Front Page

Executive Summary

This project concentrates on the design of the pavement for a two-way, two-lane road scheduled to open in
2023. Its primary objective is to create a pavement structure that adheres to current Australian design
guidelines, thereby ensuring safety and durability. This design must accommodate the anticipated Average
Annual Daily Traffic (AADT), account for varying percentages of heavy vehicles, and provide a reliable
25-year service life. The project seeks to evaluate traffic load distribution and axle configurations based on
specified lane, subgrade CBR values, and an annual heavy vehicle growth rate. The selected design will
not account for the post-cracking phase of pavement materials but will include a $5/m2 wearing surface.
Through rigorous structural analysis and adherence to engineering standards, this project will recommend
the most appropriate flexible pavement configuration to satisfy the road's specifications and ensure its
durability.

2|Page
Table of Contents

Chapter 01..............................................................................................................................2

Chapter 02..............................................................................................................................2

Task 2.1...............................................................................................................................2

Task 2.2...............................................................................................................................4

Task 2.3...............................................................................................................................6

Task 2.4...............................................................................................................................8

Chapter 03............................................................................................................................10

Task 3.1.............................................................................................................................10

Task 3.2.............................................................................................................................11

Chapter 04............................................................................................................................13

Task 4.1.............................................................................................................................13

Task 4.2.............................................................................................................................15

Task 4.3.............................................................................................................................17

Chapter 05............................................................................................................................19

Task 5.1.............................................................................................................................19

3|Page
Table of Figures
Table 1: Traffic load distribution by proportion of each axle group load of each axle group type (Pij)........5
Table 2:ESAij for each axle group load of each axle group type...................................................................6
Table 3:Calculation of 𝑘𝑖𝑗 = 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑖𝑗 × 𝑃𝑖j.......................................................................................................6
Table 4:Calculation of cumulative number of each axle group load of each axle group type 𝑒𝑖𝑗..................7
Table 5 : Calculation of costs for each design option...................................................................................20

Figure 1:Cross section view of design option 1...........................................................................................19

Figure 2:Cross section view of design option 2...........................................................................................19

4|Page
Index number - 222407129

Chapter 01
Project Introduction
The primary goal of this project is to design the pavement for a two-way, two-lane road, with a particular
emphasis on ensuring safety and achieving long-term performance. Several factors are considered to
accommodate the anticipated Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT), including accounting for different
proportions of heavy vehicles, and ensuring a 25-year service life. The lane and shoulder dimensions have
been specified, the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values have been calculated using student
identification numbers, and an annual growth rate of heavy vehicles has been considered. Furthermore, the
project's scope includes traffic load distribution analysis and axle configuration analysis. It is critical to
understand that the subsequent phase of cracking in pavement materials will not be considered. The
primary goal of this project is to identify the best flexible pavement configuration that meets the road's
specifications and ensures its durability. This will be accomplished through meticulous structural analysis
and strict adherence to engineering standards.

AADT - 6000 + 129 = 6129

HV - 9%

CBR - 6%

Pavement design period is 25 years.

• The project reliability is 95%.
• Lane width is 3.5 m and shoulder width are 1.5 m.

Annual heavy vehicle growth rate is expected to be 3.5% throughout the design period. Know that the
cumulative number of heavy vehicles does not exceed the lane capacity over the design period of the road.

All the designed pavement configurations are covered by a wearing surface with the material cost of
$5/m2.

Chapter 02
Task 2.1
I. Pavement design Period - 25 years
II. Identification of Design Lane - Two-way two-lane road
Assuming the location as urban and 1 lane each direction.
Design lane is the left lane with LDF = 1.0

5|Page
 Lane Distribution factor - Left Lane = 1.0

III. The average daily number of heavy vehicles for Left Lane

N i= AADT X DF X ( HV
100 )
X LDF

Left lane = 6129 x 0.5 x 0.09 x 1 = 276

IV. The Heavy vehicle growth rate R = 3.5 %. R is Constant over the design period.
The cumulative growth factor is calculated by,

