ETYMOLOGY OF THE TERM PHYSIOGNOMY

Physiognomy-from the ancient Greek, gnomos (character) and physis (nature), hence “the character of
one’s nature”. Middle English phisonomie, from Anglo-French phisenomie, from Late Latin
physiognomonia, physiognomia, from Greek physiognomonia, from physiognomon judging character by
the features, from “physis” nature, physique, appearance plus gnomon interpreter (Merriam-Webster’s
Dictionary).

Giambattista della Porta also called Giovanni Battista Della Porta, (1535-1615) an Italian physician and
natural philosopher. He founded the school on human physiognomy. Physiognomy deals with the study
of facial features and their relation to human behavior. According to Porta, a thief had large lips and
sharp vision. Porta’s findings were in correlation with the argument of the Father of Modern
Criminology-Cesare Lombroso when he said that criminals frequently have huge jaws and strong canine
teeth, characteristics common to carnivores who tear and devour meat raw (Adler et al, 2010). His
widely disseminated book on the subject, De humana physiognomia, was instrumental in spreading
physiognomy throughout Europe. Illustrations in the book depict human and animal heads side by side,
implying that people who look like particular animals have those creatures’ traits.

Leonine specimens: Illustration in Giambattista della Porta’s De humana physiognomia (Naples, 1602).
The Getty Research Institute, 2934-552

Two centuries later, Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801), Swiss writer, Protestant pastor was able to
revive the work of Porta (Adler et al, 2010).

Today, scholars are still studying the science of faces and how different traits, features, and expressions
affect us. For example, it’s well established that faces with rounded contours attract us, because they
signal childlikeness and evoke parental instincts. We even have a tendency to view “baby-faced” people
as less likely to commit premeditated crimes. Unfortunately, if you’ve got an angular face, you’re
probably a criminal.

CLASSICAL THEORIES

Classical theories of crime causation hold primarily that the people’s decision to commit crime is a
matter of choice. Because it was assumed that people had free will to choose their behavior, those who
violated the law were motivated by personal needs such as greed, revenge, survival, and hedonism.
Utilitarian philosophers Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham argued that people weigh the benefits and
consequences of their future actions before deciding on a course of behavior. Potential violators would
stop their actions if the pain associated with a behavior outweighed its anticipated gain; conversely, law
violating behavior seems attractive if the future rewards seem far gre potential punishment (Siegel et al,
2007) These are the theories under classical: than the

1. Rational Choice Theory

Holds that person will engage in criminal behavior after weighing the consequences and Benefits of their
actions. Criminal behavior is a rational choice made by a motivated offender who perceives that the
chances of gain outweigh any possible punishment or loss (Siegel et al, 2007). “Rational choice” theory,
which is derived mainly from the expected utility model in economics, has become a “hot” topic in
criminology, sociology, political science, and law. The rational choice theory. Posits that one takes those
actions, criminal or lawful, which maximize payoff and minimize costs (Akers, 1990).

2. Routine Activity Theory

This theory was created by Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus K. Felson, with the 1979 publication of their
seminal article “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.” They viewed that
crime is a “normal” function of the routine activities of modern living. Offenses can be expected if there
is a motivated offender and a suitable target that is not protected by capable guardians (Siegel et al,
2007). Routine activity theory-also sometimes referred to as lifestyle theory-has proven to be one of the
more useful theories for understanding criminal victimization and offending patterns in the late 20 th and
early 21st centuries.

3. General and specific deterrence theory

General deterrence theory is aimed at making potential criminals fear the consequences of crime
showing that crime does not pay. It focuses on potential offenders and that these offenders must
receive punishment in a severe, swift and certain way. It is also manifesting societal deterrence which
aimed to target would be offenders (Siegel et al, 2007) For example, imposing long prison sentences or
in the Philippines lifetime imprisonment for violent or heinous crimes.

Specific deterrence theory -holds that if offenders are punished severely, the experience
Will convince them not to repeat their illegal acts. Its main targets are those offenders who have already
been convicted and it also claimed that punishing more criminals will reduce their involvement in
criminal activity (Siegel et al, 2007).

4. Victim precipitation theory

Victim precipitation theory- viewed that some people may actually initiate the confrontation that
eventually leads to their injury or death. It was first presented by Von Hentig (1941) and applies only to
violent victimization. Its basic premise is that by acting in certain provocative ways, some individuals
initiate a chain of events that lead to their deaths (Walsh, 2012). For example, a wife who was able to kill
her husband because the husband kept on beating her by the time he got drunk is one example. The
husband became a victim in this case since the perpetrator (the wife) is just acting based on self-
defense. The concept of victim offender interaction can be classified either active or passive
precipitation (Walsh, 2012).

Active precipitation -occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even
attacks first the offenders (Siegel, 2012). For example, when the person who shouts and utters profane
language at his enemy but the latter has a knife and stabs the former to death.

Passive precipitation - when the victim exhibits some personal characteristic that unknowingly either
threatens or encourages the attacker (Siegel, 2012). For example, Bee who has tattoos all around his
body may be a threat to somebody especially if Bee is already drunk. Even though he did nothing wrong
but the other person got threatened and attacked B leading either to his injury or immediate death.

5. Incapacitation theory

Incapacitation theory stands to reason that if more criminals are sent to prison the crime rate should go
down; keeping known criminals out of circulation (Siegel et al, 2007). This theory supported the idea of
imprisonment of criminals.

Phrenology posited that bumps on the head were indications of psychological propensities (Adler et al,
2010).
PHRENOLOGY

Phrenology is the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of mental faculties and traits of
character, especially according to the hypotheses of Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), and such 19 th-
century adherents as Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832) and George Combe (1788-1858)

(https://www.britannica.com/topic/phrenology). Phrenology was a theory of brain and science of

character reading, what the nineteenth

Century phrenologists called “the only true science of mind.” Phrenology was derived from the theories
of the distinctive German-French anatomist and physiologist Franz Joseph Gall. The basic tenets of

Gall’s system were:

1. The brain is the organ of the mind. Mind is

2. The mind s composed of multiple distinct, innate faculties.

3. 3. Because they are distinct, each faculty must have a separate seat or “organ” in the brain.

4. The size of an organ, other things being equal, is a measure of its power.

5. The shape of the brain is determined by the development of the various organs

6. . 6. As the skull takes its shape from the brain, the surface of the skull can be read as an accurate
index of psychological aptitudes and tendencies (Wyhe, 2000).

His collaboration with his pupil Johann Kaspar Spurzheim, who served as research assistant and
collaborator, which began in 1800, led him to the development of his theories concerning brain
localization and phrenology, which he initially referred to as cranioscopy. He characterized his primary
goal to develop a functional anatomy and physiology of the brain as well as a revised psychology of
personality as “organology Gall ultimately identified 27 discrete brain “centres” which have never been
confirmed to exist. Behaviour, 25 of

Gall’s lectures on cranioscopy became very popular, and it was his followers who gave his doctrine the
name “phrenology” Against the church, however, it helped him little that his revolutionary concept was
a pioneering work. Gall offended religious leaders and scientists alike. The Church considered his theory
as contrary to religion. That the mind, created by God, should have a physical seat in brain matter, was
anathema (a curse) (http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1018.html).

Phrenology was re-introduced to Britain by the American “phrenological Fowlers” Lorenzo Niles Fowler
(1811-1896) in the 1860s and 1870s. The Fowlers had begun lecturing and reading heads for fees in New
York in the 1830s. Their phrenology was wholly borrowed from the British

Modifications of Gall’s system Wyhe (2000).

In the United States, the views on phrenology were supported by physician Charles Caldwell (1772-
1853), who searched for evidence that brain tissue and cells regulate human action (Adler et al, 2010).

Neuroscientists today are using their new tools to revisit and explore the idea that different personality
traits are localized in different brain regions. Two of the leaders in this new field are psychologists Colin
De Young of the University of Minnesota and Jeremy Gray of Yale, who have been using a brain scanner
to search for evidence of the so-called “big five” personality traits. There is growing scientific consensus
that every human personality is a unique mix of just five core attributes: extraversion, neuroticism,
agreeableness, openness/intellect, and conscientiousness.

Take extraversion, for example. Extraversion includes qualities like assertiveness and sociability and
talkativeness-all traits having to do with positive emotions and rewarding social experiences. Based on
this, the scientists guessed that the most extraverted people would have larger than normal brain
regions associated with sensitivity to reward.

Scientists found that neuroticism-a tendency toward negative emotions like irritability and anxiety-was
associated with the brain regions involved in threat and punishment. Agreeableness-a catchall for
altruism, empathy, cooperation and compassion-correlated with regions known to process those traits.
And, finally, the most conscientious volunteers had unusually large brain structures involved in
“executive” powers like future planning and following complex rules. In short, the brain studies lent
strong support to the idea that the big five personality traits have a biological foundation.

NATURE THEORY

Nature theory holds that low intelligence is genetically determined and inherited. This was supported by
Henry Goddard in his studies in 1920 that many institutionalized people were what he considered
“feebleminded” and concluded that at least half of all juvenile delinquents were mentally defective. In
similar vein, William Healy and Augusta Bronner tested a group of delinquents in Chicago and Boston
and they found that 37 percent were subnormal in intelligence. Bronner and Healy concluded that
delinquent boys were 5 to 10 times more likely to be mentally deficient than delinquent boys. Thus,
many criminologists agreed with the predisposition of substandard individuals toward delinquency
(Siegel et al, 2007).

