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GIBSON BANDA EL/15/19

RESEARCH METHODS IN FRENCH I: CHAPTERS ONE AND
TWO

Study of the achievement gap between community secondary schools and conventional
secondary schools in Malawi

Abbreviations, acronyms and acronyms for more significant words

CDSS Community secondary schools

CSS Conventional secondary schools

DEC Regional Education Center

JCE Certificate of junior secondary education

Ministry of Education, Science and

Technology
MoEST

MSCE Education certificate examination

NCHE National Council for Higher Education

NESP National education sector plan

Definitions of the most significant words

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School performance: educational results or the extent to which a student, teacher and school
have achieved their goals.

National education sector plan: an essential tool for raising awareness among development
partners and education stakeholders, including civil society, teachers and parents.

Secondary school cycle: the continuous period of secondary education runs from grade 9e to
grade 12e (4-year period).

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Education plays a crucial role in the development of individuals and societies. In Malawi, there
is a notable performance gap between conventional secondary schools and community secondary
schools. This chapter presents the history of the secondary education system and the general
academic performance gap between community secondary schools and CSSs in Malawi. It also
presents the main problems associated with the academic performance gap between these two
types of schools. In addition, this chapter presents the significance of the study by critically
outlining the reasons why we chose to study this topic.

1.2 Background to the study

1.2.1 Background information: How did education come about in Malawi and why?

Malawi recognizes that education is a means by which every citizen can realize his or her
potential, contribute to national development and participate fully in various activities related to
national development as a citizen (National Education Sector Plan 2008-2017, 2008:2). The
beginnings of educational planning in Malawi date back to 1964, at the time of independence,

2
when the Government of Malawi approached the American Council on Education to conduct a
survey and then propose approaches (plans) to achieve certain objectives, in addition to
indicating financial commitments and new projects. The main objective of the survey was to
determine Malawi's educational needs for social and economic progress. The survey, which
assessed all levels of formal education, influenced Malawi's development from 1964 to 1972 and
subsequent planning exercises up to 1994 (Loc. cit).

The first education plan was therefore very cautious in advocating a rapid increase in post-
primary education, as it feared this would lead to a drop in standards (Government of Malawi
1973:53). The Government of Malawi's mission was to provide relevant, quality knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values necessary for personal progression and the socio-economic
development of the nation (MoEST, 2013). It is worth noting that one of the important steps
taken by the Government of Malawi to achieve its goals is the improvement of secondary
education. In his presentation entitled "Challenges Facing School Managers in the
Implementation of the Revised Secondary School Curriculum", Banda (2020) states that the
Government of Malawi's vision and mission of providing quality and relevant education to
Malawians cannot be achieved through primary education alone, and this is in line with the
2008-2017 National Sector Plan (NESP), which states that "in an ever-changing world of
education, basic education can by no means be considered a complete transformer of our society
as the world as a whole becomes more complex and sophisticated" (Banda, 2020 pp. 1 and 2).
Consequently, secondary education is more critical as it provides crucial skills and attitudes to
enable Malawians to cope with the complex and sophisticated socio-economic and political
environment of the global village to which Malawi belongs.

1.1.2 Secondary cycle and examination system

In Malawi, secondary education begins after the 8-year primary cycle. It lasts four years and
comprises two cycles, each lasting two years. The first and second cycles make up lower
secondary education, while the third and fourth cycles make up upper secondary education.
Pupils sit public examinations for the Junior Certificate of Secondary Education (JCE), and those
who pass in six subjects, including English, are admitted to the senior section of secondary
school. In the fourth year, students sit the Certificate of Education Examination (MSCE). Those
whose total marks in the six subjects, including English, are less than 36 points and include

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distinctions or credits, but no pass, can enroll at a public university through the National Council
for Higher Education (NCHE) (Kadzamira, 2003, p. 6). Secondary education aims to equip its
beneficiaries with the appropriate skills and knowledge to facilitate their further education and
survival as individuals and as participants in the socio-economic and political spheres of the
nation (African Dev. Fund-Appraisal Report, 2001). Prior to 1998, secondary education was
provided by four main types of schools: public schools, subsidized schools, distance learning
centers and private schools. In 1999, the Ministry of Education and Science reclassified the
secondary school system as follows: conventional secondary schools (CSS), community
secondary schools (CDSS) and private schools. In January 1999, the Ministry of Education
ordered that District Education Centers (DEC) be converted into Community Day Secondary
Schools (CDSS). CDSS are perceived as having a lower status than other secondary schools,
partly because they lack qualified teachers, libraries and laboratories, and their infrastructure is
poor. In addition, many CDSS lack the teaching and learning materials to promote effective
teaching.

