Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63

6XVWDLQDEOH&LYLO(QJLQHHULQJ6WUXFWXUHVDQG&RQVWUXFWLRQ0DWHULDOV6&(6&0

6RFLHWDOEXUGHQDQGHQJLQHHULQJFKDOOHQJHVRIDJHLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUH
.ODDVYDQ%UHXJHOD 
a
Technical Univerisity Delft, Faculty of Civil Engineering & Geosciences, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands

$EVWUDFW

$JHLQJLVDQLQKHUHQWIHDWXUHRIQDWXUHDQGKHQFHRIPDWHULDOVVWUXFWXUHVDQGV\VWHPV<HWLWVHHPVDUDWKHUQHZWRSLFLQERWK
VFLHQFHDQGHQJLQHHULQJ7KHPDLQUHDVRQIRULQFUHDVLQJDWWHQWLRQIRUDJHLQJDVDWRSLFLVWKHJURZLQJDZDUHQHVVWKDWSDUWLFXODUO\
LQLQGXVWULDOL]HGFRXQWULHVDJHLQJRIRXUDVVHWVLVDILQDQFLDOEXUGHQIRUWKHVRFLHW\,WWRXFKHVRXUHQYLURQPHQWDQGDFRXQWU\¶V
HFRQRP\,WDIIHFWVWKHRYHUDOOVXVWDLQDELOLW\RIRXUSODQHWDQGGHVHUYHVWKHUHIRUHRXUXWPRVWDWWHQWLRQ,QWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQWKH
XUJHQF\DQGFKDOOHQJHVRIDJHLQJRIFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHVDUHDGGUHVVHG5HFHQWHVWLPDWHVRIWKHH[WHQWRIWKHLVVXHDQGKRZDJHLQJ
SUREOHPVDUHGHDOWZLWKLQGLIIHUHQWGLVFLSOLQHVUHDFWLYHRUSURDFWLYHDUHPHQWLRQHG7KHFRPSOH[LW\RIDJHLQJSUREOHPVZLOOEH
HYDOXDWHG E\ ORRNLQJ LQ PRUH GHWDLO WR WKH HYROXWLRQ LQ FRQFUHWH PL[ GHVLJQ DQG WKH FRQVHTXHQFHV WKHUHRI IRU WKH ORQJWHUP
SHUIRUPDQFHRIFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHV,QWKLVHYDOXDWLRQGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIGULYLQJIRUFHVFRQWULEXWLQJWRDJHLQJZLOOEHLGHQWLILHG
(PSKDVLVZLOOEHRQDJHLQJRIFRQFUHWHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGWKHQHHGRIUHVHDUFKRQDJHLQJSKHQRPHQDZLOOEHDGGUHVVHG
©‹7KH$XWKRUV3XEOLVKHGE\(OVHYLHU/WG
2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
3HHUUHYLHZXQGHUUHVSRQVLELOLW\RIWKHRUJDQL]LQJFRPPLWWHHRI6&(6&0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SCESCM 2016.
Keywords:DJHLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUHULVNVVRFLHWDOLPSDFWFRQFUHWHUHVHDUFKLQYHVWPHQW

,QIUDVWUXFWXUH±%DFNERQHRIDFRXQWU\¶VSURVSHULW\

$UFKLWHFWXUHKDVEHHQGHILQHGDVWKHartDQGscienceRIdesigningDQGconstructingEXLOGLQJVDQGRWKHUSK\VLFDO
VWUXFWXUHV IRU KXPDQ VKHOWHU RU XVH ,Q WKLV GHILQLWLRQ WKH ZRUG VKHOWHU LV PHDQW LQ WKH EURDGHVW VHQVH RI WKH WHUP
*RLQJEDFNWRDQFLHQWWLPHVSHRSOHQHHGHGVKHOWHUIRUSURWHFWLRQDJDLQVWVWRUPVUDLQDQGVQRZGLUHFWVXQVKLQHDQG
FROGZHDWKHU)RU SURWHFWLRQ DJDLQVWKRVWLOH WULEHV FLWLHVZHUHEXLOW VXUURXQGHG E\ PDVVLYH FLW\ ZDOOV '\NHVZHUH
EXLOWWRSURWHFWDJDLQVWIORRGV%HVLGHVWKHQHHGIRUVKHOWHUDQLQFUHDVLQJQHHGIRUPRELOLW\HPHUJHG)RUPRELOLW\RI
SHRSOH URDGV DQG ZDWHUZD\V ZHUH EXLOW $TXHGXFWV ZHUH EXLOW WR WUDQVSRUW ZDWHU RYHU ORQJ GLVWDQFHV :LWK WKH



&RUUHVSRQGLQJDXWKRU7HO  
E-mail address:NYDQEUHXJHO#WXGHOIWQO

1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of SCESCM 2016.
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.01.309
54 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63

