lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Laser Optical Fibre - Engineering Physics DBATU

Engineering Physics (Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Let Us Rise Above The Rest

M.S.P.M.’s

Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies,

Aurangabad

Basic Science and Humanities Department

Engineering Physics
(BTBS 102/202)

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

UNIT 2- LASER and FIBRE OPTICS

LASER
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Laser light differs mainly from conventional light due to its four properties
Properties of LASER

1) Monochomaticity- Laser light emits a single specific frequency instead

of a continuous frequency range.
2) Coherence- The two sources of laser light vibrating in same phase or
there is a constant phase difference between them.
3) Directionality- Laser emits light only in one direction. The width of laser
beam is extremely narrow.
4) Intensity- Laser is much more intense and bright than any other
conventional source.
Interaction of Radiation with Matter

1) Spontaneous Emission

The particles after completion of excited state life time returns to lower
energy state, spontaneously emitting a photon without action of external
agency, such an emission of radiation is called spontaneous emission.

This is a random process and is uncontrollable hence emitted light photon

is incoherent. Spontaneous emission depends on type of particle and type
of transition.

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

2) Stimulated Emission

A particle can pass from an excited state to normal state emitting a photon
not only spontaneously but also when forced to it, under the effect of
another external photon. This type of emission is called stimulated
emission.
Stimulated emission is coherent with stimulating incident radiation. It has
same frequency and phase as that of incident radiation.

3) Population Inversion

Usually the number of atoms (N2) of higher energy level is less than the
number of atoms (N1) of lower energy level.
Making the number of particles in higher energy level more than the
number of particles in lower energy level is called population inversion or
inverted population.
The states where the condition of population inversion is achieved are
called negative temperature states. Population inversion can be achieved at
ordinary temperature and only under non-equilibrium conditions. Thus for
stimulated emission population inversion is necessary.
4) Pumping Mechanism

Method of raising the particle from lower energy state to higher energy
state is called pumping.

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

There are number of techniques for pumping atoms to obtain population

inversion. Most commonly used are

a) Optical Pumping-This pumping technique is used in solid state laser

e.g. Ruby laser

b) Electric Discharge – This technique is used in gas laser.

e.g. He-Ne laser

c) Direct Conversion- In semiconductor diode laser a direct conversion of

electrical energy into light energy takes place.
5) Three level pumping scheme

Fig. Three level pumping

A three-level pumping scheme is as shown in figure.
Level E1 is ground level, E2 is metastable level and E3 is pump level.
When medium is exposed to pump frequency (ʋp) radiation a large number
of atoms will excite to pump level. However, they do not stay at level E 3
but rapidly undergoes downward transition to metastable level E 2. The
atoms are trapped at this level as spontaneous transition from level E2 to
level E1 occurs rarely.
The pumping continues and after short time there will be a large
accumulation of atoms at level E2. Hence population inversion is achieved

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

between E1 and E2 and stimulated emission takes place and LASER light
is produced.
6) Four level pumping scheme

Fig. Four level pumping

A four-level pumping scheme is as shown in figure.
Level E1 is ground level, E3 and E2 are upper and lower metastable states.
E4 is pump level. E2, E3 and E4 are excited states. When a photon of pump
frequency ʋp is incident on medium, the active atoms are excited from
ground level to pump level E4. The atoms stay at E4 level for about 10-8
sec. and quickly drop down to metastable state E3. The atoms get trapped
at level E3 hence population inversion is achieved between E3 and E2.
A photon of energy hʋ = E3-E2 emitted and bring atom to lower level E2.
The emitted radiations are LASER radiations. The atoms undergo
transition to ground level E1 and again available for excitation.
7) Active system (Active medium)

The state of system in which population of higher energy state is more in

comparison to population of lower energy state is called negative
temperature state. Such state of system is called active system or active
medium.

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

8) Absorption

Suppose an atom is in lower energy level E1, if a photon of energy hʋ is

incident on atom, it imparts its energy to atom and disappears. Then we
can say that atom absorbs an incident photon. This type of transition is
called an absorption transition or induced absorption.

Q. Differentiate between spontaneous and stimulated emission

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission

The transition of an electron from the Stimulated emission of radiation is the

excited state to the process whereby photons
ground state happens as a result of the are used to generate other photons
natural tendency of the electron that have exact phase and
without the action of any external wavelength as that of parent photon
agent. The radiation produced as a
result of such transitions is called as
spontaneous radiation

There is no population inversion of This is the key process of formation of

electrons in LEDsS laser beam.

