MODULE 3 – DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
Dry-Type Distribution Transformers
APPLICATIONS
Distribution transformer or service transformer - a
transformer that provides the final voltage
transformation in the electric power distribution
system, stepping down the voltage used in the
distribution lines to the level used by the customer.
- are essential devices that step down high-
voltage electricity
- enable the efficient transmission of electricity
over long distances, reducing energy loss and ensuring
a stable power supply.
- facilitate the widespread availability of
electricity, supporting economic growth, technological
advancements, and improving the overall quality of life.
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER
1. Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformers
❖ Purpose: immersed in oil, which acts
as a coolant and insulating material.
❖ Applications: residential, commercial,
and industrial areas where the
demand for electricity is relatively
stable.
2.
small commercial applications, while
three-phase transformers are used in
❖ Purpose use air or solid insulation
industrial and larger commercial
instead of liquid, making them safer
settings.
and environmentally friendly.
❖ Applications: Single-phase
❖ Applications: Ideal for indoor
transformers power individual
applications, such as schools, hospitals,
households, while three-phase
and indoor industrial environments
transformers power factories,
businesses, and industrial facilities.
3. Pad-Mounted Distribution Transformers
❖ Purpose: mounted on a concrete pad 4. Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers
outdoors. ❖ Purpose: Step-up transformers
❖ Applications: Commonly used in urban increase voltage while step-down
areas where space is limited. often transformers decrease voltage.
seen in underground distribution ❖ Applications: Step-up transformers are
networks. used at power stations. Step-down
transformers are used in substations
4. Single-Phase and Three-Phase Transformers
❖ Purpose: Single-phase transformers
provide power for residential and
5. Distribution Transformers for Renewable Energy
❖ Purpose: to integrate renewable
energy sources into grid
❖ Applications: Used in renewable
energy projects to step up or step
down voltage
Basic Components
1. Primary Coil: Connected to the high-voltage power
supply.
2. Secondary Coil: Connected to the low-voltage output
for distribution.
3. Iron Core: Provides a path for the magnetic flux,
enhancing induction.
Electromagnetic Induction - When an alternating
current (AC) passes through the primary coil, it creates
a changing magnetic field around the coil due to the
alternating direction of the current. This changing
magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coil. 1. LAMINATED CORE - most important part of the
The induced voltage is proportional to the ratio of the transformer, used to support the windings of the
number of turns in the primary and secondary coils.
Step Up Transformer - If the secondary coil has more material to reduce eddy current loss and hysteresis
turns than the primary coil, the transformer steps up loss.
the voltage.
Step Down Transformer - If the secondary coil has 2. WINDINGS / COILS - Always two sets of windings are
fewer turns than the primary coil.
Energy Transfer - As the magnetic field around the
primary coil changes, it induces a voltage in the
secondary coil. This induced voltage causes a flow of
current in the secondary coil, transferring electrical
energy from the primary to the secondary circuit.
NOTE: The efficiency of the transformer is the ratio of
the output power to the input power.
Transformer Regulation - Transformers are designed to
operate within certain voltage regulation limits. When
the load on the secondary side varies, the transformer
adjusts the output voltage to maintain a relatively
stable supply to the consumers.
Main Parts of a Distribution Transformer
transformer. It is made up of laminated soft iron
placed on a laminated core and these are insulated from
each other. Winding consists of several no of turns of
copper conductors that are bundled together and
connected in series.
Based on Input and Output of Supply
❑ Primary Winding:- input supply is
connected
❑ Secondary Winding:- output is taken
to the load
Based on Voltage Supply
❑ High Voltage (HV) Winding:- The
winding that is connected with higher
voltage. It is made up of a thin copper