LQGXVWULDO UHYROXWLRQ WKHUH ZDV DOVR DQ LQFUHDVLQJ QHHG RI HQHUJ\ DQG HQHUJ\ WUDQVSRUW UHTXLULQJ WKH GHVLJQ DQG
FRQVWUXFWLRQRIHQHUJ\VXSSO\V\VWHPV7RVDYHGHQVHO\SRSXODWHGFLWLHVIURPFDWDVWURSKLFZDWHUSROOXWLRQVHZDJH
V\VWHPVZHUHGHVLJQHGDQGLQVWDOOHG/DUJHUDLOZD\V\VWHPVZHUHEXLOWWRHQDEOHORQJGLVWDQFHWUDQVSRUWRISHRSOH
DQGJRRGVE\WUDLQ9LDEULGJHVYLDGXFWVDQGWXQQHOVRWKHUZLVHLVRODWHGWUDQVSRUWQHWZRUNVEHFDPHFRQQHFWHG$OO
WKLV LOOXVWUDWHV WKDW D PRGHUQ VRFLHW\ LV LQFRQFHLYDEOH ZLWKRXW D ZHOOGHYHORSHG SK\VLFDO LQIUDVWUXFWXUH $Q
LQIUDVWUXFWXUHZKLFKDFFRUGLQJWR/RQJ>@DFFRXQWVIRUDERXWRIWKHFRXQWU\¶VQDWLRQDOZHDOWK
:KHQSXWWLQJWKLVLQDJOREDOSHUVSHFWLYHWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUH¶VYDOXHKDVEHHQUDWHGDW¼WULOOLRQ>@7KLVLV
WKHYDOXHRIWKHexistingLQIUDVWUXFWXUHZKLFKLVFRQVLGHUHGFUXFLDOIRUWKHSURVSHULW\DQGZHOOEHLQJRIRXUVRFLHW\
,QWKLVUHVSHFW*DQQ>@DUJXHVWKDW³7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQ¶VVLJQLILFDQFHWRZHDOWKFUHDWLRQDQGTXDOLW\RIOLIHH[WHQGV
beyond LWV GLUHFW HFRQRPLF FRQWULEXWLRQ 7KH SURGXFWV FUHDWH DQ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH WKDW VXSSRUWV H[LVWLQJ DQG QHZO\
HPHUJLQJ VRFLDO DQG HFRQRPLF DFWLYLWLHV´ $QG KH FRQWLQXHV VD\LQJ ³,I LQDGHTXDWH RU LQDSSURSULDWH EXLOGLQJV DQG
VWUXFWXUHVDUHSURGXFHGRUWKH\DUHSRRUO\PDLQWDLQHGDQGDGDSWHGWKHQVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFOLIHLVFRPSURPLVHG´
,Q D UHFHQW VWXG\ RI WKH 0F.LQVH\ *OREDO ,QVWLWXWH >@ HVWLPDWHV ZHUH SXEOLVKHG RI IXWXUH LQYHVWPHQWV LQ
LQIUDVWUXFWXUH ZRUOGZLGH QHHGHG WR HQVXUH HFRQRPLF VWDELOLW\ DQG JURZWK ,Q RUGHU WR FDWFK XS ZLWK WKH
SURJQRVWLFDWHG HFRQRPLF JURZWK DQ LQYHVWPHQW RI PRUH WKDQ ¼  WULOOLRQ ZDV FRQVLGHUHG QHFHVVDU\ LQ WKH SHULRG
 7KLV ILJXUH LQFOXGHG WKH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH IRU WUDQVSRUW URDGV SRUWV UDLO DLUSRUWV  ZDWHU
WHOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQVDQGSRZHUSODQWV7KLVDPRXQWZDVEDVHGRQDQHYDOXDWLRQRIPRQH\VSHQWRQLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLQ
 FRXQWULHV DFFRXQWLQJ IRU PRUH WKDQ  RI WKH JOREDO JURVV GRPHVWLF SURGXFW *'3  7DEOH  JLYHV WKH
EUHDNGRZQRILQYHVWPHQWVRYHUGLIIHUHQWFDWHJRULHV

7DEOH(VWLPDWHGQHHGVIRUJOREDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLQGLIIHUHQWFDWHJRULHVLQWKHSHULRG>@
&DWHJRU\ 5HIHUHQFH 5HTXLUHGLQYHVWPHQW
î¼
5RDGV 2(&' 
5DLO 2(&' 
3RUWV 2(&' 
$LUSRUWV 2(&' 
3RZHU ,($ 
:DWHU *:, 
7HOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQ 2(&' 
7RWDO  
 2UJDQL]DWLRQIRU(FRQRPLF&RRSHUDWLRQDQG'HYHORSPHQW
 ,QWHUQDWLRQDO(QHUJ\$JHQF\
 *OREDO:DWHU,QWHOOLJHQFH
   &RQYHUVLRQUDWH86 ¼

7KHUH LV QR GRXEW HFRQRPLF VWDELOLW\ DQG JURZWK DUH XQFRQFHLYDEOH ZLWKRXW DQ DSSURSULDWH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH
:LWKRXWWKLVLQIUDVWUXFWXUHWKHHFRQRP\ZRXOGFRPHWRDFRPSOHWHVWRS7KHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHKRZHYHULVVXEMHFWWR
ageing 2XU DVVHWV ± URDGV UDLOZD\V HQHUJ\ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH HWF  DUH VWLOO LQ XVH EXW PDQ\ RI WKHP EH\RQG WKHLU
LQLWLDOO\SUHVXPHGOLIHWLPH7KHDJHLQJSURFHVVWRZKLFKRXUDVVHWVDUHVXEMHFWHGLVQRWDPDWWHURIEDGOXFNRUSRRU
ZRUNPDQVKLS ,Q HVVHQFH LW LV D QDWXUDO ODZ ,I DJHLQJ DQG LWV SRWHQWLDO LPSDFW RQ WKH TXDOLW\ RI D FRXQWU\¶V
LQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVQRWZHOOGLDJQRVHGWKLVPD\OHDGWRDVLWXDWLRQRIXQFHUWDLQW\RUHYHQVRFLHWDOLQVWDELOLW\,WLVIRU
WKLVUHDVRQWKDWVWDNHKROGHUVZDQWWRLQFUHDVHWKHLUNQRZOHGJHDQGSHUFHSWLRQRIDJHLQJSKHQRPHQD2ZQHUVZDQWWR
NQRZKRZORQJLWZLOOWDNHEHIRUHRQJRLQJDJHLQJSURFHVVHVUHTXLUHLQWHUYHQWLRQRUUHVXOWLQGDPDJHRUHYHQIDWDO
IDLOXUH)RUWKLVSXUSRVHUHOLDEOHSUHGLFWLYHWRROVDUHQHHGHGWRIRUHFDVWWKHUDWHDQGLPSDFWRIDJHLQJSURFHVVHV
 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63 55

$JHLQJDVDJHQHUDOSKHQRPHQRQ

2.1. The omnipresence of ageing

$JHLQJ LV HYHU\ZKHUH DURXQG XV >@ +XJH PRXQWDLQV VHHP WR NHHS WKHLU VKDSH EXW IURP D FORVHU ORRN DW WKH
VXUIDFHRIURFNVZHOHDUQWKDWWKLVVXUIDFHJUDGXDOO\FKDQJHV6QRZUDLQIURVWOLJKWZHDUZLQGDQGVXQVKLQHDUH
SRZHUIXOHQRXJKWRFUXPEOHWKHVWURQJHVWURFN0RXQWDLQVDJH/LNHPRXQWDLQVDOVRPDQPDGHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHZRUNV
DUHH[SRVHGWRFOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVDQGFKDQJHWKHLUSHUIRUPDQFHEHLWLQDYHU\VORZSURFHVVRIDJHLQJ$VLQGLFDWHG
LQWKHIRUHJRLQJWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGLQGXVWULDOIDFLOLWLHVFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVWKHµSK\VLFDOKDUGZDUH¶RIDPRGHUQ
VRFLHW\ $OO WKLV KDUGZDUH LV DJHLQJ 6RPHWLPHV IRU EHWWHU EXW JHQHUDOO\ IRU ZRUVH $JHLQJ LV HYHU\ZKHUH 7KH
XELTXLWRXVQHVVRIDJHLQJLVDQLQKHUHQWIHDWXUHRIPDWHULDOVVWUXFWXUHVDQGV\VWHPVHLWKHUQDWXUDORUPDQPDGH