No external stimuli required. Thus stimulated emission is caused by

external stimuli.

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Classification of LASER
Lasers are classified into 4 types
1) Solid State Laser
Examples a) Ruby laser
b) Nd: YAG Laser [Neodymium:Yttrium Aluminium Garnet
(Y 3 Al 5 O 12 )]
2) Gas Laser

Examples a) He-Ne Laser

b) CO 2 (Carbon-di-oxide) laser
3) Liquid Dye Laser
4) Solid State Diode Laser
Example- Semiconductor diode laser
Q. Explain the construction and working of Ruby laser with neat diagram.

In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3 : Cr3+) in the form of cylinder acts
as a laser medium or active medium. The laser medium (ruby) in the ruby laser is
made of the host of sapphire (Al2O3) which is doped with small amounts of
chromium ions (Cr3+). The ruby has good thermal properties.

Construction

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Fig.: Ruby Laser

It uses a crystalline substance of the active material. The different parts are
shown in the fig
It consists of three main parts
i) An active working material: a rod of ruby crystal
ii) A resonant cavity made of fully reflecting plate at the left of ruby crystal
and a partially reflecting plate at the right of ruby crystal. Both the plates
are optically plane and exactly parallel to each other
iii) Exciting System: A helical Xenon flash tube with power supply source
Ruby (Al2O3, Cr2O3) is a crystal of aluminium oxide Al2O3 in which some
aluminium atoms are replaced by chromium atoms (Cr2O3). The active material in
the ruby are chromium ions Cr3+. When ruby crystal contains about 0.5% of
chromium, its colour is pink. The ruby crystals are grown in special furnaces with
varying length and diameter. In a ruby laser, a pink rod of 4cm length and 0.5 cm in
diameter is generally used. The end faces are silvered in such a way that one end face
becomes fully reflecting while the other end partially reflecting. The ruby rod is
surrounded by a helical xenon flash tube which provides the pumping Xenon tube is
emitted for several miliseconds and tube consumes several joules of energy. Only a

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

part of this energy is used in pumping the Cr 3+ions while the rest heats up the
apparatus.For this purpose a cooling system is provided.
Working

Fig. Energy level diagram

An energy level diagram is as shown in fig.In the fig E1 , E2 and E3 represent the
energy levels of chromium ion. In normal state ,the chromium ions are in lower
energy level E1. When the light energy is supplied by Xenon flash tube,the
chromium atoms are excited to upper energy level E3. This transition is known as
optical pumping. The excited ions give up part of their energy to crystal lattice
and decay to the metastable state. This transition is radiationless transition. We
know that the metastable state has longer life time(=10 -3sec) than life time of
excited state (=10-8sec). Thus the number of ions in state E2goes on increasing
while due to pumping, the number of ions in ground state E1 goes on decreasing.
In this way population inversion is established between metastable state E 2and
ground state E1. The state of population inversion is not stable .The probability of
spontaneous transition at any moment is very high. When the ion passes
spontaneously from the metastable state to ground state , it emits a photon of
wavelength 6943A0.This photon travels through ruby rod . If this photon is
moving parallel to the axis of the crystal,it is reflected back and forth by the silver
ends until it stimulates an excited atom. The excited atom after emitting photon
comes to ground state. This is a laser transition. The process is repeated again and

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

again because the photons repeatedly move along the crystal being reflected from
its ends. After some time a stage is reached where the population inversion
caused by Xenon flash tube is used up. The laser beam is ceased(stopped) till the
next flash of xenon tube repeats the process. Thus ruby laser is a pulsed laser.
The output of this laser is 6943 A0. The duration of output flash is about 300
microseconds. It is very intense of about 10000 watt.
Q. Explain the construction and working of He-Ne laser with neat diagram.

Helium -Neon Laser

Construction

Fig. He-Ne Laser

Helium -Neon laser consists of a fused quartz tube with diameter of about 1.5 cm
and 80 cm long. This tube is filled with a mixture of Neon gas under a pressure of
0.1 mm of mercury and helium gas under a pressure of 1 mm of mercury. There is a
majority of helium atoms and minority of neon atoms. At one end of the tube there is
a partial reflector. The active material is excited by means of a high frequency
generator with a frequency of several MHz and an input of about 50 Watt.
Working

