1.

Rocks, Minerals and Stratigraphy

Dr. R.L. Taylor, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, University of Manchester

A virtual fieldtrip designed to take the user around

some key localities on Earth that relate directly to
course material.

Work through each locality in order, clicking on the

figures to view larger images and the captions. It is
possible to rotate, zoom and, in some localities, even
enter Street View.

Click on the highlighted text (hyperlink) to be redirected towards supplementary pages for further
information.
------------------------------------------
There is a homework exercise associated with this tour (Homework exercise #1).

This section presents an introduction to stratigraphy and Steno's principles on how Earth scientists
construct geological histories. Details are given on how to identify igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks from their diagnostic properties.

Starting Point: University of Manchester

Coordinates: 53°27'59"N 2°13'57"W
History of the University of Manchester
The Williamson Building is the home of the
Earth Sciences department. Across the road, the
Simon Building houses the Atmospheric
Science department. Together they make up the
School of Earth, Atmospheric and
Environmental Sciences (SEAES).
Looking north towards the city center, the Williamson and Simon Building's are both on the right, and
Manchester Museum is on the left.

Wikimap will help you navigate around the campus.

1
SICCAR POINT , BERWICKSHIRE, UK:

Coordinates: 55°55'53"N 2°18'06"W

In the 17th Century, Nicholas Steno, a Danish geological pioneer, observed the important principles
(Steno’s Principles) that geologists still adhere to today.

PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL
HORIZONTALITY

Layers of sediment are originally deposited

horizontally under the force of gravity.
Folding and tilting occurs after
deposition. From these observations
geologists concluded that the Earth has not been static over its history.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

Sedimentary layers are deposited with the oldest on the bottom and
the youngest on top. If tectonic forces have acted upon these
sediments to tilt or thrust them, then way-up structures can
determine the original position. Fossil evidence or radiometric dating
can be used to determine either the relative or absolute ages of the layers.

Some examples of way-up structures are described below.

1) Graded bedding – sediments are usually deposited with the largest/heaviest grains dropping out of
suspension first, followed by progressively smaller grain sizes. This is
normal grading (fining upwards). However, the depositional
environment must be known before using this indicator. For example,
sediment sizes that get larger upward (reverse grading) can occur in
alluvial fan deposits at the mouth of a river.

2) Desiccation cracks – the drying of water-saturated sediments, such

as mud, starts with the top layers which contract relative to the layers
below. Stresses put onto the top layers cause cracking. In cross-
section, cracks widen towards the top.

2
 3) Flame structures – when dense sediments (i.e. sand) are overlain on top
of less dense sediments (i.e. mud) the overlying layer sinks and pushes the
underlying material upwards, forming a flame-like structure. The tip of the
'flame' is at the top of the layer.

4) Geopetal structures – a void or cavity (i.e. fossil shell or vesicle

(bubbles formed as gas is exsolved from cooling lava)) partially
infilled with minerals or sediment provides an indication of the
original horizontal direction.

PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY

Sediments originally extended laterally in all directions (i.e. they are

laterally continuous). Therefore, rocks that are presently separated by a
valley or other erosional feature are presumed to have been originally
continuous. The extent of layers of sediment is controlled by the
amount and type of sediment and the shape of the sedimentary basin into which the sediment is
deposited.

The amount of material that is deposited lessens with distance from the source (i.e. the layer becomes
progressively thinner until it is absent). Material is also not laterally continuous when it encounters a
solid body.

PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS

In 1795, James Hutton proposed the principle of cross-cutting

relationships in Theory of the Earth but it was Charles Lyell who
popularised his work in Principles of Geology (1830).

Cross-cutting relationships can be used to determine the relative ages of rock strata and geological
features. The younger of two geological features is the one that cuts the other.

3
Basic cross-cutting relationships include:

• Structural: Faults or fractures cutting through older rock.

• Intrusional: Igneous features intruding into pre-existing rocks.
• Stratigraphic: An erosional surface (unconformity) cutting across older rock layers or
geological features.
• Sedimentological: Currents eroding older sediment to produce, for example, an infilled
channel.
• Palaeontological: Plant growth or animal activity, such as burrowing into pre-existing
sediments, produces truncation with overlying layers.
• Geomorphological: An impact crater excavating into the subsurface rock layers or a surficial
feature, such as a river or glacier, discharging sediment.

Each of these principles allows geologists to determine relatively easily the geological history of an
area.