INTELLIGENCE AND CRIME

While it is acknowledged that a range of personal and environmental factors are influence offending
behaviour (e.g. gender, age, peer support, poverty, education, ethnicity, fo ely to impulse control,
empathy, psychological well-being, personality, etc.), the link between low levels of IQ and criminal
involvement continues to receive considerable attention (Diaz, Belena, & Baguena, 1994: Jolliffe &
Farrington, 2004). In fact, a meta-analysis of research examining the influence of cognitive and affective
empathy to offending behaviour found that the relationship between low empathy and offending
disappeared after controlling for intelligence and socio-economic status (Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004).
This is not to disregard the concept of empathy, but rather, the ability to understand another person’s
emotions may be a primary function of intelligence, which ultimately also has links with offending
(Jolliffe & Farrington, 2004). More broadly, research that has aimed to examine the origins of offending
behaviour (particularly juvenile delinquency) continues to identify low IQ as a predictor of criminal
behaviour (Diaz et al., 1994).

Indeed, Dr. Henry Goddard, after his long study of feeblemindedness, reached the conclusion that every
mentally deficient individual is a potential criminal, and further, that 40% of families manifesting
feeblemindedness show criminality and that sex delinquency in such families is practically the rule.
Additionally, it has been proposed that lower IQ (especially poor verbal ability) restricts the probability
of academic success at school and this failure in academic achievement increases the likelihood of
delinquent acts (Diaz et al., 1994).

A body of research has also demonstrated that individuals with lower IQ levels are more likely to commit
more severe (and violent) offences (Crocker & Hodgins, 1997; Hayes & Mcllwain, 1988, Martell, 1991).
Additionally, evidence exists which demonstrates that criminal offenders have lower IQs

Than non-offenders (Feldman, 1993; Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985). In fact, a
large body of early research found clear links between lower intelligence and criminal behaviour (Hirschi
& Hindelang, 1977; McGarvey, Gabrielli, Bentler, & Mednick, 1981; Culberton et al., 1989).

Furthermore, research has provided preliminary evidence that individuals who are incarcerated are also
more likely to suffer from alexithymia, otherwise known as a diminished ability to identify and/or
communicate feelings (Kroner & Forth, 1995).

In an effort to elucidate the complex relationship between IQ and criminal activity, researchers have also
attempted to categorize offenders into subgroups. Two large scale studies provided indication that the
offense of murder is disproportionately over-represented among inmates with an intellectual disability
(Hayes & Mcllwain, 1988; Jones & Coombes, 1990). These researchers have also suggested that those
with an intellectual disability are more likely to commit other types of offences, including against
property and person such as assault, arson and theft-related offences. In contrast, offences that require
a higher level of sophistication (e.g. drugs, false pretenses) are less likely to be committed (Hayes &
Mcllwain, 1988; Jones & Coombes, 1990).

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Developmental theories aim to identify, examine and deeply understand the developmental factors that
would explain the onset (start) and the continuation of a criminal career It aims to answer the question
why an individual criminal stops (desist) in committing crimes while others continue (persisting) their
criminal activities Below are some of the theories under developmental:

1. Interactional Theory

Terence Thornberry has proposed an age-graded view of crime that he calls interactional theory. He
agrees that the onset can be traced to a deterioration of the social bond during adolescence, marked by
weakened attachment to parents, commitment to school, and belief in conventional values. The onset
of a criminal career is supported by residence in a social setting in which deviant values and attitudes
can be learned from and reinforcement by delinquent peers. Weak bonds lead kids to develop
friendships with deviant peers and get involved in delinquency (Siegal, 2004). So, if we try to analyze
interactional theory, it clearly borrowed the principles of social bond theory by Travis Hirschi

2. Age-Graded Theory

Robert Sampson and John Laub in their work (1993), “Crime in the Making identify the turning points in
a criminal career. They find out that the stability of delinquent behavior can be affected by the events
that occur in later life, even after a chronic delinquent career has been undertaken They also state that
children who enter delinquent careers are those who have trouble at home and school and maintain
Deviant friends (Siegel, 2004)

In age-graded theory, the type of crime committed by a certain individual is in consonance with his age
or his age govems or dictates the type of crime to be committed by him. This is what Laub and Sampson
called as the turning points marriage and career. For example, adolescents who are at risk for crime can
live conventional lives if they can find good jobs or achieve successful careers. Even those who have
been in trouble with the law may turn from the crime if employers are willing to give them a chance
despite their records Those criminals who have entered happy marriages and quality marital life may
desist (stop) from committing crime anymore (Siegel, 2004). Also those criminals who are already aged
may also stop in committing crime because their body physique and stamina could not support them
anymore.

Aging-out process-it is also known as desistance or spontaneous remission. The tendency for youths to
reduce the frequency of their offending behaviour as they aged and is thought to occur among all
groups of offenders (Siegel, 2007).

3. Social Development Model

Joseph Weis, Richard Catalano, J. David Hawkins (2001), and their associates focus on the different
factors affecting child’s social development over the life course. According to their view, as

Children mature within their environment, elements of socialization control their developmental
process and either insulate them from delinquency or encourage their antisocial activities. SDM holds
that commitment and attachment to conventional institutions, activities and beliefs insulate youths
from delinquency-producing influence in their environment. Therefore, using this model, the role of
parents is very important since they are the first teachers (Siegel, 2007).

4. General Theory of Crime

Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in their work, “General Theory of Crime,” modified and redefined
some of the principles articulated in Hirschi’s social control theory by integrating the concepts of control
with those biosocial, psychological, routine activities, and rational choice theories. In this theory,
Gottfredson and Hirschi consider the criminal offender and the criminal act as separate concepts. They
further claim that crime is rational and predictable; people commit crime when it promises rewards and
minimal threat or pain; the threat of punishment can deter crime.

5. Differential Coercion Theory

Mark Colvin in his work, “Crime and Coercion,” identifies master traits that may guide behavioral;
choices, in which he calls “coercion.” Perceptions of coercion can begin in early life when children
experience a punitive form of discipline including both physical attacks and psychological coercion
including negative commands. Critical remarks such as teasing, humiliation, whining, yelling and threats.

6. Control balance theory

Charles Tittle expands the concept of personal control as a predisposing element for criminality. He
believed the concept of control has two (2) distinct elements: the amount of control one is subject to by
others and the amount of control one can exercise over others. Conformity results when these 2
elements are in balance; control imbalances produce deviant and criminal behaviors. According to Tittle,
deviance increases when there is a control deficit and with excessive control. Control imbalance
represents a potential to commit crime and deviance (Siegel, 2004),

SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORIES

Social Conflict theory was provided by Karl Marx who finds that society is in a constant state of internal
conflict, as different groups strive to impose their will on others. Those with money and power succeed
in shaping the law to meet their needs and maintain their interests. Those adolescents whose behavior
cannot conform to the needs of the power elite are defined as delinquents and criminals (Siegel, 2007)
In short, laws serve as a tool of the upper class to control the lower class Though, not all crimes are
committed by the lower class, but most of the time they are the subjects of arrest. Below are the few
theories under social conflict.

1. The Marxist Criminology view crime as a function of the capitalist mode of production Within
this system economic competitiveness is the essence of social life and controls the form and
 function of social institutions. Every element of society: government, law, education, religion,
family is organized around the capitalist mode of production consisting of the owners of the
production (bourgeoisie), the worker (proletariat) and the non-productive people
(lumpenproletariat). The rich (bourgeoisie) use the fear of crime as a tool to maintain their
control over society. The poor are controlled through incarceration; the middle class are
diverted from caring about the crimes of the powerful because they fear the crimes of the
powerless According to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels criminals came from a third class in
society-the lumpen proletariat-who would play no decisive role in the expected revolution
(Siegel, 2004)

2. Conflict theory views crime as the outcome of class struggle. The classes that are struggling here
are the upper, middle and lower class (have-nots). Conflict works to promote crime by creating a
social atmosphere in which the law is a mechanism for controlling dissatisfied, have-not
members of the society while the wealthy maintain their position of power. It also viewed that
crime is defined by those in power Power refers to the ability of persons and groups to
determine and control the behavior of others and to shape public opinion to meet their
personal interests it was first applied to criminology by three distinct scholars: Willem A. Bonger,
Ralf G. Dahrendorf, and George B. Vold. According to Bonger (1916), everyone may desire
wealth, but it is only the most privileged people, with the most capital, who can enjoy luxuries
and advantages. And that people care only for their own lives and pleasures and ignore the
plight of the disadvantage.

Ralf Dahrendorf argues that modern society is organized into what he called imperatively coordinated
associations. These associations comprise two groups: those who possess authority and use it for social
domination and those who lack authority and are dominated. And that society is a plurality of
competing interest groups:

George Vold was the one who adapted the conflict theory in criminology. He argued that crime can also
be explained by social conflict. Laws are created by politically-oriented groups, who seek the
government’s assistance to help them defend their rights and protect their interests. He found out that
criminal acts are a consequence of direct contact between forces struggling to control society. The direct
contacts that Vold is referring to are: (1) from passing the law: (2) to prosecuting the case; (3) to
developing relationships between inmate and quard: (3) parole agent and parolee-is marked by conflict
(Siegel, 2004).