{
( 1+ 0.01 R )P−1
CGF= ,∧R> 0
0.01 R
P ,∧R=0

( 1+0.01 R )P −1 ( 1+0.01 X 3.5 )25−1

CGF= = =38.95
0.01 R 0.01 X 3.5

V. Cumulative Number of heavy vehicles ( N HV ¿=¿ 365 X N i X CGF

= 365 x 276 x 38.95 = 3.92 x 106 (Vehicles)

VI. As there is one steer axle (SAST or TAST) on each heavy vehicle, the number of heavy vehicles =
the number of SAST + TAST. We have:

SAST + TAST = 0.305 + 0.143 = 0.448 (Ratio of number of heavy vehicles)

Total = SAST + SADT + TAST + TADT +TRDT + QADT = 1.0
1
NHVAG = (axle groups/heavy vehicle) = =2.23
0.448

∴Cumulative heavy vehicle axle groups over the road design life is,

6|Page
 NDT = N HV x N HVAG=3.92 x 106 x 2.23=8.742 x 106

Task 2.2
Calculation of Design number of ESA
I. Traffic load distribution by proportion of each axle group load of each axle group type (Pij)
Table 1: Traffic load distribution by proportion of each axle group load of each axle group type (Pij)

Axle group type

Axle
SAST (53 SADT TAST (89 TADT (135 TRDT (182
group
kN) (80kN) kN) kN) kN)
load
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
10 0.0026 0.0052 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
20 0.0172 0.0273 0.0003 0.0005 0.0000
30 0.0465 0.0497 0.0006 0.0014 0.0003
40 0.0627 0.0490 0.0018 0.0030 0.0024
50 0.0871 0.0456 0.0044 0.0049 0.0015
60 0.0313 0.0439 0.0099 0.0153 0.0044
70 0.0206 0.0257 0.0151 0.0223 0.0072
80 0.0195 0.0094 0.0233 0.0304 0.0071
90 0.0096 0.0041 0.0211 0.0200 0.0085
100 0.0047 0.0023 0.0197 0.0142 0.0059
110 0.0027 0.0012 0.0166 0.0117 0.0050
120 0.0005 0.0003 0.0122 0.0103 0.0046
130 0.0000 0.0002 0.0081 0.0097 0.0036
140 0.0000 0.0001 0.0048 0.0099 0.0030
150 0.0000 0.0000 0.0028 0.0103 0.0028
160 0.0000 0.0000 0.0015 0.0110 0.0046
170 0.0000 0.0000 0.0007 0.0116 0.0057
180 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0020 0.0046
190 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0020 0.0050
200 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0012 0.0083
210 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.0056
220 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0028
230 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0015
240 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0007
250 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0004
260 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Total 0.3050 0.2640 0.1430 0.1920 0.0960

II. ESAij for each axle group load of each axle group type

7|Page
Table 2:ESAij for each axle group load of each axle group type

Axle group type

Axle group SAST (53 SADT TAST (89
TADT (135 kN) TRDT (182 kN)
load kN) (80kN) kN)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
10 0.00127 0.00024 0.00016 0.00003 0.00001
20 0.02028 0.00391 0.00255 0.00048 0.00015
30 0.10266 0.01978 0.01291 0.00244 0.00074
40 0.32444 0.06250 0.04080 0.00771 0.00233
50 0.79209 0.15259 0.09961 0.01882 0.00570
60 1.64249 0.31641 0.20656 0.03902 0.01181
70 3.04291 0.58618 0.38268 0.07229 0.02188
80 5.19107 1.00000 0.65283 0.12332 0.03733
90 8.31508 1.60181 1.04571 0.19753 0.05980
100 12.67350 2.44141 1.59382 0.30107 0.09114
110 18.55527 3.57446 2.33352 0.44079 0.13344
120 26.27977 5.06250 3.30495 0.62430 0.18899
130 36.19678 6.97290 4.55212 0.85988 0.26031
140 48.68651 9.37891 6.12283 1.15658 0.35013
150 64.15959 12.35962 8.06873 1.52416 0.46140
160 83.05704 16.00000 10.44528 1.97308 0.59730
170 105.85033 20.39087 13.31177 2.51455 0.76122
180 133.04132 25.62891 16.73131 3.16049 0.95676
190 165.16230 31.81665 20.77086 3.92355 1.18776
200 202.77598 39.06250 25.50116 4.81709 1.45826
210 246.47547 47.48071 30.99682 5.85520 1.77252
220 296.88431 57.19141 37.33625 7.05270 2.13504
230 354.65645 68.32056 44.60169 8.42512 2.55050
240 420.47627 81.00000 52.87921 9.98872 3.02384
250 495.05854 95.36743 62.25869 11.76048 3.56020
260 579.14847 111.56641 72.83387 13.75810 4.16493

