CND 101:Introduction to

Analog Electronics
Lecture 4

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CND copyright

• Analog Signals.
• Introduction to AC Circuits.
• AC circuit power analysis.
• Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis in Electronic
Systems.
• Phasors.
Content • Kirchhoff's Laws in the Frequency Domain
• Convert AC voltage and current sources into
their equivalent representations.
• Node Voltage Method.
• Mesh Current Method.

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 Signals
• This signal processing is usually most conveniently performed by
electronic systems. For this to be possible, however, the signal must first
be converted into an electrical signal, a voltage, or a current. This process
is accomplished by devices known as transducers.
• The magnitude of an analog signal can take on any value; that is, the
amplitude of an analog signal exhibits a continuous variation over its
range of activity.

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 Signals

• A sinusoidal voltage source (independent or dependent) produces a

voltage that varies sinusoidally with time. A sinusoidal current source
(independent or dependent) produces a current that varies sinusoidally
with time.
• A sinusoidal current source (independent or dependent) produces a
current that varies sinusoidally with time.

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Signals
• The coefficient Vm gives the maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage.

• The period of the function, T, is measured in seconds. The reciprocal of T gives the
number of cycles per second, or the frequency, of the periodic function, and is
denoted f

• Omega (v) represents the angular frequency of the sinusoidal function and is related
to both T and f:

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 Signals

• The angle Ǿ is the phase angle of the sinusoidal voltage. It determines

the value of the sinusoidal function at t = 0; therefore, it fixes the point
on the periodic wave where we start measuring time. Changing the phase
angle Ǿ shifts the sinusoidal function along the time axis but has no
effect on either the amplitude (Vm) or the angular frequency (v).
• Angle in degrees = angle in rad * (180/pi)

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 Signals
• Another important characteristic of the sinusoidal voltage (or current) is
its rms value. The rms value of a periodic function is defined as the
square root of the mean value of the squared function.

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 Example

Take care of the units!

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 The Phasor
• A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle
information of a sinusoidal function. The phasor transform transfers the sinusoidal
function from the time domain to the complex-number domain, which is also called
the frequency domain, since the response depends, in general, on ω.
• The exponential function to the trigonometric function

• is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase angle of the cosine function
Phasor transform:
Angle notation:
polar form of a phasor

rectangular form of a phasor

Inverse Phasor transform:

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 The Phasor (Example)

a) using the cosine of the sum of two angles, to get

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 The Phasor (Example)
b) Using Phasor form

rectangular form of a phasor

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The passive circuit elements in the frequency domain

• From Ohm’s law, if the current in a resistor is

• The voltage at the terminals of the resistor

• The phasor transform of this voltage is

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The passive circuit elements in the frequency domain

• The V-I Relationship for an Inductor

• The relationship between the phasor current and phasor voltage
at the terminals of an inductor by assuming a sinusoidal current
and using L di/dt to establish the corresponding voltage.

We now replace the sine function with the cosine function:

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The passive circuit elements in the frequency domain
• The phasor representation of the voltage is then

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The passive circuit elements in the frequency domain
• The V-I Relationship for a Capacitor

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 Impedance and Reactance

• Impedance in the frequency domain is the quantity analogous to

resistance, inductance, and capacitance in the time domain. The
imaginary part of the impedance is called reactance.

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 Kirchhoff’s in the Frequency Domain
• Assuming that v1, v2, . . ., vn represent voltages around a closed path in a
circuit. We also assume that the circuit is operating in a sinusoidal steady
state. Thus, Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the Frequency Domain

• Thus, Kirchhoff’s Current law in the Frequency Domain

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 Source transformations and equivalent circuit

• The techniques for finding the Thevenin equivalent voltage and

impedance are identical to those used for resistive circuits, except that
the frequency-domain equivalent circuit involves phasors and complex
numbers.

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 The Node - Voltage Method
• Use the node-voltage method to find the branch currents 𝑖𝑎 , 𝑖𝑏 , and 𝑖𝑐 in
the steady-state.
• The value of the current source in this circuit is 𝑖𝑠 = 10.6 cos(500t) A.
• We begin by transforming the circuit into the frequency domain. To do
this, we replace the value of the current source with its phasor transform,
10.6 .

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 The Node - Voltage Method
• Then we replace the inductor and capacitor values with their impedances,
using the frequency of the source:

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 The Node - Voltage Method
• KCL

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 The mesh-current method
• Use the mesh-current method to find the voltages V1, V2, and V3 in the circuit
• Use directed arrows that traverse the mesh perimeters to identify the two mesh
current phasors. Label the mesh current phasors as I1 and I2.

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 The mesh-current method
• The KVL equations for the meshes:

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 The power (Instantaneous)

It is convenient to define zero time at the instant the current

passes through a positive maximum

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 The power (Instantaneous)

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 Average and Reactive

• P is the average power, and Q is the reactive power. Average power

is sometimes called real power because it describes the power in a
circuit that is transformed from electric to nonelectric energy.
• Reactive Power can best be described as the quantity of “unused”
power that is developed by reactive components in an AC circuit or
system.

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 Average and Reactive
• Power for Purely Resistive Circuits
• the voltage and current are in phase, which
means that

• The instantaneous power for a resistor is

called the instantaneous real power.
• Note that the instantaneous real power can
never be negative, In other words, power
cannot be extracted from a purely resistive
network. Resistors dissipate electric energy
in the form of thermal energy.

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 Average and Reactive
• Power for Purely Inductive Circuits

In a purely inductive circuit, the average power is zero,

and energy is not transformed from electric to nonelectric
form. Instead, the instantaneous power in a purely
inductive circuit is continually exchanged between the
circuit and the source driving the circuit, at a frequency
of 2 ω.
When p is positive, energy is stored in the magnetic fields
associated with the inductive elements, and when p is
negative, energy is extracted from the magnetic fields.

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 Average and Reactive
• Power for Purely Capacitive Circuits
The current leads the voltage by 90 (that is, θi = θv + 90); thus,

Again, the average power is zero, and

energy is not transformed from electric to
nonelectric form. Instead, the power is
continually exchanged between the
source driving the circuit and the electric
field associated with capacitive elements.

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 The RMS value

The RMS value is also referred to as the effective value of

the sinusoidal voltage (or current). The RMS value has an
interesting property: Given an equivalent resistive load, R,
and an equivalent time period, T, the rms value of a
sinusoidal source delivers the same energy to R as does
a dc source of the same value.

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 The Power Factor
• The cosine of this angle is called the power factor, abbreviated pf,
and the sine of this angle is called the reactive factor, abbreviated rf.
Thus

we use the phrases lagging power factor and leading power factor. Lagging
power factor means that current lags voltage— hence, an inductive load. Leading
power factor means that current leads voltage—hence, a capacitive load.

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 Complex power
• Complex power is the complex sum of real power and reactive power, or

The magnitude of complex power is referred to as

apparent power.

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 Complex power
• An electrical load operates at 240 V(rms). The load
absorbs an average power of 8 kW at a lagging
power factor of 0.8.
a) Calculate the complex power of the load.
b) Calculate the impedance of the load, Z.

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 Power Calculations

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 Power Calculations
• Calculate the average power and the reactive power at the terminals of
the network

The value of P is negative, so the network inside the box is delivering average
power to the terminals.
The value of Q is positive, so the network inside the box is absorbing magnetizing
vars at its terminals.
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