3. Social Reality of Crime

Sociologist Richard Quinney embraced a conflict model of crime who integrated his beliefs about power,
society, and criminality into a theory he referred to as the social reality of crime. According to him,
criminal definitions or the law represents the interests of those who hold power in society. Where there
is conflict between social groups -for example, the wealthy and the poor those who hold power will be
the ones to create the laws that benefit themselves (Siegel, 2004)

4. Left realism theory is most connected to the writings of British scholars John Lea and Jock Young
in their 1984 work. “What is to be Done about Law and Order?” by taking a more realistic
approach, saying that street criminals prey on the poor, thus making the poor doubly abused,
first by the capitalist system and then by the members of their own class. Their equation is very
simple: relative deprivation equals discontent; discontent plus lack of political solution equals
crime. Young and Lea argued that crime victims in all classes need and deserve protection
(Siegel, 2004)

5. Peacemaking theory by Larry Tifft and Dennis Sullivan in their book entitled. The Mask of Love”
explains that the only ways to reduce crime are through peace and humanism Conflict
resolution strategies can work. Its strength is that it offers a new approach to crime control
through mediation as the main purpose is to promote a peaceful and just society. Sullivan
suggests that mutual aid rather than coercive punishment.

6. Institutive-Constitutive Theory

Gregg Barak and Stuart Henry’s institutive-constitutive theory defines crime as the application of harm
to others. People who are defined as committing criminal acts are at the same time being made unequal
or “disrespected”: they are rendered powerless to maintain or express their humanity. In a sense then,
the act of making people “criminals” is a crime.

7. Identity Fusion Theory

Identity fusion is defined as a visceral feeling of oneness with the group that is associated with increased
permeability of the boundary between the personal and social self. It was created by William B. Swann
Jr. And Michael D. Buhrmester (2012). The blending of an individual’s personal-self and social-self with
that of a group, has attempted to explain why a person engages in political participation (Swann et al.
2009) Personal self remains salient: fused persons feel that they both strengthen and draw strength
from the group, resulting in elevated personal agency. Fused persons view the group as “family and
believe that family membership requires sacrifices. When a family member is imperiled, they experience
emotions akin to when self is imperiled Result Strongly fused people will make extreme sacrifices for the
group (https://www.creighton.edu/).
Understanding Theory and Practice

As cited in the article written by F. Duke Haddad entitled “Understand the Difference between Theory
and Practice”, he said that Dr. Albert Einstein has a famous quote: “In theory, theory and practice are
the same. In practice, they are not.” Steve Klabnik believes there is always a tension between theory and
practice. These two separate realms are connected through a process of abstraction and application. To
explain this process by way of theory, theory deterritorialized practice, and practice re-territorialized
theory: A theory, which is becoming practice; and a practice, which is becoming theory.

To explain the phrase written above, theory is an abstracted practice, and practice is an Applied theory.
The only way you can get these two camps to talk to each other is to figure out what the theory says
that provides value to those who practice. For example, it is all too easy to explain the concepts of thirst,
pain and sorrow in theory, but the person realizes the difference only when he undergoes these
experiences in real life. In theory, many assumptions are made to explain the phenomenon and
concepts, whereas in real life, there are no assumptions and conditions are always unique. Another
example, we learned in the theory of victimology that most of the victims of rape are those wearing
seductive dresses or those women who are in drinking spree together with some other men but why in
practice or in reality, there are also women who are being raped even if their bodies are fully covered
with clothes.

A theory is a thought, an idea about the way the world works that allows you to predict what will
happen if you do something. Practice is doing; what happens when you do the thing. The better the
theory, the better the match between your thoughts and predictions and what occurs in practice.
Theories are theoretical. Practice is practical. Theory assumes an outcome, while practice allows you to
test the theory and see if it is accurate.

For example we have a theory (Requirements of Police: Arrest Procedures): Theory: As a general rule,
police officers while arresting the suspect have the obligation to tell the suspect of his right under the
constitution such as, “You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can and will be used against
you in a court of law. You have the right to an attorney. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be
provided for you. Do you understand the rights I have just read to you? With these rights in mind, do
you wish to speak to me?”

Practice: The rules regarding what an officer must do while making an arrest varies by jurisdiction.
Generally, an arrest happens when the person being arrested reasonably believes that she is not free to
leave. The officer need not use handcuffs, or place the arrestee in a police cruiser, although police often
use these tactics to protect themselves.

Police also do not have to read Miranda Rights at the time of arrest. However, the police must read a
suspect their rights before an interrogation, so many police departments recommend that Miranda
Rights be read at the time of arrest. This way, they can start questioning right away, and any information
volunteered by a suspect can be used against them.

Finally, although police will almost always tell an arrestee why they’re under arrest, they may not
necessarily have any legal obligation to do so. This depends on both the jurisdiction and the
circumstances of the arrest.

Types of Crime Classification

Crime is a generic term which may be referred to as a felony when it is punishable by the Revised Penal
Code, offense when punishable by the Special Law and misdemeanor when it violated an ordinance.
Crime based on the biblical point of view can be considered a sin. When Eve chose to eat the forbidden
fruit despite the warning of God not to eat that kind of fruit only shows that man by nature is a sinner.
We are created by virtue of sin. Logically speaking, all crimes are sin but not all sins are crimes if there is
no law punishing such an act. Example, it is a sin to get envious, “For where envy and self- seeking exist,
confusion and every evil thing are there.” James 3:16, but it’s not a crime as harm long as you have not
harmed anybody.

The Normality of Crime

David Emile Durkheim maintained that criminality is a “normal” factor rather than a pathological one.
He indicates that crime is found in all societies, “Crime is normal because a society exempt from it is
utterly impossible”. The “fundamental conditions of social organization-logically imply it.” Crime is not
due to any imperfection of human nature or society any more than birth or death may be considered
abnormal or pathological. It is all a part of the totality of society. “A society exempt from it (crime)
would necessitate a standardization of the moral concepts of all individuals which is neither possible nor
desirable.” Durkheim maintains that crime is not only normal for society but that is necessary. Without
crime there could be no evolution in law
(https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/vol49/iss1/

Dr. David Abrahamsen’s Theory of the Etiology of Criminal Acts According to Abrahamsen (Forensic
Psychologist), “Crime is a product of the individual’s tendencies and the situation of the moment
interacting with his mental resistance. Letting ‘C’ stand for crime, ‘T’ for tendencies, ‘S’ for situation, and
‘R’ for resistance, we derive the following formula:”

Abrahamsen points out that the “T” factor is not simply “aggressive tendencies” since they are present
in all men. “T” also refers to aggressive inclinations of an indirect nature; for instance, projections,
rebellious hostility towards anyone, protest reactions, or excessive motor activity. A criminal act does
not take place solely because of the release of repressed aggression, but may occur also because the
offender has built a defense of aggression which is expressed tangentially by projections, rejection of
authority, protest reactions, etc.

“S” the situation, is an indeterminate factor in mobilizing the criminal act. As each person has a unique
psychological make-up, it follows that only he can achieve a particular aim in a given environment.

“R” is the resistance to temptation; it is the ability to control one’s negative emotions, such as bad
temperament, anger, etc. According to Abrahamsen, personality reactions in criminals are by nature
comparable to those found in a disease.” He also claims that a higher incidence of psychosomatic
disorders is to be found in the family constellation of the offender than in the family members of
psychotic or neurotic patients (Bates, 1949)
(https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc/vol40/iss4)

.SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

It explains how a certain individual acquires criminal or undesirable behavior; it describes how the
agents of socialization such as family, environment, schools, mass media and peer groups contribute or
affect the behavior of a specific individual; and it would also somehow manifest as to how a person
responded or reacted with regards to the conduct displayed by other persons whom he or she is
socializing with. The subfields of sociological theories are: 1) SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES suggest that
social and economic forces operating in deteriorated lower-class areas push many of their residents into
criminal behavior patterns. Social structure theory has three (3) major branches, such as social
disorganization theory, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory. Another subfield of sociological
theory is 2) SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES – which hold that criminality, is a function of individual
socialization. Social process theories also have three (3) major branches, such as: social learning theory,
social control theory, and social reaction theory.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES

1. Social disorganization theory was created by Chicago-based sociologists Clifford R. Shaw and
Henry D. Mckay who link crime rates to neighbourhood ecological characteristics Crime rates
are elevated in highly transient, “mixed use” (where residential and commercial property exist
side by side) and/or “changing neighbourhoods in which the fabric of social life has become
fayed These localities are unable to provide essential services such as education, health care,
and proper housing and, as a result, experience significant levels of unemployment, single
parent families, and families on welfare and Aid to Dependent Children (ADC) Shaw and McKay’s
main contention is that the primary causes of criminal behavior were neighborhood
disintegration and slum conditions to place what they called transitional neighborhoods which
refer to the place in Chicago where ridden by poverty and which suffers high rates of population
turnover and were incapable of inducing residents to remain and failed to defend the
neighborhoods against criminal groups (Siegel, 2004).

2. Concentric zone theory was pioneered by Chicago School sociologists Ernest W. Burgess and
Robert E. Park; however, it was Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay noted that distinct
ecological area had developed in the city of Chicago, comprising a series of 5 concentric circles,
or zones, and that there were stable and significant differences in interzone crime rates. The
areas of heaviest concentration of crime appeared to be the transitional inner-city zones, where
large numbers of foreign born citizens had settled. The zones farthest from the city’s center had
lower crime rates. Shaw and McKay’s main assumption is that, even though crime rates
changed, they found that the highest rates were always in central city and transitional areas.

3. Anomie Theory- David Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist introduced the term “anomie”.
Which derived from the Greek a nomos which means without noms. According to Durkheim, an
anom society is one in which rules of behavior (norms) have broken down or become
inoperative during periods of rapid social change or social crisis such as war or famine. Anomie
most likely occurs in societies that are moving forward mechanically to organic solidarity.
Mechanical solidarity is defined as a characteristic of pre-industrial society, which is held together by
traditions, shared values, and unquestioned beliefs. Organic solidarity refers to the post industrial
system, in which the place is highly developed and dependent upon the division of labor and people are
connected by their interdependent needs for each other’s services and production.