2.2. Driving forces

,QJHQHUDOWHUPVDJHLQJLVGHILQHGDVDFKDQJHRISHUIRUPDQFHZLWKHODSVHRIWLPH,WLVQRWLPPHGLDWHO\FOHDU
KRZHYHU KRZ WLPH per se FDQ UHVXOW LQ D FKDQJH RI SHUIRUPDQFH +RZ FDQ D PDWHULDO µDW UHVW¶ FKDQJH LWV
SHUIRUPDQFH")RUDQDQVZHUWRWKLVTXHVWLRQLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRUHDOL]HWKDWWLPHLVQRWDµORDGLQJ¶WRZKLFKDPDWHULDO
LVH[SRVHGEXWWKHdomainLQZKLFKZHGHVFULEHFKDQJHVLQSHUIRUPDQFH7LPHas suchLVQRWWKHcauseRIWKHVH
FKDQJHV%XWLIWLPHas suchLVQRWWKHFDXVHRIFKDQJHVZKDWLVWKHQWKHFDXVHRIFKDQJHVRIDPDWHULDOVWUXFWXUH
RUV\VWHPWKDWLVDWWKHPDFURVFDOHLQDVWDWXVRIµUHVW¶"
$FORVHUORRNDWDQ\SLHFHRIPDWWHUWHOOVXVWKDWWKHVWDWXVRIUHVWRQO\DSSOLHVWRDFHUWDLQOHYHORIREVHUYDWLRQ
*RLQJ GRZQ WR WKH DWRPLF VFDOH WKHUH LV PRWLRQ DOO WKH WLPH $Q\ FKDQJH RI SRVLWLRQ RI DWRPV RU basic building
blocks WDNHV SODFH LQ WKH WLPH GRPDLQ DQG LV FRQVLGHUHG WKH RULJLQ RI DJHLQJ RI PDWHULDOV +HQFH DJHLQJ LV DQ
inherentfeatureRIPDWHULDOV
2Q WRS RI WKLV LQKHUHQW IHDWXUH RI PDWWHU ZH VHH DW D OLWWOH ODUJHU VFDOH D YDULHW\ RI gradients ZKLFK SURPRWH
EDVLFEXLOGLQJEORFNVRIPDWWHUWRVWDUWPRYLQJ7KHVHJUDGLHQWVFRQFHUQIRUH[DPSOHWHPSHUDWXUHKXPLGLW\DQG
UDGLDWLRQ DQG WKH\ PD\ FDXVH FKDQJHV DW WKH VXUIDFH RI WKH PDWHULDO ,Q KHWHURJHQHRXV PDWHULDOV ± DQG EHORZ D
FHUWDLQVFDOHDOOPDWHULDOVDUHKHWHURJHQHRXV±QXPHURXVLQWHUIDFHVH[LVW$OOWKHVHLQWHUIDFHVDUHSUHIHUUHGORFDWLRQV
IRU WKH RFFXUUHQFH RI D YDULHW\ RI JUDGLHQWV ,QWHUIDFHV DOVR RIIHU VLWHV IRU FKHPLFDO DQG HOHFWURFKHPLFDO DFWLYLW\
UHVXOWLQJLQFKDQJHVRIWKHPLFURVWUXFWXUHZLWKHODSVHRIWLPH
3RURXV PDWHULDOV FRQWLQXRXVO\ FRPPXQLFDWH ZLWK WKHLU HQYLURQPHQW DQG QHYHU UHDFK D PRPHQW RI µUHVW¶ 7KLV
RQJRLQJ FRPPXQLFDWLRQ RI WKHVH PDWHULDOV RU EHWWHU V\VWHPV LQGXFHV DOWHUQDWLQJ VWUHVV DQG VWUDLQ ILHOGV LQ WKH
V\VWHPJUDGXDOO\DIIHFWLQJWKHPLFURDQGQDQRVWUXFWXUHRIDPDWHULDODQGKHQFHLWVSHUIRUPDQFH
7KHIRUHJRLQJVXUYH\LOOXVWUDWHVWKDWDVWDWXVRIµUHVW¶LVKDUGO\FRQFHLYDEOH$WVPDOOHUVFDOHWKHUHLVPRWLRQDOO
WKH WLPH *UDGLHQWV LQ WHPSHUDWXUH DQG VWUHVV SURPRWH EDVLF EXLOGLQJ EORFNV WR FKDQJH WKHLU SRVLWLRQ UHVXOWLQJ LQ
LQILQLWHVLPDOO\ VPDOO FKDQJHV LH DJHLQJ ,Q IDFW EDVLF HQWURS\ ODZV µH[SODLQ¶ ZK\ WKH EDVLF EXLOGLQJ EORFNV RI
PDWHULDOVZDQWWKHFKDQJHSRVLWLRQDQGKHQFHFDXVHDJHLQJ7KLVSHUFHSWLRQRIDJHLQJPD\HQDEOHXVWRXQGHUVWDQG
DJHLQJSKHQRPHQDDQGWRGHYHORSVWUDWHJLHVIRUPLWLJDWLQJWKHLPSDFWRIDJHLQJ