1.3 Problem statement

Although the aim of transforming DECs into CDSSs was to improve access to quality secondary
education, the poor and uneven implementation of this policy has meant that CDSSs have not
achieved the quality of conventional secondary schools (Chinseu-Moyo, 2007). Since its
introduction in 1999, CDSS results have always been mediocre compared with CSS. Compared
with CSS, the quality of teaching in CDSS is very poor. Many of these secondary schools are
located in premises borrowed from elementary school, are run by a largely unqualified teaching
staff, are characterized by inadequate and overcrowded classrooms, lack essential
teaching/learning materials and some have little or no library and science facilities. The African
Development Fund evaluation report (2001) states statistically that in the CSS, almost 90% of
the teaching staff are qualified for their responsibilities, compared with 7% in the CDSS (p. 11).
The fact is, no student wants to fail exams, whether in CSS or CDSS. Although the Malawian
government is taking visions and objectives largely into account in response to global changes, it
is not taking into account the large gap existing between CSS and CDSS which could demolish
the future of some students whose objectives are no less than to pass the MSCE exams and enter

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the various constituent colleges and public universities. CSSs spend the most time preparing
students for exams and achieve the highest percentage of passes with honors. CSS are also more
likely to attract the best students and have better resources, as we saw earlier. Private and
community high schools devote a similar proportion of time to exam preparation, but community
high schools perform better in terms of the proportion of students achieving honors. Thus,
CDSSs spend about the same amount of time as CSSs preparing students for exams, but the
quality of CDSS results is low.

The performance gap between conventional and community secondary schools in Malawi
represents a major challenge for the education system. Despite efforts to provide equal
opportunities for all students, there is a notable disparity between these two types of schools in
terms of academic performance and overall educational outcomes. This performance gap not
only hinders the potential of individual students, but also perpetuates social inequalities and
limits the country's overall development. It is therefore crucial to analyze, study and understand
the factors contributing to this performance gap in order to develop effective strategies to close
the gap and promote equitable access to quality education for all secondary school students in
Malawi."

1.4 Significance of the study

We hope that this study of the performance gap between SSDCs and HSCs will make a
significant contribution to changing government policies that sideline the importance of equal
funding, regardless of whether the secondary school is SSDC or HSC. The evidence that CDSS
are always at the bottom of the MSCE results each year will show that the government is doing
nothing to improve the situation of the above-mentioned victims. The study will also help
citizens, especially students themselves, to wake up and speak out to the public to demand the
elimination of these biases in government policies, so that the Malawi 2063 vision can be
realized. Finally, the study serves to inform the education sector, in particular the Ministry of
Education and the general public, that despite the differences that may seem to exist between the
different types of secondary schools: private, conventional and community secondary schools,
there is evidence that even CDSS students manage to enter university and survive to the final
year of their studies.

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1.5 Objectives :

(a) General objective: The main purpose of this study is :

Analyze the performance gap between conventional and community secondary schools in
Malawi.

(b) Specific objectives: The specific objectives of this study are :

1. Examine the socio-economic factors that influence the performance gap between conventional
and community high schools.