Siccar Point, on the Berwickshire coast

(about 60 km east of Edinburgh,
Scotland) was the locality discovered
in 1788 by James Hutton, James Hall
and John Playfair. The outcrop was so
important that Hutton based his
concept of uniformitarianism on it,
noting that “the present is the key to
the past” and first introducing the
notion of geologic time.

He saw that shallowly dipping Devonian Old Red Sandstones (about 345 Ma) overlie steeply dipping
Silurian greywackes (about 425 Ma) in an angular unconformity. An unconformity is simply a break
in deposition or an erosion of rocks before new sediments are deposited on top. An angular
unconformity is produced when near- horizontal layers of rock are deposited on top of tilted and
eroded layers.

4
 Image modified from Dave Souza, via Wikimedia Commons.

Silurian greywackes were laid down in a deep-sea environment. Devonian sandstones where deposited
on a coastal plain that suffered periodic flooding.

This observation provided him with evidence that the Earth was much older than the accepted age at
the time of about 6000 years. Hutton reasoned that the tilted greywackes were originally laid down
horizontally as sand on the ocean bottom and that a long period of time would be required to tilt and
uplift these layers and erode them into an irregular surface BEFORE younger sandstone was deposited
on top.

5
GRAND CANYON: Arizona, USA

Coordinates: 36°11'55"N 113°04'38"W

The Grand Canyon is:

• 446 km long – the same distance as from the University of Manchester to Siccar Point,
• 0.2–29 km wide,
• with an average width of 16 km – equivalent to Old Trafford (Manchester United's) football
pitch being laid down end-to-end 152.4 times, and
• reaches depths of 1600 m – the same as the height of 16.7 Elizabeth Towers (the clock tower
that houses Big Ben, London) or 3.5 Petronas Towers (Malaysia) stacked on top of one
another.

In addition to being a spectacular sight, the steep-sided canyon is important geologically because the
Colorado River and its tributaries have cut through almost two billion years of deposition over the last
5–6 million years. However, debate has been raging amongst the scientific community for the past
140 years regarding the exact age of the canyon with some saying the canyon formed over as much as
the last 70 million years. Findings reported in Nature by Karlstrom et al. (2014) seem to bridge the
gap between these two schools of thought. They suggest that parts of the canyon are ancient (55–70
million years old), but that the canyon as a whole is much younger (5–6 million years old).

To look at layers of rock geologists use a stratigraphic

column, starting with the oldest rocks on the bottom and
progressing through to the youngest rocks on the top, in
accordance with the principle of superposition.

The Grand Canyon represents a largely undisturbed cross

section through the Earth’s crust over 1.7–2.0 billion years.
Sediments (sandstone, limestone and shale) and lava flows
were intensely metamorphosed during the early-to-middle
Proterozoic Era (late Precambrian) to form the Vishnu
Schist. Magma intruded these rocks to produce the
Zoroaster Granite. These two rock groups formed the
roots of an ancient mountain range that is thought to have
been as high as the Rocky Mountains are today.
Image source: USGS

6
Erosion of the mountains over a long period of time during the Precambrian produced the first of many
unconformities seen in the canyon cross-section. Between 800 to 1200 Ma, the Grand Canyon
Supergroup Rocks – a group of sandstones and shales – were deposited, uplifted, tilted and
subsequently eroded to leave a wedge-shaped outcrop. The Great Unconformity (825–545 Ma)
represents a long period of time during which no sediments can be found, when seas were advancing
and eroding sediments deposited during this time.

Subsequent layers were deposited

during the Paleozoic Era (545-250
Ma). Several unconformities exist
between these layers but all remain
horizontal (i.e. no tectonic forces acted
upon the rocks to tilt them). However,
between 70 and 30 Ma, the whole
region was uplifted to form the high
and relatively flat Colarado
Plateau. During 70–55 Ma, the canyon
was carved to within 200 m of its
present-day depth (Karlstrom et al. 2014). As recently as 5–6 Ma, the Colorado River began its main
phase of carving through the rocks, forming a valley.

The formation of a canyon is known as downcutting and occurs during flooding when a river carries
large amounts of sediment and rock. The rock acts as a chisel, carving a larger section than the water
alone. Tributaries allowed further erosion and widening of the canyon. The arid climate also provided
conditions for the carving of such a large canyon. Fluctuating temperatures cause water to freeze-thaw
in cracks, weathering the rocks via mechanical weathering. In the arid climate, rocks become baked
and hardened so that vegetation can only form shallow root systems with very little soil, exposing
bedrock thus the exposed rocks are more easily eroded by precipitation. In this climate, rainwater is
scarce but when it does come it is often in the form of flash floods, further fuelling erosion.