$JHLQJDVVHWV

3.1. Ageing infrastructure

,QWKH,QWURGXFWLRQLWKDVEHHQPHQWLRQHGWKDWWKHYDOXHRIWKHZRUOGVLQIUDVWUXFWXUHKDVEHHQHVWLPDWHGDW¼
WULOOLRQ:KHQZLWKHODSVHRIWLPHDJHLQJFDXVHVDORVVRISHUIRUPDQFHRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHEXLOGLQJVHQRUPRXVDPRXQW
RI PRQH\ DUH LQYROYHG 5HSRUWV IURP WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH HIIHFW RI DJHLQJ RQ WKH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH
SHUIRUPDQFHKDVEHHQGUDPDWLFDOO\XQGHUHVWLPDWHG+RII>@UHIHUVWRDUHSRUWRIWKH1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK&RXQFLO
RIWKH86$LQZKLFKLWZDVLQGLFDWHGWKDWWRWULOOLRQDUHQHHGHGRYHUWKHQH[W\HDUVWRUHSDLUDOOWKHFRQFUHWH
VWUXFWXUHVLQWKH86$WKDWZHUHVXIIHULQJIURPFRUURVLRQRUSRRUO\EXLOWDQGPDLQWDLQHG)RUUHSDLUDQGXSJUDGLQJRI
EULGJHVLQWKH86$DEXGJHWKDVEHHQHVWLPDWHGRI86>@,QKLVWKRURXJKVXUYH\RIWKHVWDWHRI
56 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63

86LQIUDVWUXFWXUH/DQJH>@TXRWHGWKH$6&(,QIUDVWUXFWXUH5HSRUW&DUG>@ZKLFKHVWLPDWHVDUHTXLUHGLQYHVWPHQW
E\  RI   WULOOLRQ IRU UHSDLU DQG PDLQWHQDQFH RI LQIUDVWUXFWXUH 7KLV LQYHVWPHQW ZDV FRQVLGHUHG D PXVW IRU
HQVXULQJWKHYLWDOLW\RIWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDVEDVLVIRUWKH86HFRQRP\EXWDOVRIRUDFFRPSOLVKLQJQHZVXVWDLQDELOLW\
JRDOV $JHLQJ ZDV PHQWLRQHG DV D SURPLQHQW LVVXH WKLV UHVSHFW /DQJH >@ ³$JHLQJ LV UHOHYDQW WR VXVWDLQDELOLW\
EHFDXVH ORQJ VHUYLFH OLIH LV WKH EHVW ZD\ WR PDNH FRQFUHWH FRQVWUXFWLRQ PRUH VXVWDLQDEOH $JHLQJ KDV PDQ\
DWWULEXWHVEXVPDWHULDOVGXUDELOLW\LVDPRQJWKHPRVWWKUHDWHQLQJ´
$VXEVWDQWLDOSDUWRIWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVWRFNKDVEHHQEXLOWEHWZHHQWKHILIWLHVDQGHLJKWLHVRIWKHSDVWFHQWXU\
7KH SUHVXPHG DYHUDJH VHUYLFH OLIH RI LQIUDVWUXFWXUH EXLOGLQJV LV  WR  \HDUV 7KLV PHDQV WKDW LQ WKH FRPLQJ
GHFDGHV WKHVH VWUXFWXUHV UHDFK WKH HQG RI WKHLU OLIHWLPH DQG D SHULRG RI UHQHZDO LV HPLQHQW 6FKHPDWLFDOO\ WKLV LV
VKRZQ LQ)LJ1RWH WKDW LQ WKLV ILJXUHRQO\ WKH SURJQRVWLFDWHG FRVW IRU UHSODFHPHQW RIREVROHWH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH LV
FRQVLGHUHG&RVWVIRUPDLQWHQDQFHDQGUHSDLURIWKHVWUXFWXUHVLVQRWLQYROYHGEXWDUHKXJH$FFRUGLQJWRWKH2IILFH
IRU1DWLRQDO6WDWLVWLFVRIWKH8.RIDOOWKHPRQH\VSHQWLQWKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\LVVSHQWRQQHZEXLOWDQG
LVVSHQWRQUHSDLUDQGPDLQWHQDQFH>@


)LJXUH6WDJHVLQWKHOLIHWLPHRIEXLOGLQJV(QGRIWKHOLIHWLPHRIPDQ\VWUXFWXUHVLVHPLQHQW>@

,WKDVWREHPHQWLRQHGWKDWDQDVVXPHGVHUYLFHOLIHRIWR\HDUVDSSOLHVWRVWUXFWXUHVEXLOWDFFRUGLQJWRDW
WKDWWLPHPRGHUQVWDQGDUGVDQGSUHVXSSRVHVJRRGZRUNPDQVKLSDQGKHQFHJRRGTXDOLW\VWUXFWXUHV,QXSFRPLQJ
HFRQRPLHVWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGWKHHVWLPDWHGVHUYLFHOLIHRIVWUXFWXUHVFDQVXEVWDQWLDOO\GLIIHUIURP
WKHDERYHPHQWLRQHGILJXUHV7KHDYHUDJHVHUYLFHOLIHRIFLYLOEXLOGLQJVLQ&KLQDKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGWREH\HDUV
DQG RI PDULQH SRUWV  \HDUV >@ 7KLV LV PXFK VKRUWHU WKDQ WKH DERYH PHQWLRQHG  WR  \HDU VHUYLFH OLIH
UHTXLUHGIRUPDQ\ODUJHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHSURMHFWVLQ(XURSHDQGIXUWKHUHPSKDVL]HVWKHQHHGRIVHULRXVFRQVLGHUDWLRQRI
DJHLQJSKHQRPHQD

3.2. Ageing plants

$QRWKHUFDWHJRU\RILQIUDVWUXFWXUHZKHUHDJHLQJLVDPDMRULVVXHLVWKDWRIODUJH SHWUR FKHPLFDODQGSRZHUSODQWV

$EULHIVXPPDU\RIGDWDIDFWVDQGFRQFHSWVLVJLYHQEHORZ

3.2.1. Chemical plants

&KHPLFDO SODQWV DQG UHILQHULHV DUH YLWDO IRU SURGXFWLRQ RI D YDULHW\ RI SURGXFWV 7KH VL]H DQG FRPSOH[LW\ RI
FKHPLFDOSODQWVPDNHWKHPYXOQHUDEOHIRUDFFLGHQWV&KHPLFDOSODQWVKDYHJRWWKHLUSUHVHQWVL]HWKURXJKDSURFHVVRI
JUDGXDO H[SDQVLRQ 6XEVHTXHQW H[WHQVLRQV RI SODQWV ZHUH GHVLJQHG DFFRUGLQJ WR GLIIHUHQW FRGHV DQG EXLOW ZLWK
GLIIHUHQW PDWHULDOV ZKLOH XVLQJ GLIIHUHQW EXLOGLQJ WHFKQRORJLHV :KHUHDV WKH W\SLFDO OLIH F\FOH RI D SODQW KDV EHHQ
HVWLPDWHGDW\HDUVWKHµHIIHFWLYH¶DJHRIODUJHSODQWVLVKLJKO\KHWHURJHQHRXVZLWKUHVSHFWWRERWKLWVUHDODJHDQG
LWVIXQFWLRQDODJH%HFDXVHRIWKLVKHWHURJHQHLW\LWLVQRWHDV\WRMXGJHWKHDFWXDOVWDWHRIDJHLQJRIWKHVHSODQWV
 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63 57