4. Strain Theory

American sociologist Robert K. Merton applied Durkheim’s ideas of anomie to criminology. He holds that
crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to legally
obtain those goals. Consequently, those who failed to attain their goals because of inadequate means
would feel anger, frustration and resentment, which are referred to as strain and that those people who
are in strain or pressure may develop criminal or delinquent solutions to the problem of attaining goals
(Siegel et al, 2007). Merton developed what he called social adaptation to explain that although some
people have inadequate means of attaining success; other people who have the means reject societal
goals as being unsuited to them. Below are Merton’s five (5) modes of adaptation. The plus (+) sign
means acceptance, negative (-) sign means rejection and + means substituting alternative goals (Siegel,
2004).

5. Relative Deprivation Theory

This theory clearly emphasizes that a sharp division between the rich and the poor creates an
atmosphere of envy and mistrust. Criminal motivation is fueled both by perceived humiliation and the
perceived right to humiliate a victim in return. Accordingly, lower-class people might feel both deprived
and embittered when they compare their life circumstances to those of the more affluent. The constant
frustration suffered by the deprived individuals because of their economic status may lead to aggression
and hostility and may result to violence and crime (Siegel, 2004).

6. General Strain Theory

Sociologist Robert Agnew reformulated the strain theory of Robert Merton and suggests that criminality
is the direct result of negative affective states the anger, frustration, depression, Disappointment and
other adverse emotions that derive from strain. Agnew tries to explain why individuals who feel stress
and strain are more likely to commit crimes and offers more explanation of criminal activity among all
elements of society rather than restricting his views to lower-class crime (Siegel, 2004)
 7. Cultural Deviance Theory

This theory combines the effects of social disorganization and strain to explain how people living in in
deteriorated neighborhoods react to social isolation and economic deprivation Because of the draining,
frustrating and dispiriting experiences, members of the lower class create an independent subculture
with its own set of rules and values. This lower-class subculture stresses excitement. Toughness, risk-
taking, fearlessness and immediate gratification.

8. Delinquent Subculture Theory Albert K. Cohen first articulated the theory in his classic book,
“Delinquent Boys Cohen’s position was that delinquent behavior of lower-class youth is actually
a protest against the norms and values middle-class U.S. culture Because the social conditions
make them incapable of achieving success legitimately, lower-class youths experience a form of
culture conflict that Cohen labels status frustration. Status frustration refers to the state where
youths are incapable of achieving their legitima goals in life because of the social conditions that
they are into such as having poor parents and living in slum areas.

9. Differential Opportunity Theory is the output of the classic work of Richard A Cloward and Lloyd
E. Ohlin’s “Delinquency and Opportunity. This theory is a combination of strain and
disorganization principles into a portrayal of a gang-sustaining criminal subculture. The main
concept of this theory states that people in all strata of society share the same success goals but
that those in the lower-class have limited means of achieving them. People who perceive
themselves as failures within conventional society will seek alternative or innovative ways to
gain success, such as joining drug syndicates and any other forms of illegal activities.

SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES

Neutralization Theory (1957) is identified with the writings of David Matza and his associate Gresham M.
Sykes. They viewed the process of becoming a criminal as a learning experience in which potential
delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize
conventional values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior. One:
reason it becomes possible, it’s because of the subterranean value structure of American Society.
Subterranean values are morally tinged influences that have become entrenched in the culture but are
publicly condemned. These are values that are condemned in public but may be practiced privately.
Example: viewing pornographic films, drinking alcohol to excess, and gambling on sporting events.

2. Differential Association Theory

“Tell me who your friends are and I will tell you who you are,” a Mexican proverb that would best
describe the theory of differential association. Differential association theory was created by American
criminologist Edwin H. Sutherland (1939) in his Text, Principles of Criminology. He suggests that people
commit crime by learning in a social context through their interactions with others and communication
with them. He believed criminal behavior is learned by interaction with others, and this includes learning
the techniques of committing the crime. And the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes for
committing it.

3. Containment theory

Containment theory was presented by Walter C. Reckless and assumes that for every individual, there
exists a containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense,
protection, or insulation against delinquency (Siegel, 2007). According to Reckless “outer containment”
or the structural buffer that holds the person in Bounds.

4. Social bond theory also called (social control theory), articulated by Travis W. Hirschi in his 1969 book,
Causes of Delinquency, now the dominant version of control theory. Hirschi links the onset of criminality
to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society. He assumes that all individuals are potential law
violators, but they are kept under control because they fear that illegal behavior will damage their
relationships with friends, parents, neighbors, teachers and employers.

6. Social Reaction (Labeling Theory) Labeling theory was created by Howard S. Becker who explains
that society creates deviance Through a system of social control agencies that designate (label)
certain individuals as delinquent, thereby stigmatizing a person and encouraging them to accept
this negative personal identity. For example: people labeled “insane” are also assumed to be
dangerous, dishonest, unstable, violent, strange, and otherwise unsound. In contrast, negative
labels, including “troublemaker,” “mentally-ill,” and “stupid,” help stigmatize the recipients of
these labels and reduce their self-image (Siegel, 2004).
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

Psychological theories expressed that criminal behavior was the product forces operating within a
person’s mind. Conflicts occur at various psychosexual stages of development might impact an
individual’s ability to operate normally as an adult and that if aggressive impulse is hot controlled, or is
repressed to an unusual degree, some aggression can “leak out of the unconscious and a person can
engage in random acts of violence (Bartol, 2002). Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) in his theory of imitation
believed that people leam from one another through a process of imitation (Siegel, 2004). These are
some of the theories under

Psychological 1. Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic psychology was originated by Viennese psychiatrist

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and has still considered as one of the prominent theories in psychology This
holds that the human personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes developed in early

Childhood. It argues that human personality contains three major components, namely id, ego and

Superego

a. Id-dictates the needs and desires (it operates under pleasure principle).

b. Superego – counteracts the id by fostering feelings of morality (morality principle). It is Divided

into two (2) parts conscience and ego ideals

c. c. Ego – evaluates the reality of a position of these two extremes (reality principle). If these
three components are properly balanced, the individual can lead a normal life. But if one aspect
of the personality governs at the expense of the others, the individual exhibits abnormal
personality traits (Siegel et al, 2007). For example, upon entering the room you find out that
there is a wallet full of money. If you will take the wallet and will not tell anyone that it’s you
who found it, your conscience, one of the parts of superego (morality principle) is not working
because it didn’t intervene your id (pleasure principle) and did not tell your ego (reality
principle) that the wallet is not yours, why take it?

2. Behavioral theory is originally created by John B. Watson and popularized by Burhus Frederic Skinner
commonly known as B.F. Skinner. Some psychologists agree that behavior is controlled by unconscious
mental processes determined by parental relationships developed early in childhood as what Freud
believed but others do not, like Watson and Skinner. This theory concerned the study of observable
behavior rather than unconscious processes. It focuses on particular stimuli and how people respond
toward that stimulus It maintains that human actions are developed through learning experiences; that
behavior is learned when it is rewarded and extinguished by negative reactions or punishment (Siegel,
2004)

3. Social learning is the branch of behavior theory most relevant to criminology. It was created Albert

S. Bandura (1973), a Canadian psychologist who argued that people are not actually born with the ability
to act violently but that they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences. The experiences
include personally observing others acting aggressively to achieve some goal or watching people being
rewarded for violent acts on television or in movies. Bandura claimed that people learn to act
aggressively when, as children, they model their behavior after the violent acts of adults For example,
the boy who sees his father repeatedly strikes his mother with impunity is the one most likely to grow
up to become a battering parent and husband (Siegel, 2004) Social Learning and Violence

Bandura (1973) believed that violence was something learned through a process called

Behavior modeling. Aggressive acts are usually modeled after 3 principal sources

1. Family members. Bandura reports that family life showing children who use aggressive tactics
have Parents who use similar behaviors when dealing with others.

2 Environmental experiences People who reside in areas where violence is a daily occurrence are More
likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime areas whose norm stress conventional Behavior.

3 Mass media. Films and television shows commonly depict violence graphically, Moreover, violence is
often portrayed as an acceptable behavior, especially for heroes who never have to face legal
consequences for their actions (Siegel, 2004).

4. Cognitive Theory

A branch of psychology that studies the perception of reality and the mental process required to

Understand the world we live. It focuses on mental processes the way people perceive and mentally
Represents the world around them. Adolescents who use information property, who are better

Conditioned to make reasoned judgments, and who can make quick and reasoned decisions when

Facing emotion-laden are the ones that can avoid antisocial behavior choices Cognitive perspective

Contains several subgroups: the moral and intellectual development branch, which is concerned how

People morally represent and reason about the world. Jean Piaget (1896-1980), a Swiss psychologist
who was the first to make a systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in children based on his
cognitive development theory. He hypothesized that a child’s reasoning processes develop in an arderly
manner, beginning at birth and continuing until age 12 and older and it has 4 stages (Siegel et al, 2007)

5. Moral Development Theory Lawrence Kohlberg (1973) expanded Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development and applied the concept of development stages to issues in criminology. His theory of
moral development was dependent on the thinking of the former (Piaget) and the American philosopher
John Dewey. He suggested that people travel through stages of moral development and that it is
possible that serious offenders have a moral orientation that differs from those law-abiding citizens. He I
his associates found out that criminals were found to be lower in their moral judgment development
than non-criminals of the same social background. Moral development theory suggests that people who
obey the law simply to avoid punishment or who have outlooks mainly characterized by self-interest are
more likely to commit crimes than those who view the law as something that benefits all of society and
who honor the rights of others.