Today, the Colorado River and its tributary streams continue to deepen and widen the Grand Canyon,
though the canyon is widening faster than it is deepening. This is because the rocks through which the
river is downcutting are much harder (granite and schists) than the sedimentary rocks above. The
gradient of the river has also decreased so that the force of the water (and hence its erosive power) is
reduced.

7
IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS: Edinburgh Volcano

Coordinates: 55°56'57"N 3°12'09"W

The Arthur’s Seat Volcano in Edinburgh is a site of special scientific interest (SSSI, denoting a
protected area). Formed during the Carboniferous (325 Ma), it was eroded by a glacier during the
Quaternary (2 Ma). Arthur’s Seat is one of Hutton’s localities from which he observed that deposition
of sedimentary and igneous rocks did not necessarily have to occur contemporaneously (at the same
time).

The nearby Castle Hill is an example of the material that remains when magma cools inside one of the
vents of a volcano (volcanic plug). It is part of one of the vents of the Arthur’s Seat volcano. The
volcano (seen to the north-west) is largely eroded today, exposing only the lowermost parts.

Arthur’s
Seat

Castle Hill

8
The chart identifies some diagnostic properties of common igneous rock types. Silica content is used to determine the viscosity of the lava. High silica
content produces sticky lava that doesn’t flow easily. See if you can use it to identify any igneous rocks close to your home.

Grain Size Colour Silica Other Features Rock Name

No Crystal
Usually black High Glassy / conchoidal fracture Obsidian
Structure
Fine Light grey Variable Small vesicles (bubbles) Pumice
Fine Light grey to pinkish High Rhyolite
Fine Variable, but typically bluish-grey or grey Intermediate Moderate viscosity Andesite
Fine Black Low < 20% quartz / > 65% plagioclase feldspar Basalt
Coarse Variable High > 20 % quartz Granite
Coarse Green - black Low No quartz Gabbro
Coarse Green - black Low Peridotite

9
Obsidian has a glassy texture
because the lava has been
quenched, i.e. cooled instantly
so that no crystals can develop.
Also, the rock tends to form
conchoidal fractures - a curved
breakage that resembles ripples.

Basalt is a fine-grained black

igneous rock that is chemically
equivalent to the coarse-grained
Gabbro.

Granite is highly variable in its

mineralogy so there are many
different colours of granite. It is
often used as kitchen work
surfaces because it is hard and
when polished is aesthetically
pleasing. Rhyolite is the fine-
grained equivalent of granite.

GRANITE VIDEO
AVAILABLE.

10
IDENTIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Devonian Red Beds
Suggested R
i
Coordinates: NE-SW transect from 56°57'50"N 2°12'33"W at Stonehaven to
55°34'02"N 5°20'47"W on Arran along the Midland Valley.

Red beds are sedimentary rocks that have a strong red colour due to the presence of iron. Usually
sediments are returned to the
seas and the decay of marine
organisms produces a reducing
environment in which the
sediments lose their red colour.
In continental environments,
the sediments are able to retain
their iron oxidation state and
hence their colour. Classic
examples of red beds are the
Devonian Old Red Sandstone
rocks of Europe and the
Permian and Triassic rocks of western United States.

The Old Red Sandstone sequence is predominantly comprised of sandstone but also includes
conglomerates, mudstones, siltstones and limestones. The colour of these rocks ranges from red
through to purple.

The rocks of the Old Red Sandstone consists primarily of sandstone rocks of terrestrial (land) origin,
therefore does not generally contain marine fossils. Fossils that have been found in these rocks include
early fishes, arthropods and plants. The red beds form large aeolian (wind-blown) sand dunes in an
oxygen-rich terrestrial environment.

The outcrop of Old Red Sandstone in the Midland Valley of Scotland is continuous along the
Highland Boundary Fault from Stonehaven on the North Sea coast to beyond the coast of the Isle of
Arran. Outcrop along the Southern Uplands Fault from Edinburgh to Girven is more disconnected.

11
The chart identifies some diagnostic properties of common sedimentary rock types. See if you can use it to identify any sedimentary rocks close to your
home.