5HVHDUFK5HSRUW55³3ODQWDJHLQJVWXG\´RIWKH+HDOWKDQG6DIHW\([HFXWLYH>@JLYHVDQRYHUYLHZRIDJHLQJ
LVVXHVLQFKHPLFDOSODQWV7KHUHSRUWJLYHVGHILQLWLRQVRIDJHLQJDQGGLVFXVVHVWKHLPSDFWRIDJHLQJRQSODQWVDIHW\
%DVHGRQWKUHHSULQFLSDOGDWDEDVHVRIWKUHHLQFLGHQWVUHSRUWVLH5,''25>@0$56>@DQG0+,'$6>@WKH
UHOHYDQFHRIDJHLQJZDVLOOXVWUDWHG7KH0$56VWXG\VKRZHGWKDWDSSUR[LPDWHO\RILQFLGHQWVFRXOGEHUHODWHG
WRWHFKQLFDOLQWHJULW\DQGRIWKRVHKDYHDJHLQJDVDFRQWULEXWRU\IDFWRU+HQFHDJHLQJLVDFRQWULEXWRU\IDFWRU
LQ  RI WKH LQFLGHQWV 7KH SHUFHQWDJH RI LQFLGHQWV ZLWK DJHLQJ DV D FRQWULEXWRU\ IDFWRU LV FRQVLGHUHG OLNHO\ WR
LQFUHDVH ZLWK WLPH DV DVVHWV DJH $JHLQJ PD\ DIIHFW WKH LQVWDOODWLRQV SLSLQJ DQG FRQWDLQPHQWV DV ZHOO DV WKH
(OHFWULFDO&RQWURODQG,QVWUXPHQWDWLRQ (& , HTXLSPHQW)LJXUHVKRZVWKHUHVXOWVRIWKH0$56LQFLGHQWVZLWK
DJHLQJDVWKHFDXVHRIIDLOXUH

)LJXUH3URSRUWLRQRILQFLGHQWVRQFKHPLFDOSODQWVZLWKDJHLQJDVWKHFDXVH $IWHU>@0$56VWXG\ 

(& ,(OHFWULFDO&RQWURO ,QVWUXPHQWDWLRQHTXLSPHQW 

3.2.2. Nuclear Power Plants

0D\EH PRUH WKDQ LQ DQ\ RWKHU LQGXVWULDO VHFWRU DJHLQJ LV D NH\LVVXH LQ WKH QXFOHDU LQGXVWU\ ,Q WKH V WKH
,QWHUQDWLRQDO $WRPLF (QHUJ\ $JHQF\ ,$($  >@ VWDUWHG SXEOLVKLQJ D FRPSUHKHQVLYH VHW RI UHSRUWV RQ DJHLQJ
PDQDJHPHQW7KHXUJHQF\IRUGRLQJWKLVZDVWKHIDFWWKDWWKHPDMRULW\RIH[LVWLQJQXFOHDUSRZHUSODQWVKDGUHDFKHG
DQ DJH RI  \HDUV 7KHVH SODQWV ZHUH WKHQ ROG HQRXJK WR GLVFRYHU QHZ DJHLQJ SKHQRPHQD WKDW KDG VORZO\
GHYHORSHGRYHUWKHSUHFHGLQJGHFDGHV0RUHRYHUQHZDJHLQJSKHQRPHQDZHUHHPHUJLQJDVDUHVXOWRIPRUHVHYHUH
VHUYLFH FRQGLWLRQV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK LQFUHDVHG SODQW SHUIRUPDQFH HJ WKURXJK LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI WKH ORQJWHUP
RSHUDWLQJH[SHULHQFHREWDLQHGDQGRUWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIQHZWHFKQRORJLHV
(YHQWKRXJKSUHGLFWLRQVRIWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIIDLOXUHRIFRPSRQHQWVRIDQXFOHDUSRZHUSODQWVYDU\DQGFDQEH
FRQWUDGLFWRU\WKHUHLVQRGRXEWWKDWPDMRUDFFLGHQWVVKRXOGEHSUHYHQWHGDWµDOO¶FRVWV)RUWKDWUHDVRQHPSKDVLVLQ
WKLV VHFWRU LV RQ proactive PDQDJHPHQW RI DJHLQJ 7KLV LQ FRQWUDVW ZLWK D µUXQ WR IDLOXUH¶ VWUDWHJ\ ZKHUHE\
FRPSRQHQWVDUHUHSODFHGRQFHWKH\IDLO7KHSULPDU\DLPRISURDFWLYHDJHLQJPDQDJHPHQWSURJUDPVLVWRHQVXUHWKH
DYDLODELOLW\RIVDIHW\IXQFWLRQVWKURXJKRXWWKHVHUYLFHOLIHRIWKHSODQW0RUHRYHUHIIHFWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIDJHLQJLV
DOVR HVVHQWLDO IRU DFKLHYLQJ WKH GHVLUHG SODQW SHUIRUPDQFH DQG SURILWDELOLW\ RI WKH SODQW ZKLFK LV LQ WKH HQG RI
LPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHVRFLHW\DVDZKROH
7KHDLPRIPDWHULDOVDJHLQJPDQDJHPHQWRIVWUXFWXUHVV\VWHPVDQGFRPSRQHQWVLVWRPDLQWDLQWKHGHVLJQVDIHW\
PDUJLQV DERYH WKH VSHFLILHG UHTXLUHPHQWV %DVHG RQ H[SHULHQFH LW LV NQRZQ WKDW PDQ\ IDLOXUHV DUH WKH UHVXOW RI
DJHLQJ PHFKDQLVPV VXFK DV JHQHUDO DQG ORFDO FRUURVLRQ HURVLRQFRUURVLRQ SKHQRPHQD UDGLDWLRQ WKHUPDO
HPEULWWOHPHQWIDWLJXHFUHHSYLEUDWLRQDQGZHDU>@7RHQVXUHDKLJKOHYHORISODQWVDIHW\LWLVUHFRPPHQGHGWR
PDQDJHDJHLQJHIIHFWLYHO\DQGSURDFWLYHO\(IIHFWLYHSURDFWLYHDJHLQJPDQDJHPHQWSUHVXSSRVHVWKDWZHNQRZKRZ
IDUZHDFWXDOO\VWD\DZD\IURPWKHPRPHQWDPDWHULDOVWUXFWXUDOFRPSRQHQWRUV\VWHPZLOOIDLO7KLVRQLWVWXUQ
SUHVXSSRVHVWKDWZHKDYHSUHGLFWLYHPRGHOVIRUWKHUHOHYDQWDJHLQJPHFKDQLVPVDQGWKDWZHDUHDEOHWRPRQLWRUWKH
SURJUHVVRIGHJUDGDWLRQZLWKWLPHDFFXUDWHO\DQGUHOLDEO\>@,QWKLVUHVSHFWWKHHIIHFWRIUDGLDWLRQRQWKHORQJWHUP
SURSHUWLHV RI PDWHULDOV LV D VHULRXV SRLQW RI FRQFHUQ *DPPD UDGLDWLRQ GRHV DIIHFW WKH PLFURVWUXFWXUH RI FHPHQW
58 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63