10

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Fig. Energy level diagram

The working of a gas laser is based on the interaction of atoms of two gases that are
in close energy levels as shown in fig. When a discharge passes through the gas
mixture, Helium atoms are excited to higher energy levels (3S 2 and 1S2) through
collisions with accelerated particles. These levels are metastable states from which
there are no allowed transitions. The excited helium atoms then collide with neon
atoms which are still in the ground state and transfer energy to them. The advantage
of this collision process is that the light helium atoms can easily pumped to excited
state. It should be remembered that after collision, the helium atoms return to ground
state.
The higher Neon states 3S and 2S are metastable states and have longer life time
than 2p. Hence population inversion is achieved. When an excited Ne atom passes
from metastable states 3S and 2S to state 2p, it emits a photon. This photon travels
through the gas mixture. If the photon is moving parallel to the axis of the tube,
it is reflected back and forth by the mirror ends until it stimulates an excited Ne

11

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

atom and causes it to emit a fresh photon in phase with stimulating photon. The
stimulated transition is a laser transition. This process is continued till a beam of
coherent radiation builds up in the tube. When the beam becomes sufficiently
intense, a portion of it escapes through the partially silvered end having the
wavelength of 6328A0.

Applications of Laser

1) Due to narrow band width,lasers are used in microwave communication.

In Microwave communication,the signal is mounted on carrier waves by
the process of modulation. As the band width of carrier waves is limited,the
number of channels of message which can be carried simultaneously is
limited.But by the use of lasers ,more channels of message can be
accommodated because the band width is very small.
2) Laser beams have become a means of communication between earth and
moon or other satellites. The Earth – Moon distance can be measured with
the use of lasers.
3) The storage capacity for information in computers is greatly improved due
to narrowness of bandwidth. The IBM corporation is trying to transmit an
entire memory bank from one computer to another by the use of laser beam.
4) The lasers have wide industrial applications. They can blast holes in
diamonds and hard steel.
5) Lasers are used in the treatment of detached retinas. They are also used in
the treatment of human and animal cancers. Micro surgery is also possible
because laser beams can be focused on very small areas. Hence one
harmful component can be removed or destroyed without seriously
damaging the neighbouring regions.
6) Lasers are also used in military purposes. They can serve as a war weapon.

12

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

7) They can initiate certain chemical reactions which could not be possible in
the absence of suitable photons. They can be used for investigating the
structure of molecules.
8) Lasers are used in welding as there is no possibility of introduction of
impurities into the joints. CO2 lasers are used in welding thin sheets and
foils.
9) Lasers are also used in drilling because with lasers one can drill the hole as
10micrometer in diameter. Ruby lasers are used for drilling the holes.
10) The electronic components and ICs are manufactured by using lasers.
They are used to perforate and divide silicon slices having several hundred
circuits. They are also used in isolation of faulty components by
disconnecting the conducting paths by evaporation. Trimming of thick and
thin films resistors using lasers is avery common application.

13

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

FIBRE OPTICS
Q.1) Explain the structure of optical fibre

Optical fiber consists of three parts

1) Core
2) Cladding
3) Sheath

The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts; the core, the
cladding, and the coating or Sheath.

Core: The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material. Light propagates

mainly along the core of the fiber. The core is generally made of glass. Core
having diameter is 5µm to 100 µm. Core carries light.

Cladding: The core is surrounded by a layer of material called the cladding.

Even though light will propagate along the fiber core without the layer of
cladding material, the cladding does perform some necessary functions.

14

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Cladding helps to keep the light within the core by the phenomenon of total
internal reflection. Diameter of cladding is 125 µm.

Sheath: For extra protection, the cladding is enclosed in an additional layer called
the coating or buffer. The coating or buffer is a layer of material used to protect
an optical fiber from physical damage. The material used for a buffer is a type of
plastic. Diameter of sheath is about 150 µm to 250 µm. The buffer is elastic in
nature and prevents abrasions. The buffer also prevents the optical fiber from
scattering losses caused by bending.

Q.2) Explain the working principle of optical fibre.

Optical fibre work under the principle of Total Internal Reflection.

Fig.: Total internal reflection

Consider a ray of light passing through core of fibre and travelling along the core
with total internal reflection. Refractive index of cladding is n2 and refractive
index of core is n1. Refractive index of cladding n2is less than refractive index of
core n1.

We know that at angle of incidence ɸ1 = ɸ𝑐 then angle of refraction ɸ2=900

According to Snell’s law,

sin 1 n2

sin 2 n1

15

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Hence,

sin c n2 n2
 i.e. sin c 
sin 900 n1 n1

n 
c  sin 1  2 
n 

Value of c depends on the refractive index of care and cladding material.