2. Compare the academic results of students in conventional and community high schools.

3. Propose strategies to close the performance gap between conventional and community
secondary schools in Malawi.

1.6 Study summary

There is a gap in academic performance between CDSS and CSS in Malawi. The fact that
conventional secondary schools were the first to appear after independence, around 1964, does
not mean that the CSSDs, which came into being after the SSDCs in 1999, cannot produce
excellent academic results. There are a few contributing factors which, if strategic plans are put
in place, can reduce the huge gap in academic performance that exists between these two types
of secondary school in Malawi.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2. O CHAPTER OVERVIEW

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This chapter presents the literature review of the study. A literature review is an attempt to
interpret and synthesize what has been studied, researched and published in a field of interest. It
provides a summary of previous research related to the research problem, along with its strengths
and weaknesses. It simply presents what is known, what has been done by others and why
current research is still needed (Lungu, 2009 and Hinze, 2008). The aim of this study is to
analyze the gap in academic performance between conventional secondary schools (CSS) and
community secondary schools (CDSS) in Malawi. What is missing from previous studies is that
there are few or no strategies or interventions to use to close or minimize the academic
performance gap existing between CDSSs and CSSs. As the study focuses on proposing
strategies or interventions that help minimize the performance gap existing between CDSS and
CSS, we first try to understand the secondary education system in Malawi, then analyze the
trends in academic performance of CDSS and CSS, then try to understand the socio-economic
factors influencing the gap, and examine the teaching and learning resources available in CDSS
and CSS with reference to various studies on related research. Finally, we present the theoretical
framework that guides the study, and strive to provide strategies or interventions so that the
study's findings can be put to good use. Finally, a theoretical framework is presented, which
guides the study and effort in bringing strategies or interventions so as to minimize the gap.

2.2 MALAWI'S SECONDARY EDUCATION SYSTEM

As stated earlier in the context of this study, the Government of Malawi's vision and mission to
provide quality and relevant education to Malawians cannot be achieved through primary
education alone. As the National Education Sector Plan (NESP) 2008-2017 points out, "in an
evolving and changing world of education, basic education can by no means be considered a
complete transformer of our society, as the world becomes increasingly complex and
sophisticated" (p. 10). Therefore, secondary education is very important as it provides additional
knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable Malawians to cope with the complex and
sophisticated socio-economic and political environment of the global village to which Malawi
belongs. A study on "The Effectiveness of Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa" by the
EESSA Project, 2018, examined that:

The legal framework for education in Malawi was long based on its 1962 Education Act, until a
new Education Act was enacted in 2013. Malawi's constitution defines the nation's educational

7
objectives and divides responsibilities between three key players: the state, religious groups and
the private sector. Religious groups control around 60% of elementary school and many
secondary schools. Private secondary schools account for around 25%, and less than 2% are
registered as Open Day Secondary Schools (ODSS). Around 25% of secondary schools are CSS,
49% are CDSS. These schools are under government control. Public and private secondary
schools fall into four categories: CSS, CDSS, ODSS and private secondary schools. CDSS are
the least expensive, charge the lowest tuition fees and are the least selective of the public
secondary schools. They also cater for most secondary school pupils in Malawi. Many CDSS
operate with very high pupil-teacher ratios, have few qualified teachers and lack teaching
resources. CSS are the former basic public secondary schools, more selective and more
expensive than CDSS. Among the CSS, there is a small group of schools known as "national
secondary schools". They provide the highest quality secondary education and are often well-
established boarding schools.

2.3 INTRODUCTION OF COMMUNITY DAY SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MALAWI

In January 1999, the Ministry of Education ordered that District Education Centres (DECs) be
converted into Community Day Secondary Schools (CDSSs). As the forthcoming analysis and
other studies (Chimombo et al, 2014; Gwede 2004) show, CDSSs are perceived as having a
lower status than other secondary schools, partly because they lack qualified teachers, libraries
and laboratories, and their infrastructure is poor. In addition, many SSDCs lack the teaching and
learning materials to promote effective teaching (Mac Jessie-Mbewe, 2004). Although the aim of
transforming CDSSs into community secondary schools was to improve access to quality
secondary education, the poor and uneven implementation of this policy has meant that CDSSs
have not reached the quality level of conventional secondary schools (Chinseu-Moyo, 2007).