SDVWH,QWKHODWHILIWLHVLWKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGDOUHDG\WKDWWKHFRPSUHVVLYHVWUHQJWKRIWKHSULPDU\UHDFWRUVKLHOGLQWKH
2DN 5LGJH 1DWLRQDO /DERUDWRU\*UDSKLWH 5HDFWRU ZDV GHFUHDVHG ZLWKLQ WKH ILUVW OD\HUV LH ZLWKLQ RQH IRRW RI
RUGLQDU\ FRQFUHWH GXH WR UDGLDWLRQ >@ 6LQFH WKHQ D QHJDWLYH HIIHFW RI UDGLDWLRQ RQ WKH FRPSUHVVLYH VWUHQJWK RI
FRQFUHWHKDVEHHQFRQILUPHGVHYHUDOWLPHV VHHIRUH[DPSOH%DV\LJLWHWDO>@
1RWRQO\WKHFHPHQWSDVWHEXWDOVRWKHDJJUHJDWHPD\VXIIHUIURPUDGLDWLRQ$FFRUGLQJWR:LOOLDPHWDO>@WKH
UHDFWLYLW\RIVLOLFDULFKTXDUW]WRDONDOLFDQLQFUHDVHVLJQLILFDQWO\E\H[SRVXUHWRQXFOHDUUDGLDWLRQWKXVLQFUHDVLQJ
WKHULVNRIDONDOLVLOLFDUHDFWLRQLQFRQFUHWHFRQWDLQLQJDJJUHJDWHVWKDWDUHRWKHUZLVHNQRZQDVW\SLFDOO\QRQUHDFWLYH
$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH ,$($ UHSRUW 1U  >@ UDGLDWLRQ HPEULWWOHPHQW WKDW OHDGV WR FKDQJHV LQ EXON PDWHULDO
SURSHUWLHVKDVEHHQVXFFHVVIXOO\PRGHOOHGDOUHDG\7KHSUHGLFWDELOLW\KRZHYHURIFRUURVLRQZHDUDQGKLJKF\FOH
IDWLJXH KRZHYHU ZKLFK SURGXFH FKDQJHV DW PDWHULDO VXUIDFHV DQG LQWHUIDFHV ZDV FRQVLGHUHG UHODWLYHO\ ORZ 7KH
UHVXOWLQJ XQFHUWDLQW\ DERXW WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI YLWDO SODQW FRPSRQHQWV KDV FDXVHG VLJQLILFDQW QXFOHDU SRZHU SODQW
XQDYDLODELOLW\DQGLQFUHDVHGFRVWVIRURSHUDWLRQDQGPDLQWHQDQFH
,PSRUWDQWWRPHQWLRQLVWKDWRSHUDWLQJH[SHULHQFHLQWKHQXFOHDULQGXVWU\KDVUHYHDOHGGHJUDGDWLRQDQGIDLOXUHV
FDXVHGE\SUHYLRXVO\XQUHFRJQL]HGDJHLQJPHFKDQLVPV+HQFHWKH,$($VWDWHGWKDWLQDGGLWLRQWRLPSURYLQJWKH
XQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGSUHGLFWDELOLW\RINQRZQDJHLQJPHFKDQLVPVWKHUHLVDQHHGWRGHYHORSWHFKQRORJ\DQGWHFKQLTXHV
IRUHDUO\GHWHFWLRQRIQHZDJHLQJPHFKDQLVPV6HQVLWLYHDQGUHOLDEOHPRQLWRULQJDQGFRQWUROGHYLFHVDUHQHHGHGDQG
WKRURXJKXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIUXQQLQJSURFHVVHVLQDSODQW3DUWLFXODUO\SHUIRUPDQFHRIPDWHULDOVXQGHUFRXSOHGORDGV
UHTXLUHV PRUH UHVHDUFK >@ ,QGHSWK PRQRVFDOH DQG PXOWLVFDOH PRGHOV DUH DPRQJ WKH SURPLVLQJ VWUDWHJLHV WR
DGGUHVVWKHVHFRPSOH[SUREOHPV>@