If 1 > c then light gets totally internally reflected, this is the basic principle of

transmission of light rays in optical fibre in series of total internal reflection at

cladding interface.

Q.3) Define Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone.

Acceptance Angle (Ɵ0): The maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to
the axis of fibre and propagate down the fibre is calledAcceptance Angle.

Acceptance Cone: The light ray contains within the cone having a full angle
(2Ɵ0) are accepted and transmitted along the fibre. Therefore this cone is called
Acceptance Cone.

16

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Q.4) Define Numerical Aperture. Derive an expression for numerical

aperture.
Numerical Aperture: The amount of light that can be accepted by fibre is
called numerical aperture.

Numerical aperture is defined as sin of acceptance angle. NA= 𝑺𝒊𝒏Ɵ0

Let us consider an optical fibre in which light is propagating as shown in figure.

Let no= Refractive Index of Air Medium n1= Refractive Index of core

n2= Refractive Index of cladding  i = Angle of incidence

 r = Angle of reflection

1 = Angle made by refracted ray with core cladding boundary.

17

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

According to Snell’s law at launching zone of fibre

sin i n1

sin  r n0

n1
sin i  sin  r ………..(1)
n0
In Δ ABC
BAC=  r ABC = 1 And BCA=900

We know that

A  B  C  1800

r  1  900  1800

r  1  900 hence r  900  1........(2)

Using 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (1) & (2) we get

n1
sin i  sin(900  1 )
n0

As we know that sin(900  1 )  cos 1

n1
Therefore sin i  cos 1...........(3)
n0

The largest value of  i occurs when 1  c

Therefore, i = i 𝑚𝑎𝑥 when 1  c

n1
sin(i )max.  cos c …………..(4)
n0

If 𝑛1 = R.I of core and 𝑛2= R.I. of cladding

18

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

According to Snell’s Law at core-cladding interface

sin 1 n
 2
sin 2 n1

But when 1  c , 2  900

n2
Hence sin c 
n1

As, cos2 c  sin 2 c  1

cos2 c  1  sin 2 c

2
n 
cos 2 c  1   2 
 n1 

 n    n2 
2 2

cos c
2
 1
n12
n12  n22
cos c  ..............(5)
n1

Using equation (4) and (5) we get

n n12  n22
sin(i ) max.  1
n0 n1

n12  n22
sin(i ) max. 
n0
19

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

As we know that (i )max.  0

n12  n22
sin  0 
n0

n12  n22
Therefore, NA 
n0

For air 𝑛0=1

NA  n12  n22

 n1    n2    n1  n 2   n1  n2 
2 2
As we know that

 n1  n 2   n1  n2  2n1
 n1    n2 
2 2

2n1

 n1  n2   n1  n2  
If  n1 and
2 n1

∆ is fraction of refractive index =0.01

 n1    n2 
2 2
Then  n1 2n1

 n1    n2   2  n1  
2 2 2

Hence n12  n22  n1 2

 NA  n1 2

20

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Thus numerical aperture Depends upon refractive index of core-cladding material.

Q.5) Write applications of Optical Fibre.

a. Optical fibres are used in telecommunication field to transfer information from

one place to other.
b. They are used in various military applications for a secure information
communication.
c. Fibres are used in making different types of sensor.
d. Optical fibres are used in space communication.
e. Fibre optics are designed to offer multiple channel and high bandwidth links
as well as power connections to and from cameras and satellite link which
improve the broadcasting to a greater extent.

f. It is used for signaling purposes.

g. Fibre sensors are used to measure temperature, pressure etc.
h. It is also used in cable television, space vehicles, ships and submarine cable.
i. It has wide applications in security and alarm system, electronic
instrumentation systems, industrial automation and process control.
j. Optical fibres are used in medical field such as in endoscopy and in
angioplasty.

21

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|42786684

Numericals

a) Refractive index of core is 1.48 and that of cladding is 1.47 in an

optical fibre. Calculate critical angle , numerical aperture and
acceptance angle.

NA  n12  n22

1.48  1.47 
2 2
NA 

NA =0.1717

0  sin 1 NA
0  sin 1  0.1717 

0 = 9.8866
n2
c  sin 1
n1
 1.47 
c  sin 1  
 1.48 

c  83.3144

b) Calculate the numerical aperture of an optical fibre whose core and cladding
are made of materials of reflective indices 1.6 and 1.5 respectively.

NA  n12  n22

1.6  1.5
2 2
NA 

NA = 0.5567

22

Downloaded by Ayush Avhad (ayushavhad25@gmail.com)