2.4 EVOLUTION OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance, i.e. how well students
manage their studies, how well they cope with or complete the various tasks assigned to them by
their teacher, and the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved its educational
goals (Opuku-Asare, 2015). Although the performance of secondary schools in general is a
general concern in many African countries, some literature reviews show that many community

8
secondary schools, which cater for the majority of students, have performed very poorly
compared to public and private schools. Since the introduction of CDSS in Malawi in 1999, most
CDSS schools have performed very poorly compared with CSS schools. Most studies show that
many conventional secondary schools achieve better results in the Certificate of Education
Examination (MSCE) than community secondary schools. However, some studies focus on the
factors that lead to differences in performance between these two types of schools, while
devoting little effort to strategies that can be put in place to eliminate or minimize the academic
performance gap that exists between them. Others focus on how curriculum change affects
disadvantaged schools in Africa.

2.4.1 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS SUMMARY: RECENT MSCE RESULTS

This study focuses primarily on the MSCE, as this is one of the areas of interest. According to
M'bwana (2015), the 2015 MSCE exam pass rate was 55%, a 1% increase on 2014 (54%), and
the CDSS did not perform well compared with the CSS. The 2016 MSCE results increased by
almost 4%, from 54% in 2015 to 58% in 2016, and CDSS were the lowest-performing schools.
The same is true for 2018-2023, with CDSSs underperforming despite the fact that the
population, according to the EESSA project's 2018 study on "Secondary Education Effectiveness
in Sub-Saharan Africa", shows that CDSSs account for 49% of all secondary schools in Malawi.
On the other hand, CSSs account for only 25%, with a smaller student population than CDSSs (p.
6).

2.4.2 CURRENT MSCE RESULTS (2023)

A review of the 2023 MSCE exam results shows that the performance of community secondary
schools remains poor, with some recording a 0% pass rate compared to conventional secondary
schools with pass rates of between 40% and 100%: "The Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology has announced the results of the 2023 Certificate of Education Examination (MSCE)
exam, which show that 70,286 candidates failed and that community secondary schools (CDSS)
are the worst performers" (Tembo, Sept. 15, 2023). This proves that there is a big gap between
CSSs and CDSSs in Malawi, particularly in terms of performance. The Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology acknowledges the decline behind the aforementioned gap: "We have
found that in most community secondary schools, our students have not performed well. As a

9
department, we are surprised by the decline in the pass rate, and we will find the cause."
(Mdooko, MoEST Deputy Minister). The Ministry acknowledged the drop in the pass rate
compared to last year, adding that the Ministry would do its utmost to ensure that education
improves in Malawi. This shows that the educational results of CDSS continue to decline. On the
other hand, the CSS continue to show an upward trend in school results.

2.5.0 SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE GAP

Equity in the distribution of public resources is one of the dimensions of an economy faced with
various trade-offs. Public services such as education are generally distributed unequally, and in
this case there is a trade-off between quality and efficiency. According to Kafumbu (2020), the
development of Malawi's education system has not been immune to these trade-offs. Malawi's
education sector has undergone various reforms since the beginning of multi-party democracy.
As a result, all government-run schools are (partially/fully) government-funded, which means
that resource allocation depends on government plans. In this case, the management of the school,
whether CSS or CDSS, operates according to the available economic resources allocated to it.

2.5.1 SOURCES AND DISTRIBUTION OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES AT CSS AND

CDSS

The financial resources of education systems, particularly current budgets, play an important role
in the quality of educational outcomes (UNICEF, 2000). In the case of Malawi, SSDCs are
funded by school committees, but receive some government funding to cover day-to-day
operational costs. However, these financial contributions have been insufficient to meet optimal
production requirements. As MoEST (2013) notes, CDSSs, compared with conventional
secondary schools, lack or have inadequate teaching and learning resources. This, coupled with
unstable economic conditions, has led to growing concerns about the need for intervention to
improve the quality of education in Malawi's CDSS. Kafumbu (ibid), in his literature review on
the analytical report on the status of secondary education funding in Malawi, stresses that
government-sponsored secondary schools (CSS and CDSS) operate mainly on the basis of funds
provided by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Although policies have been
put in place to ensure the quality of education in this sub-sector, inequalities in resource
allocation continue to hamper progress. On average, expenditure per pupil per year is around 114

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USD for secondary education as a whole, whereas at CDSS it is around 20 USD. This shows that
there is a significant funding gap between these two types of school.