6WUDWHJLHVWRPLWLJDWHWKHLPSDFWRIDJHLQJ

,IDJHLQJLVDQDOOSUHVHQWDQGSUDFWLFDOO\XQDYRLGDEOHSKHQRPHQRQIURPZKLFKPDWHULDOVVWUXFWXUHVDQGV\VWHPV
DOZD\V VXIIHU WKH TXHVWLRQ ULVHV KRZ WKH UDWH RI DJHLQJ FDQ EH FRQWUROOHG DQG UHGXFHG )RU DQ DQVZHU WR WKDW
TXHVWLRQ ZH KDYH WR JR EDFN WR WKH GULYLQJ IRUFHV RI DJHLQJ DJDLQ ,QWHUQDO LQWHUIDFHV VWUHVV FRQFHQWUDWLRQV DQG
GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI JUDGLHQWV ZHUH PHQWLRQHG LQ WKLV UHVSHFW +DYLQJ WKLV LQ PLQG D IHZ EDVLF DSSURDFKHV FDQ EH
GLVWLQJXLVKHG IRU GHFUHDVLQJ WKH SURQHQHVV WR DJHLQJ YL]   0DWHULDOV GHVLJQ   $GDSWLYH DSSURDFK DQG  
6\PELRVLV>@

4.1. Materials design

6LQFH DJHLQJ LV DQ LQKHUHQW IHDWXUH RI PDWHULDOV VROXWLRQV IRU DJHLQJ UHTXLUH LQWHUYHQWLRQV DW IXQGDPHQWDO
PDWHULDOVOHYHO.QRZLQJWKLVVROXWLRQVIRUDJHLQJSUREOHPVFDQEHVRXJKWLQGLIIHUHQWGLUHFWLRQV$WWKHPDWHULDOV
OHYHOEDVLFDOO\WZRDSSURDFKHVDUHFRQFHLYDEOHLHWKHSUHYHQWLYHDSSURDFKDQGWKHUHDFWLYHDSSURDFK

a. Materials design - preventive approach

+HWHURJHQHRXVPDWHULDOVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\PDQ\LQWHUQDOLQWHUIDFHVDQGVWUHVVDQGVWUDLQFRQFHQWUDWLRQVDUHSURQH
WRPLQRUGDPDJHLHPLFURFUDFNLQJ.QRZLQJWKLVGHVLJQLQJPDWHULDOVZLWKOHVVLQWHUQDOKHWHURJHQHLW\DQGKHQFH
OHVVLQWHUQDOLQWHUIDFHVDQGOHVVFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIVWUHVVDQGVWUDLQZLOO\LHOGPDWHULDOVWKDWDUHOHVVSURQHWRDJHLQJ
$ PRUH KRPRJHQRXV PDWHULDO KRZHYHU PD\ DOVR H[KLELW D KLJKHU EULWWOHQHVV +RZ D PDWHULDO SHUIRUPV LQ D
VWUXFWXUHWKHUHIRUHGHSHQGVRQWKHW\SHRIORDGLQJDQGORDGFRPELQDWLRQVWRZKLFKWKHVWUXFWXUHLVH[SRVHG7KH
SULFHRIDGYDQFHGPDWHULDOVZLWKDUHGXFHGSURQHQHVVWRDJHLQJZLOOJHQHUDOO\H[FHHGWKDWRIWUDGLWLRQDOPDWHULDOV
0DLQWHQDQFH DQG UHSDLU FRVWV KRZHYHU ZLOO EH ORZHU 6FKHPDWLFDOO\ WKLV LV VKRZQ LQ )LJ D ZKHUH WKH
SHUIRUPDQFHZLWKHODSVHRIWLPHRIWZRV\VWHPVLVSUHVHQWHG>@6\VWHP$LVPDGHRIDWUDGLWLRQDOPDWHULDODQG
V\VWHP%RIDORZDJHLQJPDWHULDO)LJFVKRZVWKHHYROXWLRQRIWKHFRVWVRIWKRVHV\VWHPVZLWKWLPH7DNLQJERWK
WKHLQLWLDOFRVWVDQGWKHFRVWVIRUUHSDLUDQGPDLQWHQDQFHRIWKHWZRV\VWHPVLQWRDFFRXQWWKHWRWDOOLIHF\FOHFRVWVRI
V\VWHP%ZLOOEHORZHUWKDQRIWKHLQLWLDOO\FKDSWHUV\VWHP$,QRWKHUZRUGV6SHQGLQJPRUHPRQH\LQLWLDOO\WR
HQVXUHDKLJKHUTXDOLW\SD\VRII>@
 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63 59

b. Materials design - reactive approach

6LQFH PDWHULDOV DOZD\V H[KLELW VRPH VRUW RI KHWHURJHQHLW\ DQG KHQFH RI LQWHUQDO FRQFHQWUDWLRQV RI VWUHVV DQG
VWUDLQVWKHRFFXUUHQFHRILQWHUQDOGDPDJHFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDVDQXQDYRLGDEOHIDFW,QWKDWFDVHGHVLJQLQJIRUself-
healing PLJKW EH D VROXWLRQV IRU DJHLQJ SUREOHPV 'DPDJH LV WKHQ VHHQ DV WKH trigger IRU VWDUWLQJ D VHOIKHDOLQJ
SURFHVV WKDW KHDOV WKH GDPDJHG ]RQH ,Q WKLV ZD\ WKH OLIHWLPH RI WKH PDWHULDO FDQ EH H[WHQGHG )LJXUH E
VFKHPDWLFDOO\VKRZVWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIDVWUXFWXUHPDGHZLWKVHOIUHSDLULQJPDWHULDO>@2QWKHRFFXUUHQFHRI
D VPDOO FUDFN RU WKH VWDUW RI DQ\ SK\VLFDO RU FKHPLFDO GHJUDGDWLRQ SURFHVV WKH PDWHULDO JUDGXDOO\ VWDUWV WR UHSDLU
LWVHOIDQGWKHVWUXFWXUHZLOOUHJDLQLWVRULJLQDOOHYHORISHUIRUPDQFHRUDOHYHOFORVHWRWKDW7KHLQLWLDOFRVWVPLJKWEH
VXEVWDQWLDOO\ KLJKHU )LJ G  7KH DEVHQFH RI PDLQWHQDQFH DQG UHSDLU FRVWV KRZHYHU FDQ ILQDOO\ UHVXOW LQ D
ILQDQFLDOO\SRVLWLYHVLWXDWLRQIRUWKHRZQHU,WKDVWREHERUQLQPLQGWKDWDOVRDKHDOHGPDWHULDOLVVWLOODPDWHULDOWKDW
DJHV