Grain Size Colour Other Features Rock Name

Variable Variable – grey, yellow, red,
Sandstone
(0.06 – 2 mm) white
Coarse clasts (> 2 mm) with Rounded fragments (clasts) Conglomerate
Variable
fine-grained matrix Angular fragments (clasts) Breccia
Fine Brown, red grey Angular silt-sized grains, not laminated or easily split into layers Siltstone
Fine (smaller than siltstone) Typically grey Long, thin laminae that cleave (break) easily Shale
Fine Black, brownish-black Bitumous coal is harder and higher density Coal (Anthracite)
Rock fizzes with acid, often containing microscopic or
Variable White, grey, yellow Limestone
macroscopic fossils
Variable Variable – often grey No fizzing with acid Dolomite
Variable Colourless, white Impurities produce colour Rock Salt
Variable Colourless to white Impurities produce colour Gypsum

12
Conglomerates are sedimentary
rocks that are made up of rock
fragments eroded from other
rocks and cemented together.
Conglomerates comprise
rounded rock fragments.

CONGLOMERATE VIDEO
AVAILABLE.

Breccias are also made up of

many different eroded
fragments but the fragments are
angular.

BRECCIA VIDEO
AVAILABLE.

Sandstones are variable in

colour and grain size. Their
colouration is produced by the
trace elements within the rock,
e.g. iron produces a red colour
(as seen left).

13
Sandstones may contain fossil
fragments. In this example
(above) the sandstone was laid
down in a marine environment
and has an assemblage of
marine shelly fossils. The fact
that many of the fossils are
partially broken up suggests that
the environment was
moderately high energy.

Gypsum is a type of evaporite

rock formed when salt remains
behind after the evaporation of a
water body. This example is
from SE Spain. The rocks are
between 5.96 and 5.33 Ma,
formed during the Messinian
Salinity Crisis that desiccated
the Mediterranean basin and
closed the Straits of Gibraltar.

14
IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS: Dinorwic Slate Quarry

Coordinates: 53°07'14"N 4°05'54"W

In the late 19th Century, the

now closed Dinorwic Quarry
was the second largest slate
quarry in the world. It was
located between the villages
of Llanberis and Dinorwig in
north Wales. The slates were
originally formed as deep-
water marine mudstones
about 500 million years ago.
Marine sediments were uplifted, folded and metamorphosed around 400 Ma to form slates.

Slate is hard, durable, virtually impermeable and characteristically splits easily because it is strongly
foliated. All these properties make it ideal for use as roofing tiles. Foliation occurs when there is a
preferred orientation of, in this case, mica crystals. The micas are sheet silicates meaning that they are
stacked up in layers (think of sheets of paper) and are strong in the direction normal (at right angles) to
the foliation and weak parallel to the foliation. The cleavage of the crystal allows it to be split easily.

Slate is closely related to phyllite. These rocks are both foliated and created from regional
metamorphism from fine-grained sediments. The protolith (the rock from which a metamorphic rock is
created) of slates and phyllites is mudstone. Metamorphic grade relates to the amount of heat and
pressure the rock has been put under to facilitate its change and the period of time that the rock has
been subjected to these conditions. In order of increasing metamorphic grade, the metamorphosis of
mudstone goes through slates to phyllites, then schist to gneiss, and (only if partial melting occurs)
migmatites.

Whilst slate is mainly composed of fine grains of quartz and mica, the rock is also made up of a range
of other minerals. The exact mineral composition and its relative quantities affect the colour of the
rock. For example, chlorite gives slate a green colour, graphite gives a black colour, hematite gives a
red colour, and mica gives a silvery sheen.

15
The chart identifies some diagnostic properties of common metamorphic rock types. See if you can use it to identify any metamorphic rock close to your
home.

Protolith Metamorphic
Grain Size Colour Foliation Other Features Rock Name
(Parent Rock) Grade
Black, and shades of blue, Shale / Brittle, slaty cleavage – fine foliation along which rocks
Fine Y Very low Slate
green, brown, buff Mudstone break to leave smooth, flat surface
Degree of metamorphism between slate and schist.
Shale / Pelite /
Fine Black, grey, green, purple Y Low Preferred orientation of fine clay minerals gives a silky Phyllite
Slate
sheen to the surface.
Variable – often alternating Mudstone / Strong preferred orientation of platy minerals, referred to
Medium Y Intermediate Schist
lighter and darker bands Shale as “schistosity”.
Medium - Igneous or Alternating lighter and darker coloured bands “gneissic
Variable Y High Gneiss
Coarse Metamorphic banding”.
Granite / Metamorphic host material (i.e. gneiss) with granite veins.
Coarse Light / dark bands Y High Migmatite
Gneiss Means “mixed rock”. Evidence for partial melting.
Harzburgite /
Green, yellow, red-brown, N/
Very Fine Dunite / Low Serpentinite
black Weakly
Lherzolite
Medium -
Variable, often white Limestone N Intermediate Sugary texture. Fizzes with acid. Marble
Coarse
Grey (pure), and variable Intermediate
Medium Sandstone N Quartzite
shades of pink and red - High