III. Calculation of 𝑘𝑖𝑗 = 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑖𝑗 × 𝑃𝑖j

Table 3:Calculation of 𝑘𝑖𝑗 = 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑖𝑗 × 𝑃𝑖j

Axle group type

Axle group SAST (53 SADT TAST (89
TADT (135 kN) TRDT (182 kN)
load kN) (80kN) kN)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
8|Page
 10 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
20 0.00035 0.00011 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
30 0.00477 0.00098 0.00001 0.00000 0.00000
40 0.02035 0.00306 0.00007 0.00002 0.00001
50 0.06902 0.00696 0.00043 0.00009 0.00001
60 0.05140 0.01387 0.00204 0.00060 0.00005
70 0.06283 0.01509 0.00578 0.00161 0.00016
80 0.10117 0.00940 0.01522 0.00375 0.00027
90 0.07989 0.00664 0.02204 0.00395 0.00051
100 0.05953 0.00561 0.03134 0.00426 0.00054
110 0.04980 0.00425 0.03881 0.00515 0.00067
120 0.01282 0.00160 0.04046 0.00640 0.00088
130 0.00110 0.00147 0.03665 0.00837 0.00093
140 0.00000 0.00099 0.02924 0.01146 0.00106
150 0.00000 0.00033 0.02250 0.01569 0.00131
160 0.00000 0.00000 0.01524 0.02171 0.00277
170 0.00000 0.00000 0.00895 0.02906 0.00436
180 0.00000 0.00000 0.00215 0.00631 0.00444
190 0.00000 0.00000 0.00178 0.00791 0.00597
200 0.00000 0.00000 0.00073 0.00592 0.01214
210 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00124 0.00992
220 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00068 0.00590
230 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00016 0.00382
240 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00209
250 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00140
260 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00016
Total 0.51303 0.07036 0.27344 0.13434 0.05937

ESA
∴ =0.5130+0.07036+0.27344 +0.13434 +0.05937 = 1.050536
HVAG

Therefore, the design number of ESA for this project,

ESA 6
DESA= × N DT =1.050536 ×8.742 x 10 = 9.184 x 106
HVAG

9|Page
Task 2.3
Calculation of cumulative number of each axle group load of each axle group type 𝑒𝑖𝑗
I. 𝑒𝑖𝑗 = 𝑁𝐷𝑇 × 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝑖𝑗 × 𝑃𝑖𝑗
Table 4:Calculation of cumulative number of each axle group load of each axle group type 𝑒𝑖𝑗

