- Saliva dissolves
food molecules,
allowing them to be
tasted by taste buds
on the tongue.
- This process is
crucial for the
perception of flavors

ACCESSORY ORGAN 4. Begins Chemical Digestion

of Starches:
Saliva Glands - Saliva contains the
- is produced by three pairs of major enzyme amylase,
salivary glands (parotid, which begins the
submandibular, and sublingual breakdown of
glands) and numerous smaller starches
ones. It is secreted into the oral (polysaccharides)
cavity where it mixes with food into maltose (a
during mastication. Saliva contains disaccharide).
water, mucus, and the enzyme - Amylase catalyzes
amylase. the hydrolysis of
starch into smaller
 carbohydrate 2. Hepatic Portal Vein: Carries
molecules. blood rich in nutrients from
5. Facilitates Speech: the digestive tract to the
- Moistens the oral liver.
mucosa and - Liver functions include the
facilitates following:
articulation, aiding 1. secretion
in speech. - Produces and
6. Maintains Oral pH: secretes bile, which
- Saliva helps aids in digestion
maintain a neutral and absorption of
pH in the mouth, fats.
which is important 2. synthesis of bile salts
for dental health. - Bile salts are
7. Protects the Oral Mucosa: essential for the
- Lubricates and emulsification of fats
protects the oral in the small
mucosa from intestine.
mechanical 3. synthesis of plasma protein
damage. - Produces important
plasma proteins
*Saliva is essential for oral health and the such as albumin,
initial stages of digestion, playing a critical clotting factors (e.g.,
role in preparing food for further digestion fibrinogen), and
in the stomach and intestines.* other proteins
necessary for
Liver transport and
- Located primarily in the right immunity.
hypochondriac and epigastric
regions of the abdomen, just 4. storage
beneath the diaphragm. - Stores glycogen,
- The liver is the largest gland in the vitamins (A, D, E, K,
body. B12), and minerals
- Divided into two major lobes (right (iron, copper).
and left) and two smaller lobes - Acts as a reservoir
(quadrate and caudate). for glucose.
- Liver lobules, which have sinusoids
that carry blood from the periphery
to the central vein of the lobule. 5. detoxification
- The liver receives blood from two - Metabolizes and
sources: detoxifies drugs,
1. Common Hepatic Artery: hormones, and
Brings freshly oxygenated metabolic waste
blood to the liver, a branch products (e.g.,
of the celiac trunk from the ammonia).
abdominal aorta. - Converts toxic
ammonia to urea for
excretion.
6. excretion
- Excretes bilirubin (a
breakdown product
of hemoglobin) into
bile for removal
from the body.
7. carbohyrate metabolism
- Regulates blood
glucose levels by
storing excess
glucose as glycogen
and converting
glycogen back to
glucose as needed
(glycogenesis and
glycogenolysis).
8. lipid metabolism
- Synthesizes and
breaks down fatty
acids, and regulates
cholesterol levels.
9. protein metabolism
- Metabolizes
proteins, converting
amino acids to
energy or to
produce new
proteins.
10. filtering
- Filters and
processes blood
from the hepatic
portal vein,
removing and
metabolizing
nutrients, toxins,
and other
substances.