7. Intergenerational transmission theory stated that criminal and antisocial parents tend to have

Delinquent and antisocial children, as shown in the classic longitudinal surveys by Joan McCord in
Boston and Lee Robins in St. Louis The most extensive research on the concentration of offending in
families was carried out in the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Having a convicted father
mother brother, or sister predicted a boy’s own convictions and all four relatives were independently
important as predictors (Farrington et al., 1996).

8. Alternative theory beats the famous saying that says, “Opposite charges attract An alternative
theory focuses on assortative mating, female offendors tend to cohabit with or get married to
male offenders in the Dunedin study in New Zealand, which is a longitudinal survey of over one
thousand children from age three, Robert F. Krueger and his colleagues found that sexual
partnere tended to be similar in their self-reported antisocial behavior, Children with two
 criminal parents are likely to be disproportionately antisocial. There are two main classes of
explanations concerning why similar people tend to get married, cohabit, or become sexual
partners. The first is called social homogamy- convicted people tend to choose each other as
mates because of physical and social proximity; they meet each other in the same schools,
neighborhoods, dubs, pubs, and so on. The second process is called phenotypic assortment-
people examine each other’s personality and behavior and choose partners who are similar to
themselves (https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal and-political-magazines/crime-causation-
psychological-theories)

9. Differential association-reinforcement

Ernest Burgess and Ronald Akers (1966) combined Bandura’s social learning theory and Sutherland’s
theory of differential association to produce the theory of differential-association reinforcement. This
theory suggests that (1) the presence of criminal behavior depends on whether or not it is rewarded or
punished and (2) the most meaningful rewards and punishment are those given by groups that are
important in an individuals life-the peer group, the family, teachers in school and so forth. In other
words, people respond more readily to the reactions of the most significant people in their lives. If the
criminal behavior elicits more positive reinforcement or reward than punishment such behavior will
persist (Adler et al. 2010)

10. Eysenck’s Conditioning Theory

Hans J. Eysenck in his theory of conditioning claims that all human personality may be seen in three
dimensions such as psychoticiam, extroversion and neuroticism. Those who score high on measures of
psychoticism are aggressive, egocentric and impulsive. Those who score high on measures of
extroversion are sensation-seeking, dominant and assertive Those who score high on measures of
neuroticism may be described as having low self-esteem, excessive anxiety and wide mood swings

11. Integrated theory

has been proposed by James O. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein. They explain predatory street crime
by showing how human nature develops from the interplay of psychological, biological, and social
factors. The main concept of this theory is the interaction of genes with the environment that some
individuals form the kind of personality likely to commit crimes According to Wilson and Herrnstein,
the factors that made the person to commit crimes are IQ, body build, genetic makeup,
impulsiveness, ability to delay gratification, aggressiveness, and even the drinking and smoking
habits of pregnant mothers.
 12. Maternal Deprivation and Attachment Theory

Maternal deprivation and attachment theory has been devised by British psychiatrist Edward John M.
Bowlby who expressed the notion that a child needs warmth and affection from his/her mother or a
mother substitute. Bowlby emphasized that the most important phenomenon to social development
takes place after the birth of any mammal and that is the construction of an emotional bond between
the infant and his mother. When a child is separated from the mother or is rejected by her, anxious
attachment results. Anxious attachment affects the capacity to be affectionate and to develop intimate
relationships with others. Habitual criminals, it is claimed, typically have an inability to form bonds of
affection (Adler et al, 2010).

LATENT TRAIT THEORY

Latent trait is defined as a stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition, such as defective
intelligence, impulsive personality, genetic abnormalities, the physical-chemical functioning of the brain
and environmental influences on brain function such as drugs, chemicals and injuries that make some
people delinquency-prone over the life course. Latent theorists such as David Rowe, Wayne Osgood and
Alan Nicewander (1990) focus on basic human behavior and drive such as attachment, aggression,
violence, impulsivity that are linked to antisocial behavior patterns. They recognized that human traits
alone do not produce criminality and that it is a combination of environmental factors such as family life,
educational attainment, economic factors, and neighborhood conditions. Physical or mental traits are,
therefore, but one part of a large pool of environmental, social, and personal factors that account for
criminality. Some people may have a predisposition toward aggression, but environmental stimuli can
either suppress or trigger antisocial acts (Siegel, 2011). One example is, when a person has an impulsive
personality. This person may somehow commit crime because he acts in an impulsive. Manner like when
he suddenly draws his gun aiming at his enemy but unfortunately he hit another person.

Latent Trait Theory in as its name suggests, means that every individual has a set of inborn traits in them
with varying degrees. For Example: Aggressiveness, control over impulses, self centeredness. So there
are individuals who are born more aggressive, with little self-control over their impulses and have very
little concern over the needs of others and such individuals have high tendencies to commit crime.

One of the traits mentioned in some articles is intelligence and that the lower the intelligence of the
individual the more likely they are to commit a crime. An individual with poor impulse control and an
inability to feel fear or see the consequences of their actions are more likely to be criminals because
when a criminal thought comes in it usually has a reward, an individual who can control their impulse
can hold back and not commit the crime, the one with weaker control will tend to give in. Even so, if
they can see the consequences of their actions and are fearful of them they will not be inclined to act, it
is only when they can’t see the consequences and the fear that they carry on with the criminal act.

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

Evolutionary theory explains the existence of aggression and violent behavior as positive adaptive
behaviors in human evolution; these traits allowed their bearers to reproduce disproportionately which
have had an effect on the human gene pool (Siegel et al, 2007). For example, if the child witnessed that
his father beats her mother by the time his father is under the influence of alcohol, then the child will
assume that it is good to beat somebody and when the time comes the child becomes a husband the
same situation will be applied to his wife.

Cheater theory is one of the theories under the evolutionary that suggests that a subpopulation of men
has evolved with genes that incline them toward extremely low parental involvement and that me are
sexually aggressive who use their cunning to gain sexual conquests with as many females as possible.
Because females would not choose them as mates, they use stealth to gain sexual access – cheating
including such tactics as mimicking the behavior of more stable males. Psychologist Byron Roth notes
that these cheater-type males may be especially attractive to younger, less intelligent women who begin
having children at a very early age. It explains male aggressiveness (Siegel et al, 2007).

R/K Selection theory is another theory under the evolutionary which holds that all organisms can be
located along a continuum based upon their reproductive drives. Those along the “R” end reproduce
rapidly whenever they can and invest little in their offspring; those along the “Kend reproduce slowly

And cautiously and take care in raising their offspring. K-oriented people are more cooperative and
sensitive to others, whereas R-oriented people are more cunning and deceptive. People who commit
crimes seem to exhibit R-selection traits, such frequent sexual activity (Siegel, 2004).

JUKES FAMILY

Advocates of the inheritance school, such as Henry Goddard, Richard Dugdale, and Arthur Estabrook,
traced several generations of crime-prone families (referred to by pseudonyms such as the “Jukes” and
the “Kallikaks”), finding evidence that criminal tendencies were based on genetics. Their conclusion.
Traits deemed socially inferior could be passed down from generation to generation through inheritance
(Siegel, 2011).

According to Richard Louis Dugdale in his book. “The Jukes”: A Study in Crime, Pauperism. Disease and
Heredity, Also Further Studies of Criminals, stated the origin of the stock of the “Jukes”, there was a
hunter, a fisher, a hard drinker, and a jolly-man named Max who was also a descendant of the Dutchess
settler. Two of Max’s sons married two out of six sisters (Jukes). The whereabouts of the sixth sister is
nowhere to be found. Of the five that are known, three had illegitimate children before marriage. One is
called “Ada Juke” but publicly known by many as “Margaret, the mother of criminals Ada Juke had one
bastard son, who is the progenitor of the distinctively criminal line; 52.40% or 84 of the descendants of
Ada are into harlotry (prostitution). Dugdale as cited in Adler (2010) found out among the thousands of
descendants that there were 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40 other

Criminals and 40% sons have venereal disease. With that, Dugdale (1841-1883) made some tentative
inductions based on his study of the Jukes family line when it comes to committing crime:

Schedule:

1. The burden of crime is found in the illegitimate lines; 2. The legitimate lines marry into a crime;

2.

3. The eldest child has a tendency to be the criminal of the family;

4. Crime chiefly follows the male line, and,

5. The longest lines of crime are along the line of the eldest.

Arthur H. Estabrook working out of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, New York gave a
picture of the Jukes in 1915, almost forty years after Dugdale. Estabrook says that they have the “same”
traits of feeblemindedness, indolence, dishonesty, and licentiousness (extravagance). He says this is
because wherever they go they tend to marry persons like themselves. When they marry into better
families they show stronger restraint (Foxe, 1945).

KALLIKAK FAMILY

Dr. Henry H. Goddard (1866-1957), a prominent American psychologist together with Elizabeth

S. Kite conducted a study entitled the “Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeblemindedness.”
Wherein they traced the family tree of revolutionary war soldier “pseudonym Martin Kallikak, Sr.” The
former had an illegitimate son named as Martin Kallikak Jr., the great-great grandfather of Deborah (an
8-year old girl who was interviewed by Goddard). Deborah gained admission at the Training School at
Vineland because she did not do weil at school and might possibly be feeble-minded. And from him:
(Martin Kallikak, Jr.) have come 480 descendants: 143 were or are feeble-minded, while only 46 have
been found normal. The rest are unknown or doubtful. Among these 480 descendants, 36 have been
illegitimate. There have been 33 sexually immoral persons, mostly prostitutes. There have been 24
confirmed alcoholics, 3 epileptics, 82 died in infancy, 3 were criminal, 8 kept houses of ill fame. These
people have married into other families, generally of about the same type, so that we now have on
record and charted eleven hundred and forty-six individuals. Of this large group, Goddard have
discovered that 262 were feeble-minded, while 197 are considered normal, the remaining 581 being still
undetermined (Goddard, 1916).