2.5.2 EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE: CSS AND CDSS

A study by UNICEF-Malawi (2020) revealed that, despite commitments to leave no child behind,
the reality on the ground shows that human, financial and technical resources in the education
sector are not equitably distributed. For example, disparities have been observed in the
deployment of primary and secondary school teachers. Data show that the ratio of qualified
pupils to teachers varies from 1:46 in the CSS to 1:84 in the CDSS (p.9). This means that a large
number of qualified teachers are deployed or assigned in CSS and are willing to go there, unlike
in CDSS where qualified teachers are deployed in small numbers and, worse still, are reluctant to
go and work in these schools.

2.5.2.1 INFRASTRUCTURE DIFFERENCES IN CSS AND CDSS

UNICEF-Malawi (ibid) also observed that there are significant differences in the quality of
infrastructure within and between districts. Rural schools have been the most disadvantaged, and
many are community day secondary schools. The learning environment in most CDSSs is not
conducive to quality learning. Most operate without libraries or laboratories, despite the roll-out
of the new curriculum requiring them. The fact that some classes have as many as 130 pupils
against the recommended 60, particularly in rural areas, creates overcrowding and forces
teachers to hold classes under trees (p. 9). By contrast, secondary schools in urban areas (most
"CSS") operate with laboratories and libraries, and have a sufficient number of classrooms and
accommodation for teachers.

2.5.2.2 CHANGES IN CSS AND CDSS BUDGET ALLOCATIONS

An analysis of budget allocations to secondary schools carried out by UNICEF shows very
significant variations in percentage allocations per school compared with previous years. For
example, some SSDCs, such as Mwansambo, benefited from a 752% increase in their budget
over the previous year, while allocations to Bolero and Domasi Demo secondary schools fell by
91%. We therefore observed that this may indicate inequitable budget allocations, which may
simply be the result of the gap that already exists between CSS and CDSS. The budget therefore

11
sought to at least close the gap, so that the budget that other schools were supposed to benefit
from was shared with other schools (CDSS).

2.6 UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT AT GOVERNMENT AND

SCHOOL LEVEL

The literature on school management reveals that school managers play a central role in the
success of the school and the effective operation of the system (Clarke, 2007). Clarke argues that
managers must provide strategy, vision and strong leadership for the school. In addition, schools
need to put in place a system for measuring and evaluating the learning outcomes of their
learners in order to assess the school's performance in effective teaching and learning (loc. cit).
To achieve this, schools need effective management to ensure that there are viable and agreed
internal mechanisms for maximizing performance. The study was carried out to examine internal
mechanisms for improving performance in secondary schools in Tanzania. Although the study
focused on performance issues, there are still gaps in the literature on how internal school
mechanisms are managed to improve performance in secondary schools. This study focused
solely on internal school mechanisms in which school principals were almost the only targets,
while sidelining the external mechanism which is government intervention in providing
sufficient materials to the various school principals so that there is efficiency which, in turn,
improves and promotes equal performance in community and public schools in Tanzania.

2.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The frame

The theoretical framework is a fundamental review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap
for developing arguments in the work. It refers to the set of concepts, theories, ideas and
hypotheses that serve as a foundation for understanding a particular phenomenon or problem.
This study used two theories: Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the theory of self-determination
developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan.

These two theories provide a guiding concept for analyzing the performance gap between the
conventional high school and the community day school. They are all theories of motivation
based on student needs and the importance of these needs for students when they are met.

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2.7.1 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

This theory, proposed by Abraham Maslow, suggests that individuals have a hierarchy of needs
that must be satisfied in a specific order to motivate their behavior.

The hierarchy consists of five levels, but only two of them, which correspond to our study, are
examined in this report: physiological needs and safety needs.

1. Physiological needs: These are basic biological needs such as food, water and shelter.

In an educational context, ensuring that students have access to nutritious meals and a
safe learning environment meets their physiological needs.