Axle group type

Axle group SAST (53 SADT TAST (89
TADT (135 kN) TRDT (182 kN)
load kN) (80kN) kN)
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
10 3.02E+01 1.16E+01 4.19E-02 5.31E-03 8.04E-04
20 3.20E+03 9.78E+02 7.03E+00 2.21E+00 3.86E-02
30 4.38E+04 9.02E+03 7.29E+01 3.14E+01 2.34E+00
40 1.87E+05 2.81E+04 6.81E+02 2.12E+02 5.20E+01
50 6.34E+05 6.39E+04 3.99E+03 8.43E+02 7.83E+01
60 4.72E+05 1.27E+05 1.87E+04 5.49E+03 4.82E+02
70 5.77E+05 1.39E+05 5.31E+04 1.48E+04 1.45E+03
80 9.29E+05 8.63E+04 1.40E+05 3.44E+04 2.44E+03
90 7.34E+05 6.10E+04 2.02E+05 3.63E+04 4.68E+03
100 5.47E+05 5.15E+04 2.88E+05 3.91E+04 4.97E+03
110 4.57E+05 3.90E+04 3.56E+05 4.73E+04 6.19E+03
120 1.18E+05 1.47E+04 3.72E+05 5.88E+04 8.05E+03
130 1.01E+04 1.35E+04 3.37E+05 7.69E+04 8.58E+03
140 0.00E+00 9.10E+03 2.69E+05 1.05E+05 9.75E+03
150 0.00E+00 3.00E+03 2.07E+05 1.44E+05 1.20E+04
160 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.40E+05 1.99E+05 2.54E+04
170 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 8.22E+04 2.67E+05 4.00E+04
180 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.98E+04 5.80E+04 4.07E+04
190 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.64E+04 7.26E+04 5.49E+04
200 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 6.70E+03 5.44E+04 1.11E+05
210 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.14E+04 9.11E+04
220 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 6.22E+03 5.42E+04
230 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.49E+03 3.51E+04
240 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.92E+04
250 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.29E+04
260 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.47E+03
Total 4.71E+06 6.46E+05 2.51E+06 1.23E+06 5.45E+05
DESA = ∑ eij = 4.71E+06 + 6.46E+05 + 2.51E+06 + 1.23E+06 + 5.45E+05 = 9.65E+06

10 | P a g e
Task 2.4
 Step 01: Creating .csv file with text editor.

 Step 02: Defining a new project.

 Step 03: Importing TLD data.

11 | P a g e
  Step 04: The result of ESA/HVAG from CIRCLY 7.0.

ESA/HVAG = 1.051

12 | P a g e
Chapter 03
Task 3.1

Crushed Rock, CBR = 50

Gravel, CBR = 15

Natural Ground, CBR = 6

DESA = 9.65E+06

Thickness of Base + Subbase = 420 mm (Red arrow)

Thickness of Base = 230 mm (Blue arrow)
∴ Thickness of Subbase = 190 mm

13 | P a g e
Task 3.2

Crushed Rock, CBR = 28

Gravel, CBR = 10

Selected Subgrade, CBR = 8

Natural Ground, CBR = 6

As the pavement configuration includes a selected subgrade layer, the design CBR of this layer as the
minimum of following values:

 CBR calculated from the empirical equation:

(thickness of select ∨stab subgrade / 150)
CBR Select ∨stab subgrade =CBRUnder material ×2
(200 /150)
CBR Select ∨stab subgrade =6 ×2 =15.12 %
 CBR obtained by the experiment: CBR = 8%
 The upper bound CBR value of 15%

Thus, the design CBR of selected subgrade is CBR = min (15%,8%,15.12%) = 8%

DESA = 9.65E+06

14 | P a g e
Thickness of Base + Subbase = 380 mm (Red arrow)
Thickness of Base = 310 mm (Blue arrow)
∴ Thickness of Subbase = 60 mm

Check the thickness by using the associated equation.

The total pavement thickness above the selected subgrade is,

t 1=[ 219−211 ( logCBR ) +58 ( logCBR )2 ] log ( DESA

120 )
=371 mm

The total pavement thickness above the gravel subbase with CBR = 10 is,

t 2=[ 219−211 ( logCBR ) +58 ( logCBR )2 ] log ( DESA

120 )
=323 mm

∴ Required thickness of this pavement is 323 mm for crush rock layer and (371 – 323) = 48 mm for gravel
layer

The result is slightly different from the result obtained by the design chart.

15 | P a g e
Chapter 04
Task 4.1
 Step 01: Defining Material properties (Asphalt AC14)

 Step 02: Defining layered structure.