Perspectives of Crime Causation plot In the field of criminology, it is an undeniable fact that there are
multiple factors which lead the individual to commit crime. Understanding these factors is also the same
when we speak of the perspective of crime causation. This lesson will only discuss the classical,
biological process, conflict, biosocial, and psychological perspectives:

1. Classical Perspective
Classical perspective viewed crime as a product of situational forces that crime is function of
freewill and personal choice. It emphasized that the purpose of punishment is mainly to deter
the occurrence of crime. The three principles of punishment that became the trademark of
Bercaria's classical deterrence doctrine include: Swift- punishment must be swift to be effective.
According to Merriam-Webster's dictionary swift means occurring suddenly or within a very
short time. Certain - people must know they will be punished for their illegal behavior -that they
 cannot evade the strong arms of the law. That no one may take as substitute for the punishment
of the one who violated the law.
Severe Must be severe enough to outweigh the rewards of the illegal action-severity and
proportionality are sometimes at odds especially since each person is different in terms of what
constitutes a severe” punishment. It also stressed out that crime problem could be traced not to
bad people but to bad laws (Adler et. Al, 2012).

2. Biological Perspective

Biological perspective regarded crime as the product of internal forces. For example: A person who is
suffering from kleptomania According to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary kleptomania is a persistent
neurotic impulse to steal especially without economic motive. That crime is a function of chemical
neurological, genetic, personality, intelligence or mental traits The focus of the study is mainly on the
individual person itself. It may answer the question of why a person becomes a criminal..

2. Process Perspective This perspective claimed that crime is product of socialization or interaction
of one person to Another. That crime is a function of upbringing, learning and control Parents,
teachers, environment Mass media and peer groups may influence behavior. This Criminal.

3. Conflict Perspective

Conflict perspective stressed the causes of crime based on economic and political forces. Crime is a
function of competition for limited resources and power Law is a tool of the ruling class in order to
control the lower class. It is designed to protect the wealthy people. Crime is a politically defined
concept. 5. Biosocial Perspective

Biosocial perspective seeks to explain the onset of antisocial behavior such as aggression and Violence
by focusing on the physical qualities of the offenders. It concentrated mainly on the three areas Of
focus: biochemical (diet, genetic, hormones, and environmental contaminants), neurological (brain
Damage), and genetic (inheritance) (Siegel, 2007).

6. Psychological Perspective Psychological perspective expressed that criminal behavior, was the
product of “unconscious forces operating within a person’s mind. That conflicts occur at various
psychosexual stages of development might impact an individual’s ability to operate normally as
an adult. That if the aggressive mpulse is not controlled, or is repressed to an unusual degree,
some aggression can leak out of the unconscious and a person can engage in random acts of
violence (Bartol, 2002)
BIOSOCIAL THEORY This theory viewed that both thought and behavior have biological and social bases.
Biosocial theori Is

Believe that it is the interaction between predisposition and environment that produces criminality
Children bcrn into a disadvantaged environment often do not have the social and familial support they
need to overcome thir handicaps. Lack of family support can have long-term physical consequences. For
example, a child’s new al pathways may be damaged by repeated child neglect or abuse. Once
experiences are ingrained, the brain “remembers,” and a pattern of electrochemical activation is
established, which remains present acros. 1 e lifespan.

Contemporary biosocial theorists seek to explain the onset of antisocial behaviors, such as aggression
and violence, by focusing on the physical qualities of the offenders. Their research efforts appear to
concentrated in three (3) distinct areas of study: biochemical factors, neurological dysfunction, and
generic influences (Siegel et. Al, 2007).

1. Biochemical Factors

Stresses about the relationship between antisocial behavior and biochemical makeup and that bo’y
chemistry can govern behavior and personality, including levels of aggression and depression. For
examp 3, exposure to lead in the environment and subsequent lead ingestion has been linked to
antisocial behavic’s (Siegel et. Al, 2007).

Hormonal levels

Another area of biochemical research emphasizes that antisocial behavior allegedly peaks in the teena e
years because hormonal activity is at its highest level during this period. Research also suggests that
increased levels of the male androgen testosterone are responsible r

Cassive levels of violence among teenage boys. Neurological Dysfunction

Another concentration of biosocial theory is neurological, or brain and nervous system, structure of
efenders Studies measure indicators of system functioning, such as brain waves, heart rate, arousal
levels, sin conductance and attention span, cognitive ability, and spatial learning, and then compared
them to reasures of antisocial behavior. The neuroendocrine system, which controls the brain chemistry,
is the key to derstanding violence and aggression Imbalance in the central nervous system’s chemical
and hormonal Hivity has been linked to antisocial behavior and drug abuse (Siegel st. Al, 2007)
Neurotransme temical compounds that influence brain activity Research suggests that abnormal levels
of some eurotransmitters – including dopamine, serotonin, and monoamine oxidase-are related to
aggressione

Olence For example, people with a history of impulsive violence often have a reduction in the function
of the

Tarotonin system (Badaway, 2003)

2.1 Minimal Brain Dysfunction It is defined as the damage to the brain itself that causes antisocial
behavior injurious to the individual’s

Antyle and social adjustment Children who manifest behavior disturbancis may have identifiable
neurological ficits, such as damage to the hemispheres of the brain. One specific type of MBD is Learning
Disability, a term that has been defined by the National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children
Learning disability is a reurological dysfunction that prevents an individual from learning to his or her
potential (Siegel et al. 2007)

: Genetic Influences Focuses on the idea that individuals who share genes are alike in personality
regardless of how they are Arad, whereas the rearing environment induces little or no personality res
amblance. The Father of Criminology Cesare Lambroso often believed that antisocial behavior had a
genetic basis based on his theory that some Raople are “born criminals Some biosocial theorists, for
example, stated that certain violent personality traits Including psychopathy-may be inherited (Carey
and DiLalla, 1994).

3.1 Parent-Child Similarities A number of studies found out that parental criminality and deviance
do, in fact, powerfully influence relinquent behavior. Donald J. West and David P. Farrington
made a study and they found out that a significant umber of delinquent youths have criminal
fathers West and Farrington’s study has been supported by Fochester Youth Development
Study. The latter found an intergenerational continuity in anti-social behavior Criminal fathers
 produce delinquent sons who grow up to have delinquent children themselves (Siegel et al.
007).

3.2 Sibling and Twin Similarities

3.3

Biosocial theorists have compared the behavior of twins and non twin siblings and found out that the
tvins, who share more genetic material, are also more similar in their behavior. When comparing
identical ronozygotic (MZ) twins with same-sex fraternal dizygotic (DZ) twins, although the former have
an identical genetic makeup, the latter share only about 50% of their genetic combinations Reviews of
twin studies found that in all cases, MZ twins have delinquent and antisocial behavior patterns more
similar than that of DZ twins

3.3 Adoption Studies

Sarnoff Mednick and Bernard Hutchings were forced to conclude based on their study that genetics ayed
at least some role in creating delinquent tendencies. Adoptees share many of the behavioural and
tellectual of their biological parents despite the social and environmental conditions found in (Siegel

SOMATOTYPING THEORY

Somatotyping theory is a theory which associates body physique to behavior and criminality; it began
with the work of German psychiatrist, neurologist, psychopathologist, Ernst Kretschmer (1888

1964) who constituted three principal types of body physiques: 1) the asthenic-lean, slightly built,
narrow shoulders:

2) the athletic-medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones; and,

3) pyknic-medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad face (Adler et al, 2010).
Since Kretschmer was a psychiatrist, he related these body shapes to various psychiatric disorders:
pyknics to manic depression. Manic depression according to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary refers to any
of several psychological disorders of mood characterized usually by alternating

Episodes of depression and mania. It is also known as bipolar disorder. Asthenics and athletics to
schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is characterized by disturbances in thought (such
as delusions), perception (such as hallucinations), and behavior (such as disorganized speech or
catatonic behavior), by a loss of emotional responsiveness and extreme apathy, and by noticeable
deterioration in the level of functioning in everyday life. It is also called dementia praecox (Merriam
Webster’s Dictionary).

William H. Sheldon, Jr.

Kretschmer’s work was brought to the United States, William H. Sheldon, Jr. (1898-1977) an American
psychologist and physician who devised his own group of somatotypes: the endomor mesomorph and
the ectomorph. According to Sheldon, people with predominantly mesomorph traits (physically
powerful, aggressive and athictic physiques) tend more than others to be involved in illegal behavior
(Adler et al, 2010).

Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor T. Glueck

Sheldon’s findings were supported by Professor Glueck, a Roscoe Pound Professor of Law in Harvard
University and his wife, Dr. Eleanor T. Glueck, who is a Research Associate in Criminology at Harvard Law
School in their article Ten Years of Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency. This article seemed to be the basic
improvements of both Sheldon’s and Kretschmer’s categorization of body physique. The above-
mentioned article by Glueck and Glueck showed that 60.1 percent of the delinquent

Group compared to 30.7 percent of the nondelinquents are mesomorphic (with “relative predominance

Of muscle, bone and connective tissue”) and, at the other extreme, 14.4 percent of the delinquents

Compared to 39.6 percent of the controls were found to be ectomorphic (with relative predominance of
Linearity and fragility and, in proportion to their mass, with the greatest surface area and hence
relatively

The greatest sensory exposure to the outside world”). A distinguished authority in the field, who is a
trained

Anthropologist, Professor C. Wesley Dupertuis, is lavish in his praise of the work of Glueck couples

(Glueck, 1960).