16
Slate has a weak plane (called a
cleavage) that allows it to
cleave into sheets. This property
is useful for making roof tiles.
Slate is the first rock in the
metamorphic cycle of mudstone
or shale. We call the parent rock
a protolith.

Phyllite is a foliated rock

created via the metamorphism
of slate. The mica (clay)
minerals in phyllite become
aligned to give it a preferred
orientation. This provides a
shimmer to the rock.

The metamorphic grade of

schist is classified as medium,
meaning that schist has
undergone a greater degree of
metamorphism than slate and
phyllite. The foliation is more
well defined. It is defined as
having more than 50% platy or
elongate minerals.

SCHIST VIDEO AVAILABLE.

17
Mica Schist: top - thin section scan; bottom – photomicrograph.

Both the thin section scan and the photomicrograph show crenulation cleavage (undulating layers) that
are produced by small-scale folding of the weak mica (clay) layers.

18
Gneiss is formed by high grade
regional metamorphism. It is
often foliated with alternating
layers of light and dark bands
that comprise different mineral
compositions.

Marble is the metamorphosed

limestone. It has a sugary
texture, i.e. resembles a sugar
cube. It is often used for
decorative purposes when
polished.

19
Back to the Classroom…

EXERCISE #1

Bearing in mind Steno’s principles…

Q1: Starting with the youngest (and excluding unit Y), can you work out the geological history of this
cross-section?

Q2: From the following: igneous dyke, unconformity, fault, erosional surface, can you name the
geological process or features associated with units X, M, N, and I?

Q3: Unit G is a granite batholith (a magmatic intrusion formed when the most buoyant part of the
magma rises and cools near to the surface of the Earth). Is unit G older or younger than unit Y?

20
 Suggested Reading and Useful Links

WEBSITES
Scioly.org - Rocks and Minerals - descriptions of the 3 main categories of rocks (igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary) and many of their minerals.
British Geological Survey (BGS) - Make-a-map – an interactive feature to discover the geology of the
British Isles.
Iberpix – satellite and relief maps of Spain.
USGS National Geologic Map Database - national archive of standardized geologic map information.
The Dynamic Earth @ Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History - a visual guide to rocks
and rock forming minerals.
BOOKS
Carbonate Sediments and Rocks Under the Microscope: A Colour Atlas (Anthony Adams, Ian
MacKenzie) - This colour atlas illustrates many features of carbonate rocks and sediments under a
microscope. It is a practical guide for identifying grain types and textures in carbonates, written by a
former University of Manchester lecturer.
Peterson Field Guides: Rocks and Minerals (Frederick Pough) - This book has been written for the
beginner. It is illustrated with colour photographs and describes many of the common rocks, minerals
and geologic formations.
Handbook of Rocks, Minerals and Gemstones (Walter Schumann) - each specimen is described in
detail (origin and structure, chemical composition, hardness, colour, and other properties) with over
600 colour photographs.
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Karlstrom, K.E., Lee, J.P., Kelley, S.A., Crow, R.S., Crossey, L.J., Young, R.A., Lazear, G., Beard,
L.S., Ricketts, J.W., Fox, M., Shuster, D.L. 2014. Formation of the Grand Canyon 5 to 6 million years
ago through integration of older palaeocanyons. Nature 7 p.p. 239-244 doi: 10.1038ngeo2065.
Taylor, R.L. 2013. Acoustic Velocity Structure of the Carboneras Fault Zone, SE Spain. PhD Thesis,
University of Manchester. URL: http://www.manchester.ac.uk/escholar/uk-ac-man-scw:187824.

Taylor, R.L., Rutter, E.H., Nippress, S.E.J., Brodie, K.H. 2015. Seismic Velocity Modelling of the
Carboneras Fault Zone, SE Spain. Tectonophysics 646 p.p. 20-35 doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2015.01.001.
21