conductor with a large no of turns.
❑ Low Voltage (HV) Winding:- The
winding that is connected with lower
voltage. It is made up of a thick copper
conductor with few no. of turns.
3. INSULATING MATERIAL - Insulation failure can
cause the most severe damage to the transformer. So
insulation and insulating material should be high grade
and it is the most important part of transformer.
- required between each turn
of windings, between windings, winding, and core, and
all current-carrying parts and the tank of the
transformer.
4. MAIN TANK - the robust part of the transformer that
serves mainly two purposes:
❑ protects the core and windings from
the external environment and provides
housing for them.
It is used as a container for transformer oil and provides
support for all other external accessories of the
transformer.
5. TERMINALS AND BUSHING -. These are connected
with the ends of the windings conductor.
❑ Bushings are mainly insulators made up of
porcelain or epoxy resins. They are mounted
over the tank and form a barrier between the
terminals and the tank. They provide safe
passage for the conductor connecting terminals
to the windings
Types
❑ High-Voltage Bushings
❑ Low-Voltage Bushings.
6. TRANSFORMER OIL - provide insulation between
windings as well as cooling due to its chemical
properties and very good dielectric strength. It
dissipates the heat generated by the core and windings
of a transformer to the external environment. When the
windings of the transformer get heated due to the flow
of current and losses, the oil cools down the windings
by circulating inside the transformer and transferring
heat to the external environment through its cooling
tubes.
- Hydro-carbon mineral oil is used as at one end and installed on the main tank slightly above
transformer oil and acts as a coolant. It is composed of than conservator tank. It is available only in high-rated
aromatics, paraffin, naphthene, and olefins.
7. TAP CHANGER - to regulate the output voltage of the
transformer by changing its turn ratio. There are two against explosion during excessive pressure build-up in
types of tap changers.
❑ On-Load Tap Changer:- tapping can be
changed without isolating the
transformer from the supply.
❑ Off-Load Tap Changer:- the 12. RADIATOR AND FANS - Dry-type transformers are
transformer needs to isolate from the generally naturally air-cooled. But when we talk about
supply to change its tapping (turns oil-immersed transformers several cooling methods are
ratio). used depending upon kVA rating, power losses, and
level of cooling required.
8. BUCHHOLZ RELAY - most important part of a power
transformer rated more than 500kVA. It is a gas- - Hence to provide proper
actuated relay mounted on the pipe connecting the cooling, radiators and fans are installed on the main
main tank and conservator tank. tank of the power transformer. Radiators are also called
cooling tubes.
- to protect the transformer from all
internal faults such as short circuit faults, inter-turn Importance of Proper Maintenance
faults, etc.
1. Preventing Failures and Downtime:
9. OIL CONSERVATOR - To provide adequate space for
2. Ensuring Safety:
the expansion and contraction of transformer oil
according to the variation in the ambient temperature 3. Optimizing Efficiency
of transformer oil inside the main tank.
4. Prolonging Lifespan
10. BREATHER – A cylindrical container filled with silica
gel and directly connected to the conservator tank of 5. Minimizing Energy Losses:
the transformer. 6. Compliance with Regulations:
- To supply moisture-free fresh air to 7. Enhancing Reliability of Supply:
the conservator tank during the expansion and
contraction of transformer oil. This is because the 8. Facilitating Load Management:
transformer oil when reacting with moisture can affect 9. Early Detection of Problems:
the insulation and cause an internal fault in a
transformer. 10. Preserving Infrastructure:
11. EXPLOSION VENT - a metallic pipe with a diaphragm ENERGY EFFICIENCY
1. Reduced Energy Losses
power transformers. 2. Lower Operating Costs
- to protect the power transformer 3. Compliance with Regulations
4. Environmental Conservation
the main tank due to severe internal faults. It acts as an
emergency exit for oil and hot air gases. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT:
1. Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emission
2. Conservation of Resources
3. Waste Reduction