Earnest A. Hooton

He examined the relationship between personality and physical type, with regards to criminal behavior.
Hooton (1887-1954) an American physical anthropologist believed in Cesare Lombroso’s theory of the
born criminal, according to which criminals could be identified based on their physical characteristics.
Through his own research surveying American criminals, Hooton tried to find evidence supporting
Lombroso’s theory, suggesting that criminals have inferior characteristics compared to people who do
not commit crimes. He classified those characteristics into sociological, psychological, physical,
morphological, and pathological areas. For example, according to Hooton criminals are less often
married and more often divorced

Criminals often have tattoos criminals have thinner beards and body hair, and their hair is more often
reddish-brown and straight

Criminals often have blue-gray or mixed colored eyes, and less often dark or blue eyes

Criminals have low sloping foreheads, high nasal bridges, and thin lips

Criminal’s ears often have rolled helix and a perceptible Darwin’s point bn nosgeb ka Tauto biju

PHINMA EDUCATION
Section:

Schedule:

He suggested that human somatotype (body shape and physique) can even determine which type a) of
crime a person will commit: tall-slender men are predisposed for murder and robbery; tall-medium
heavy men for forgery; tall-heavy men for first-degree murder, medium height-heavy for antisocialsten
behavior, short-slender for burglary and larceny; short-medium heavy for arson; while short-heavy W
men for sex offenses. Since he believed that biological predispositions determine deviant behavior,
Hooton advocated removal of criminals from society, seeing no hope in their rehabilitation W
(http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Earnest_Hooton).

WHAT IS THEORY?

According to Freda Adler, theory is a statement that explains the relationship between abstract concepts
in a meaningful way. For example, if scientists observe that criminality rates are usually high in
neighborhoods with high unemployment rates, they might theorize that environmental conditions
influence criminal behavior (Siegel, 2007).

According to APA Dictionary of Psychology (VandenBos, 2007), as cited in (L’Abate, 2011), a theory is a
principle or a body of interrelated principles that purports to explain or predict a number of interrelated
phenomena. In philosophy of science, a theory is a set of logically related explanatory hypotheses that
are consistent with a body of empirical facts and may suggest more empirical relationships.

(Moore, 1991 as cited in (http://faculty.jou.ufl.edu/theory) stated that a theory is a related set of

concepts and principles about a phenomenon. It explains how some aspect of human behavion or
performance is organized. The components of theory are concepts (ideally well-defined) and principles.
A concept is a symbolic representation of an actual thing: tree, chair, table, computer. Distance, etc.
Construct is the word for concepts with no physical referent democracy, learning. Freedom, etc. One
type of construct that is used in many scientific theories is variable.

A principle expresses the relationship between two or more concepts or constructs

Moore, 1991 as cited in (http://faculty.jou.ufl.edu/theory.html) enumerated the importance of

1. Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships between
concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to bring about change.
Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and to plan a means for altering the
situatdone
2. 2. Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support – need to explain what is being
done:

And demonstrate that it works;

Course Title: Theories of Crime Causation Student’s Activity Sheet: Module #3

Course Code: CRI 170

Class number: Date:

3. Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of knowledge with
theories from both within and without the area of distance learning. That body of knowledge
grows with theory and research. Theory guides research; and,

4. Theory also helps us understand what we don’t know and, therefore, is the only guide to
research. It increases its ability to solve other problems in different times and different places.

Theories are used by researchers as causal mechanisms to give historical explanation of cases (George,
2004). To know more about the concepts of theory please read pages 12-15 of this textbook “Theories
of Crime Causation”.
The classical school developed during the Enlightenment in response to excessive and cruel
punishments to crime. It is founded by Cesare Beccaria, in full Cesare, Marchese pronounced Marquess
Di Beccaria Bonesana, an Italian criminologist and economist (Allen, 2018) He argued for

More humanitarian forms of punishment and against physical punishment and the death penalty. He
believed that punishment should fit the crime and not be excessive

Along with Beccaria who pioneered the Classical School was Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher,
economist, and theoretical jurist, in his principle of utilitarianism in which he said, “Mankind was
governed by two sovereign motives, pain and pleasure and the principle of utility recognized this state
of affairs (Duignan, 2018). Bentham’s Hedonistic calculus/Felicity involved weighing of pleasure versus
pain. He admired Beccaria’s work and believed that freewill allowed people to make calculated and
deliberate decisions related to the pursuit of their own happiness.

A primary premise of the classical school was the fundamental equality of all people, which meant that
every person should be treated equally under the law, Criminal behavior would be subject to similar
punishment, and people had to know what categories of conduct were punishable Punishable conduct
would only be that which encroached on someone else’s freedo in violation of the social contract. No
longer would status be a factor to receiving favorable treatment or more favorable punishment. It
emphasized the principle that people have freewill to choose their behavior, those who violated the law
were motivated by personal needs such as greed, revenge, survival and hedonism Despite knowing that,
that act is wrong still he committed it, then he must be punished. It defined crime in legal terms and
within the strict limits of criminal law and focused attention on crime as a legal entity.

It further believed in the doctrine of nullum crimen sine lege, no crime without a law. The law assumes
the responsibility of the individual for his voluntary conduct. It advocated a definite penalty for each
crime. It theorized that punishment had a deterrent effect (Jeffery, 1959). Classical School’s main
principle is that. “Let the punishment fit the crime”.

2. Neo-Classical School

The neo-classicist school emerged, in large part, to remedy some of the problems the classical school.
Created by

According to Taylor, Walton and Young, contradictions in classicism presented themselves in universal
penal measures and in day-to-day practice. “It was impossible in practice to ignore the determinants of
human action and proceed as if punishment and incarceration could be easily measured on some kind of
universal calculus: apart from throwing the working of the law itself into doubt (eg. In punishing
property crime by deprivation of property) classicism appeared to contradict widely-held
commonsensical notions of human behavior.

Classicism concentrated on the criminal act and ignored individual differences between criminals. Neo-
Classicism still held that freewill is important, but that it can be constrained by physical and
environmental factors. Thus, nec-classicists introduced revisions to account for problems Presented in
classicism:

Allowing for mitigating circumstances by looking at the situation (physical and social environment) in
which the individual had been placed.

Some allowance was given for an offender’s past record. A court needs to take into account an
offender’s criminal history and life circumstances when making a decision about someone’s sentence
Consideration should be given for factors like incompetence, pathology, insanity and impulsive behavior.
Also, certain individuals, such as dren and the mentally-ill, are generally less capable of exercising their
reason. Its fundamental notion is, “Let the children and lunatic criminals be exempted from
punishment.”

Italian or Positivist School

The positivist school opposed the classical school’s understanding of crimle. All people are different, and
thus vary in their understanding of right and wrong; this needed to be a barometer lu punishment. The
person and not the crime should be punished. Positivism saw its role as the systematic elimination of
the free will metaphysics of the classic school and its replacement by a science of society, taking on for
itself the task of the eradication

Devalan Taylor Paul Walton and Jock Young wrote in “The New Criminology For a Social Theory of
Deviance. This new, deterministic movement was consolidated by Enrico Ferri, who championed tha
approach then being employed by an Italian military physician, Cesare Lombroso. The positive method
consisted of carefully observing the characteristics of criminals to gain insight into the causes of
antisocial conduct or behavior, Ferri did not endorse all of Lombroso’s conclusions such as that some
people are born criminals and that some physical features, like the shape of a person’s head or the
placement of one’s cheekbones, can predict criminal behavior. However, Ferri adopted the inductive
method and set out to create a science that would explain the causes of crime within society and the
individual offender.
The Italian or Positive School developed in the nineteenth century as an attempt to apply scientific
methods to the study of the criminal while rejecting the legal definition of crime. This was basically
made possible because of the contributions of the three (3) respective experts in the person of Cesare
Lombroso, and his two students, namely: Raffaele Garofalo and Enrico Ferri. This school based the study
of criminal behavior on scientific determinism-which explained that every act had a cause Lombroso
studied the remains of executed individuals who had been convicted of crimes and

Came up with the theory of born criminal which stated that criminals are a lower form of life, nearer to

Their apelike ancestors than non-criminal in traits and disposition

Raffaele Garofalo traced the roots of criminal behavior which is not in physical features but to their
psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomales” Garofato defined crime, not as a victation
of a law, but as a violation of nature.

Enrico Ferri argued that criminals should not be held morally responsible for their crimes, because they
did not choose to commit crimes rather, were driven to commit crimes due to economic. Social and
political factors (moral responsibility). The purpose of criminal justice was to afford maximum protection
or defense of society against the criminal.

“Positivism’s focus on the individual may have been the greatest contribution to criminology and the
criminal justice system. It led to classifications of offenders, such as habitual criminals, as well as
categories between insanity and sanity. It also led to the use of psychology in studying offenders,
opening the way for different kinds of sentences and treatments that fit the criminal and not the crime.
Italiah or Positivist School’s main notion is that “Let the punishment fit the criminal? Read further pages
25-29 of your textbook for this topic

Classical School

Pioneered by Cesare Beccaria an Italian jurist and Jeremy Bentham a British philosopher
✓ Freewill by Cesare Beccaria, which stated that man is entirely unrestricted in his ability to IN choose
between good and evil or man has the capacity to choose what is right and what is

The two primary doctrines are:

Wrong. ✓ Hedonism that was introduced by Jeremy Bentham. A philosophy where people choose

Pleasure and avoid pain.