2. Security needs: Once physiological needs have been satisfied, individuals seek
security.

In education, this can be achieved by creating a supportive, inclusive classroom environment

where students feel physically and emotionally safe.

2.7.2 SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: DEVELOPED BY EDWARD DECI AND

RICHARD RYAN

This theory focuses on intrinsic motivation and the satisfaction of psychological needs. It
suggests that individuals are motivated when two fundamental psychological needs are satisfied:

1. Autonomy: Students feel motivated when they have a sense of autonomy and control
over their learning. Allowing students to make choices, set goals and have a say in their
education can reinforce their intrinsic motivation.

2. Competence: managers and students alike are motivated when they feel competent
and able to succeed. Providing opportunities for skills development, giving constructive
feedback and recognizing their successes can foster their sense of competence.

2.7.3 RELEVANCE OF MANAGEMENT THEORY TO THE STUDY

As indicated in the first paragraph of this section, two management theories were used to form
the theoretical framework of this study in order to better understand strategies or interventions

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that could reduce the gap between SSDCs and HSCs. The theories most influential in providing
educational managers with the context from which decisions can be made and authority
exercised are management theories. These theories include motivation theories, scientific
management theory, bureaucracy theory, contingency theories and systems approach theory.
However, this study focuses on motivational theories and systems approach theory, as they
provide educational managers with basic knowledge on how to successfully manage educational
institutions with a view to improving quality.

2.7.4 RELEVANCE OF MOTIVATION THEORIES TO THE STUDY

Initially, from a management perspective, motivation theories generally advocate that managers
have a responsibility to motivate the members of their institutions to work hard and commit to
their tasks in order to achieve the vision set for the organization (Clarke, 2007).

(a) Self-determination theory

In self-determination theory, school managers need to be aware that students' motivation to learn
is influenced by their sense of autonomy, competence and connectedness. According to this
theory, students are more likely to show interest, value and confidence in learning when they feel
they can make their own choices, act on them and belong to a supportive environment. At CDSS,
students do not benefit from the aforementioned experiences due to the limited efforts and
resources made available by management. According to Banda (2020), CDSS lacks qualified
teachers and school materials, especially books and laboratory equipment. Students are forced to
attend humanity classes due to the limited number of qualified science teachers and laboratory
equipment. As a result, CDSS students compared to CSS students lack skills insofar as they have
no choice of areas of interest due to the aforementioned challenges.

(b) Maslow's theory

As we saw above, Maslow's theory of motivation is based on the premise that individuals have
various needs, which must be satisfied in order for them to work effectively. According to
Linstead, Fulop and Lilley (2004), these needs fall into two categories: higher-order needs and
lower-order needs. Higher-order needs include self-actualization, self-esteem and social
acceptance needs, while lower-order needs are safety needs and basic physiological needs.

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(1) MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE

This implies that principals have a responsibility not only to understand workers' needs, but also
to find ways of meeting those needs so that workers can work effectively and achieve the
school's goals. The importance of viewing schools as social systems made up of interdependent
parts that work together to achieve the organization's goals (Hoy & Miskel, 2008; Robbins, 2005)
has its origins in systems theory. These parts include individuals within the organization,
departments and even the environment, which plays an important role in the organization's
survival. As such, principals have the task of ensuring that every person and every part of the
organization is given equal importance and works in harmony to achieve the school's goals.
Page 6 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full

(2) STUDENTS' POINT OF VIEW

School leaders need to understand the different needs of students and how best to meet them, in
line with Abraham Maslow's theory.

When all levels of need are met, students show their full capacity and desire to learn. The higher
up the hierarchy the student is, the greater his or her motivation and interest in learning.

As a result, they tend to perform better than students who cannot meet these needs. In this case,
CSS students have access to nutritious meals and a safe learning environment compared to CDSS
students, most of whom come from families that are unable to access nutritious meals, for
example. We also observed that most CDSS do not have sufficient classrooms, so students tend
to learn under trees that threaten their safety (one of the needs in Maslow's hierarchy).

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