4. Encouraging Renewable Energy Integration

5. Extended Equipment Lifespan

6. Sustainable Development

Safety Considerations

1. Installation and Location:

2. Electrical Safety:

3. Protection Devices:

4. Transformer Oil:

5. Warning Signs and Labels:

6. Training and Awareness:

7. Security

MODULE 4 – DISTRIBUTION LINES

OVERHEAD VS UNDERGROUND LINES These poles provide support for the electrical wires and
other equipment.

2. Wires and Conductors

a. Conductors: These are the wires that carry electricity.

They are typically made of copper or aluminum due to
their excellent conductivity. Copper is a better
conductor, but aluminum is lighter and less expensive.

b. Insulation: Conductors are often covered with

insulating materials like PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or XLPE
(cross-linked polyethylene) to protect against moisture
and other environmental factors. Insulation prevents
electrical leakage and ensures safety.

3. Transformers - are crucial components that regulate

voltage levels in the distribution network. This voltage
transformation is essential for reducing energy loss
during transmission and ensuring that appliances
receive the correct voltage for safe operation.

4. Fuses and Circuit Breakers - are safety devices

designed to protect the distribution system from
overloads and short circuits.

5. Reclosers - are intelligent circuit breakers that

automatically re-close the circuit after a momentary
fault, such as a tree branch touching a power line. They
help in minimizing power outages and improve the
reliability of the distribution system.

6. Capacitors - are used to improve the power factor of

the distribution system. Power factor correction
ensures that the distribution network is operating
efficiently, reducing the amount of reactive power that
needs to be generated and transmitted.