Neo-Classical School

This school maintained that while classical doctrine was correct in general, some of its detail should be
modified to include:

Children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals; hence they are free from

3. Italian or Positivist School The founding of the Positivist School or Italian School is credited to
Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo

Emphasized on the scientific treatment of the criminal, not on the penalties.

This school promoted the Doctrine of Determinism which stated that man’s choices, decisions and
actions are decided by antecedent causes, inherited or environmental, acting upon his character.

Concepts of Theory Development

Class number
Date:

Scientists formulate theories, test theories, accept theories, rejact theories, modify theories and ise
theories as guides to understanding and predicting events. Theories are fruits of scientific research
Scientific research is a process that is designed to extend our understanding and to determine if they are
correct or useful.

As cited in (http://faculty jou.ufl.edu/theory.html), there are three stages of theory development 1)

Speculative attempts to explain what is happening. 2) Descriptive-gathers descriptive data to describe
what is really happening.

3) Constructive revises old theories and develops new ones based on continuing research.

In order to understand how theory is developed, it is better to cite the three (3) kinds of reasoning
(Thompson, 2006);

1) Inductive Reasoning: A process of using examples and observations to reach a conclusion.

Conclusion based in inductive reasoning is called conjecture. (Example):

90% of humans are right-handed. Joe is a human,

Therefore, the probability that Joe is right-handed is 90%. If you were required to guess, you would
choose “right-handed” in the absence of any other evidence.

2) Deductive Reasoning (Example):

All men are mortal. John is a man.

Therefore, John is mortal.

 3) Abductive Reasoning also known as Retroductive Reasoning (Example): You’re a juror and the
defendant looks like the image of the man on the security camera robbing the bank. He stutters
and pauses, like he is guilty, when answering questions posed by the prosecutor. You conclude,
as a juror on your first day as a member of the jury, that he is guilty, but you are not certain.
Here, you have made a decision based on your observations, but you are not certain it is the
right decision

Deductive reasoning- is criticized for the lack of clarity in terms of how to select theory to be tested via
formulating hypotheses.

Inductive reasoning – is also criticized because “no amount of empirical data will necessarily Enable
theory-building.

Abductive reasoning, as a third alternative, overcomes these weaknesses via adopting pragmatist
perspective

The biggest difference between deductive and inductive reasoning is that deductive reasoning starts
with a statement or hypothesis and then tests to see if it’s true through observation, where inductive
reasoning starts with observations and moves backward towards generalizations and theories

The critical point relating to theory construction is its purpose to predict. The main purpose of theory is
to provide the means to develop mathematical, analytical and descriptive models that predict.
Counterintuitive, non-obvious, unseen, or difficult-to-obtain outcomes. The theory is clearly derived by
some other means- it is the imagination and creative insight of the innovator by which theory is
developed. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss developed the “Grounded Theory” Approach (Glaser,
1967) to develop theory in social sciences. Grounded Theory (inspired the inductive reasoning) asserts
that theory is “discovered” as the result of systematically analysing data or data mining techniques.
Induction validates theory, it does not develop theory. It is mainly applicable for qualitative research
(Jaccard, 2014).

Hypotheses must be part of some theory structure, or they are nothing more than the opinion of the
researcher, even if that opinion is subsequently “validated. According to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary,
hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences. It is this process of hypothesis creation that has resulted in numerous “tests” of the same
subject area resulting in differing conclusions. Theory generates hypotheses, hypotheses do not create
theory nor are they themselves theory.

Developing an inductive grounded theory generally follows the following steps

Or

(http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Inductive-Theory-Construction.html):

1. Research design: Define your research questions and the main concepts and variables involved.
2. 2. Data collection: Collect data for your study using any of the various methods (field research,
interviews, surveys, etc.)

3. Data ordering: Arrange your data chronologically to facilitate easier data analysis and examination
of Processes.

4. Data analysis: Analyze your data using methods of your choosing to look for patterns, connections,
and significant findings.

4. Theory construction: Using the patterns and findings from your data analysis, develop a theory
about
5.
6. 6. Literature comparison: Compare your emerging theory with the existing literature. Are there
Conflicting frameworks, similar frameworks, etc.?

Concepts about Human Behavior According to Natalie Boyd in her article entitled Human Behavior
defined human behavior as

The term used to describe a person’s actions and conduct. It also refers to the reaction to facts of the
relationship between the individual and his environment. Human behavior is mainly influenced by bot 1
heredity and environment. According to the French Anthropologist Marcel Mauss as cited in the book of
(Alata et al, 2018) entitled Understanding the Self, every self has two (2) faces: personne and mol. Moi
refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological givenness.
Personne is composed of the social concepts of what it means to be who he is. Example, Mrs. Rea is a
police officer, she’s also a wife and a mother of two (2) kids. As a police officer she needs to maintain a
stern but calm personality in order to be respected. As a mother, she may be sweet towards her
husband and caring and loving towards her children. Mrs. Rea’s self that shifts in order to blend and fit
With the given situation is her personne but herself that is static or constant is her moi. Different
Perspectives of Human Behavior

Philosophical
Socrates believed that the best life and the life most suited to human nature involved reasoning. He also
believed that nobody willingly chooses to do wrong: Plato on the other hand, believed that human
behavion flows from three main sources: desire, emotion and knowledge. In trying to comprehend the
principle of human behavior from a philosophical perspective, let us first determine what it is to be a
person? Debatably, there are human beings that are not persons (those in a persistent vegetative state).
There might also be persons that are not human beings (the great apes and intelligent beings on other
planets). We are going to find out what is the basic condition for personhood. We can think of an
autonomous being as one who is able to determine the ‘shape’ of their life through reasoned free
choices. Examples of a different sort are prisoners. Prisoners have freedom of thought,

But not freedom of action. Hence, they are autonomous in some ways, but not in others. On the other
hand, if another human being is not acting autonomously, it might be appropriate not to treat them as a
person

-Psychological

Psychological

In psychology, people are considered as living machines who receive information from the world,
process it in various ways, and then act on it. According to a school of thought known as (behaviorism,
human behavior was all about the way a certain stimulus produced an appropriate response. Your
behavior usually starts with sensory perception: the way your five main senses (vision. Bearing, smell,
touch, and taste), plus other, lesser-known sensory abilities such as proprioception (your sense of where
your limbs are and how your body is moving), feed information into your brain Woodford, 2018).

Sociological

Functionalism as one of the schools in sociology explains that society is a system having parts which are
connected and related with each other. It is through this system that human behavior is being formed in
the process of socialization. According to psychologist Gordon Allpory social psychology is a discipline
that uses scientific methods “to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of
individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human heings”
(https://www.verywellmind.com/social-psychology). To know more about the different perspectives of
human behavior please read pages 8-11 of this textbook “Theories of Crime Causation”. Викралет
Concious

Serves as the scanner for us causing to perceive an event, trigger a reed to react, and then depending on
the importance of the event, store it e her in the unconscious or the subconscious area of the human
mind..

Subconscious

It is the storage point for any recent memories needed for quick Recall, such as what your telephone
number is or the name of a Person you just met.

Unconscious

It is where all of our memories and past experiences reside. It is from these memories and experiences
that our beliefs, habits, and Behaviors are formed.

WHAT IS SOCIAL NORM?

Lisa Roundy in her study stated that social norm is the accepted behavior that an individual is expected
to conform to in a particular group, community, or culture. When you do not conform to the social
norms that are accepted by your culture or group, it is considered an abnormal behavior. These are the
types of social norms? The terms Folkways and mores are both coined by American Sociologist William
Graham Sumner.

Mores are norms of morality.

Folkways, sometimes known as "conventions" or customs," are standards of behavior that are socially
approved but not

TYPES OF SOCIAL NORMS

Laws are a formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power of the state.

Taboo an accted t prohibited or restricted by social custom, like abortion in Philippine culture.

Each man is responsible for his own character. According to Aristotle, each person has a natural
obligation to achieve, become, and make something of himself by pursuing his true ends and goals in life
(http://www.quebecoislibre.org). Peter Singer in his article Ethics Philosophy, defined ethics also called
moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. It
derived from the old French term éthique, from Latin ethice, from Greek éthike which mean the science
of morals.

LIFE-COURSE THEORY Life Course theory otherwise known as Developmental theory suggests that
criminal behavior

Is a dynamic process, influenced by individual characteristics as well as social experiences, and that the
factors that cause anti-social behaviors change dramatically over a person’s life span. It is the product of
the collaborative efforts of Sheldon Glueck, a Polish-American Criminologist together with his wife
Eleanor Touroff-Glueck, an American social worker and criminologists. According to life-course view
even as toddlers, people begin relationships and behaviors that will determine their entire life course.
A3 children they must learn to conform to social rules and function effectively in society. Later, they are
expected to begin thinking about their careers, leave their parental homes, find permanent
relationships. And eventually marry and begin their own families. These transitions are expected to be in
place in an orderly manner. Some transitions can occur too early like when adolescents engage in
advance or precocious sex. In some way, transitions may occur too late as when a student fails to
graduate because of bad grades or too many incomplete grades.

The negative life transitions can become increasing: as kids acquire more personal deficits, the chances
of acquiring additional deficits increases. For example, a boy who experiences significant amounts of
anger in early adolescence is the one more likely to become involved in antisocial behavior as a teen and
mature into a depressed adult who abuses alcohol. It mainly emphasizes that disruption in life’s major
transitions can be destructive and ultimately can promote criminality.

On the other hand, life course theory also recognizes that as people mature, the factors that influence
their behavior change. For example, some antisocial children who are in trouble throughout their
adolescence may manage to find stable work and maintain intact marriages as adults (Siegel