16 | P a g e
  Step 03: Defining material and trial thickness of layers.
 Layer 1:

 Layer 2:

17 | P a g e
  Step 04: Performing analysis (Finding an optimal thickness of a specific layer)

CDF is close to 1, which demonstrates the optimal design.

The final design thickness = 240 mm

Task 4.2
 Step 01: Defining Material properties (Base: Asphalt AC14, Unbound subbase)

18 | P a g e
  Step 02: Defining layered structure. (As noted previously)

 Step 03: Defining material and trial thickness of layers.

19 | P a g e
  Step 04: Performing analysis (Finding an optimal thickness of a specific layer)

CDF is close to 1, which demonstrates the optimal design.

The final design thickness = 265 mm

Task 4.3
 Step 01: Defining Material properties (Base: Asphalt AC14, Cement stabilized subbase) (As noted
previously)
 Step 02: Defining layered structure. (As noted previously)

20 | P a g e
  Step 03: Defining material and trial thickness of layers.

 Step 04: Parametric analysis – automatically varying the thickness of both layers.

21 | P a g e
 According to the graphs, optimal thicknesses of asphalt layer and cement stabilized layer to satisfy
the safety requirements and achieve the least material cost.

Optimal thickness of,

I. Asphalt base = 200 mm

II. Cement stabilized subbase = 200 mm

22 | P a g e
Chapter 05
Task 5.1
Table 5 : Calculation of costs for each design option

Design option Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4 Option 5

Wearing course 5 5 5 5 5
70 x 0.23 =
Base 17.05 31.8 24
16.1
Cost ($/m2)

36
40 x 0.19 =
Subbase 1.8 10.5 16
7.6
Subgrade - 1.8 - - -
Total Cost ($) 28.7 25.65 41 47.3 45

Best design options based on material cost criteria = Design option 1 ,2

Design Option 1
Shoulder Lane width
1.5 m 3.5 m 3.5 m 1.5 m

2% 2%

Wearing Course
Subbase 230 mm
Base 190 mm

Figure 1:Cross section view of design option 1

Design Option 2
Shoulder Lane width
1.5 m 3.5 m 3.5 m 1.5 m

2% 2%
Wearing Course
Subbase 60 mm
Base 310 mm
Subgrade 200 mm

23 | P a g e
Figure 2:Cross section view of design option 2
Task 5.2
The construction of roads involves the use of various materials and resources, resulting in substantial
environmental impacts. To address this, there is a growing interest in improving road construction
technologies, materials, and practices to reduce these environmental burdens. This includes extending the
service life of road materials, recycling pavement materials, and utilizing materials that reduce carbon
emissions(Bruder-Hubscher et al., 2001). Also, extensive uses natural aggregates, often in areas with high
demand, will lead to resource depletion. There's a growing need to find substitute materials for natural
aggregates, including industrial byproducts like coal combustion byproducts, foundry sand, construction
waste, and steel slags. Their use in road construction can be environmentally beneficial. Using the
industrial byproducts as a substitute for natural aggregate could reduce the environmental impact for some
of the impact categories (Chowdhury et al., 2010). Park et al., (2020) studied environmental issues related
to construction materials by comprehensively analyzing their environmental impacts beyond carbon
emissions. It employs the life cycle assessment (LCA) technique in the context of road projects to
determine major environmental impact categories for each construction material during the production
stage. It concluded some major findings such as cement content primarily influences the environmental
impact of ready-mixed concrete and Blast furnace slag cement gives lower environmental impact for
global warming.

References
Bruder-Hubscher, C., Lagarde, F., Leroy, M. J. F., Coughanowr, C., & Enguehard, F. (2001). Utilisation of
bottom ash in road construction: A lysimeter study. Waste Management and Research, 19(6), 557–
566. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X0101900612
Chowdhury, R., Apul, D., & Fry, T. (2010). A life cycle based environmental impacts assessment of
construction materials used in road construction. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 54(4),
250–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2009.08.007
Park, W. J., Kim, R., Roh, S., & Ban, H. (2020). Analysis of major environmental impact categories of
road construction materials. Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(17), 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su12176951

24 | P a g e