7. Voltage Regulators - are devices used to maintain a

Components of Distribution Lines stable voltage level on the distribution lines. They
1. Poles - Distribution lines are often mounted on sturdy automatically adjust the voltage to compensate for
poles made from materials like wood, steel, or concrete. fluctuations caused by varying loads or other factors,
ensuring a consistent and reliable power supply.
8. Lightning Arresters - protect the distribution system
from lightning strikes. They provide a path of least
resistance for lightning strikes, directing the electrical
energy safely into the ground, thus preventing damage
to the distribution components.
9. Monitoring and Control Equipment - are equipped
with various sensors, meters, and communication
devices. These allow utility companies to monitor the
health of the distribution network in real-time, identify
faults quickly, and remotely control certain aspects of
the system, enhancing efficiency and responsiveness.
10. Smart Grid Technology – enables advanced
communication and automation within the distribution
system. Smart grids use digital technology to detect and
react to local changes in usage, ensuring a more reliable
and efficient distribution of electricity.
Distribution Lines Infrastructure
A. PRIMARY COMPONENTS
1. Substations - where electricity voltage is
transformed from high to low (or vice versa). They play
a crucial role in the distribution process, enabling the
efficient transmission of electricity over long distances
and its subsequent distribution to local areas.
2. Feeders - are high-capacity lines that carry
electricity from substations to distribution
transformers. They form the backbone of the
distribution system, transmitting power to various
neighborhoods and industrial areas.
3.Distribution Transformers - reduce the
voltage from the feeder lines to levels suitable for
consumer use. They are typically located on poles or in
ground-level cabinets within residential and
commercial areas.
4. Service Lines - connect distribution transformers to 4. Demand Response Systems - allow utilities to
individual homes and businesses. These lines carry low- adjust electricity usage during peak demand periods. By
voltage electricity directly to consumers' premises. incentivizing consumers to reduce consumption during
high-demand times, demand response systems help
B. SUPPORTING INFRASTRUCTURES
balance supply and demand.
1. Poles and Towers - support overhead power
D. MAINTENANCE AND MONITORING
lines. They are strategically placed to ensure the
stability and safety of the distribution network. 1. Predictive Maintenance - use data analytics
and sensors to predict when equipment is likely to fail.
2. Underground Cables - where overhead lines
By identifying issues before they cause outages, utilities
are impractical, electricity is distributed through
can minimize downtime and enhance reliability.
underground cables. These cables are well-insulated
and protected from environmental factors. 2. Grid Modernization - initiatives involve
upgrading aging infrastructure, integrating advanced
3. Switchgear - includes switches, fuses, circuit
technologies, and enhancing the overall efficiency and
breakers, and other devices used to control, protect,
reliability of the distribution system.
and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is essential
for managing the flow of electricity and responding to E. SAFETY MEASURES
faults in the system.
1. Grounding Systems - ensure that excess
C. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS electrical current is safely redirected into the ground,
preventing electrical shocks and fires.
1. Smart Meters - digital devices that record
and transmit electricity usage data in real-time. They 2. Lightning Protection - measures, such as
enable consumers and utility companies to monitor lightning arresters, safeguard distribution equipment
energy consumption patterns and make informed from damage caused by lightning strikes.
decisions about energy use.
F. REGULATORY AND POLICY FRAMEWORK – The
2. SCADA Systems - Supervisory Control and development and maintenance of distribution lines
Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are used to monitor infrastructure are guided by regulations and policies
and control the distribution infrastructure. They provide that promote safety, reliability, and environmental
real-time data on equipment performance and help sustainability. Regulatory bodies oversee utility
operators respond promptly to faults or outages. companies to ensure compliance with standards and
promote the well-being of consumers.
3. Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) - such
as solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage Future Trends
systems, are integrated into the distribution grid. These
1. Decentralization of Energy Generation
resources generate electricity locally, reducing strain on
centralized power plants and enhancing the grid's Increased DER Adoption:
resilience. Prosumer Empowerment:
2. Grid Modernization multiple taps on their windings. By 6. Medical Devices
Digitalization: changing the tap positions, the turns
7. Aerospace and Defense
Grid Resilience: ratio of the transformer is altered,
3. Integration of Advanced Technologies which in turn adjusts the output 8. Consumer Electronics
Electric Vehicle (EV) Charging Infrastructure: voltage.
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology: 9. HVAC Systems
❑ Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs):
4. Increased Focus on Sustainability
AVRs are used in synchronous 10. Emergency Backup Systems
Green Tariffs
generators to regulate the output Regulator Selection Consideration
Circular Economy Initiatives:
voltage. They monitor the generator's
output voltage and adjust the 1. Voltage Requirements
MODULE 5 – VOLTAGE REGULATORS excitation level of the generator's field 2. Load Current
winding to maintain a steady voltage.
VOLTAGE REGULATION - refers to the ability to 3. Voltage Regulation Accuracy
maintain a stable voltage level within an acceptable ❑ Static Voltage Regulators: use solid-
range despite variations in load, operating conditions, state electronic components, such as 4. Load Regulation
or external disturbances. power electronics devices like
5. Package Type
thyristors or transistors, to regulate
- crucial because many electrical
voltage. They are capable of fast 6. Protection Features
devices and equipment are designed to operate within
response times and precise voltage
specific voltage limits 7. Cost
control.
8. Reliability and Quality
❑ Ferroresonant Voltage Regulators:
These regulators use a ferroresonant NOTE: Voltage Regulation of a transformer is defined
transformer, which is designed to as the change in terminal voltage from no load to full
exhibit non-linear behavior when load at a given power factor. (No load voltage-Full
operated near its resonant frequency. load voltage)
This non-linear behavior helps in
maintaining a relatively constant NOTE: Zero voltage regulation indicates the highest
NOTE: Practically, all the equipment on the power output voltage despite variations in the possible performance of a transformer which is only
input voltage. possible in a theoretical and ideal transformer.
system are designed to operate satisfactorily within
voltage regulation variations of around 5%. NOTE: Apart the theory, the lower the voltage
Application of Voltage Regulators
regulation percentage, the more stable and constant
NOTE: The voltage at the generating stations and the
1. Power Supplies the secondary terminal voltage to the loads with better
frequency decides the kilowatt loading of the
regulation.
generating stations and the loading through the 2. Automotive Electronics
interconnectors
3. Industrial Equipment
TYPES OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS
4. Telecommunications
❑ Tap-Changing Transformers: These
regulators use transformers with 5. Renewable Energy Systems