 D7UDGLWLRQDOV\VWHP$DQGORZDJHLQJV\VWHP%  E6\VWHPPDGHZLWKVHOIKHDOLQJPDWHULDO










  F(YROXWLRQRIFRVWVRIWUDGLWLRQDODQGORZDJHLQJV\VWHPV G (YROXWLRQRIFRVWVRIDVHOIKHDOLQJV\VWHP
)LJXUH3HUIRUPDQFHRIDWUDGLWLRQDO $ DQGORZDJHLQJ % V\VWHPE3HUIRUPDQFHRIDVHOIKHDOLQJV\VWHPF&RVWVRIWUDGLWLRQDODQGORZ
DJHLQJV\VWHPV$DQG%G&RVWVRIVHOIKHDOLQJV\VWHP1RWH,QWHUHVWDQGLQIODWLRQQRWFRQVLGHUHG>@

4.2. Adaptive approach

2IWHQ WKH PDWHULDOV XVHG IRU GHVLJQLQJ DQG UHDOL]LQJ VWUXFWXUHV DUH µMXVW WKHUH¶ QRW OHDYLQJ URRP IRU DQ\
PRGLILFDWLRQ RI WKH PDWHULDO LQ RUGHU WR UHGXFH WKHLU SURQHQHVV WR DJHLQJ ,Q WKRVH FDVHV LW LV FUXFLDO WR NQRZ WKH
GRPLQDQWDJHLQJPHFKDQLVPVRIWKHVHPDWHULDOVDQGWKHGRPLQDQWLQIOXHQFLQJIDFWRUV$ZDUHRIWKHUHOHYDQWDJHLQJ
PHFKDQLVPVDQGLQIOXHQFLQJIDFWRUVVWUXFWXUHVFDQEHGHVLJQHGLQVXFKDZD\WKDWDJHLQJSKHQRPHQDZLOOSURFHHG
LQDFRQWUROOHGZD\0D\EHDOVRWKHH[SRVXUHFRQGLWLRQVFDQEHFRQWUROOHGLQRUGHUWRFRQWURORUVORZGRZQDJHLQJ
SURFHVVHVWKXVH[WHQGLQJWKHOLIHWLPHRIWKHVWUXFWXUHRUV\VWHP

4.3. Symbiosis

3DUWLFXODUO\ LQ DUFKLWHFWXUH VLWXDWLRQV DUH FRQFHLYDEOH ZKHUH DJHLQJ FDQ EH FRQVLGHUHG DQ DFFHSWDEOH RU HYHQ
ZDQWHG SKHQRPHQRQ )DFDGHV ZKLFK GHWHULRUDWH LQ D FRQWUROOHG PDQQHU PLUURULQJ WKH µVHDVRQV¶ RI D SDUWLFXODU
EXLOGLQJPD\DGGVRPHWKLQJWRWKHDUFKLWHFWXUDOGHVLJQ$OVRVWUXFWXUHVIRUZKLFKRQO\DVKRUWOLIHWLPHLVUHTXLUHG
PD\ EHQHILW IURP LQKHUHQW DJHLQJ SKHQRPHQD ,Q WKLV V\PELRVLV DSSURDFK DJHLQJ LV QRW DQ HQHP\ WKDW KDV WR EH
60 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63

EHDWHQEXWDFROODERUDWRUWRUHDFKDQDJHLQJVWDPSHGJRDO,WVKRXOGEHHPSKDVL]HGWKDWWKHV\PELRVLVDSSURDFKLV
QRWDPDWWHURIµOHWLWKDSSHQ¶,WVWLOOUHTXLUHVLQGHSWKXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHSUHYDLOLQJDJHLQJSURFHVVLQRUGHUQRWWR
EHVXUSULVHGE\DQ\XQH[SHFWHGGLVFUHSDQF\EHWZHHQGHVLUHGDQGDFWXDOSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKHVWUXFWXUH

$JHLQJRIFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHVH[DPSOH

5.1. Observations regarding the performance of concrete bridge deck

,IZHZDQWWROHDUQDERXWDJHLQJVWXGLHVRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIROGVWUXFWXUHVPD\EHKHOSIXO6XFKDVWXG\KDV
EHHQ XQGHUWDNHQE\ 0HKWD LQ >@$EULHIGLVFXVVLRQRI WKLV VWXG\ZDVSXEOLVKHG UHFHQWO\ >@ DQG ZLOO EH
SUHVHQWHGEHORZ
0HKWD DQDO\]HG WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI FRQFUHWH EULGJH GHFNV RI EULGJHV EXLOW LQ IRXU VXEVHTXHQW SHULRGV LQ WKH
WZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\7KHILUVWSHULRGZDVWKHSHULRGEHIRUHWKHVHFRQGEHWZHHQDQGWKHWKLUGIURP
 WR  DQG WKH IRXUWK IURP  WR SUHVHQW 7KH FRQFUHWH PL[WXUHV XVHG IRU WKH EULGJH GHFNV ZHUH
FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH FKHPLFDO FRPSRVLWLRQ DQG WKH ILQHQHVV RI WKH FHPHQW 7KH FHPHQWV XVHG LQ WKH ILUVW SHULRG
EHIRUHKDGD&6FRQWHQWOHVVWKDQDQGD%ODLQHVXUIDFHRIPNJ&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHUDWHRIK\GUDWLRQ
ZDVORZ7KHSHUIRUPDQFHRIPDQ\EULGJHGHFNVPDGHZLWKWKHVHFHPHQWVZDVTXLWHJRRG
7KHFHPHQWVXVHGLQWKHVHFRQGSHULRGZHUHJURXQGILQHUWRD%ODLQHILQHQHVVEHWZHHQDQGPNJ7KH
FRQVWUXFWLRQDQGEXLOGLQJWHFKQRORJ\XVHGIRUWKHEULGJHGHFNVZHUHVLPLODUWRWKRVHXVHGLQWKHILUVWSHULRG7KH
DXWKRUVUHSRUWHGWKDWWKHEULGJHGHFNVEXLOWLQWKHVHFRQGSHULRGZHUHOHVVGXUDEOHWKDQWKRVHEXLOWEHIRUH
7KHVWUXFWXUHVWKDWZHUHEXLOWEHWZHHQDQGDSSHDUHGWRKDYHPRUHGXUDELOLW\SUREOHPVWKDQWKRVHEXLOW
EHIRUH7KHFHPHQWVXVHGLQWKLVSHULRGKDGDILQHQHVVXSWRPNJDQGD&6FRQWHQWEH\RQG:LWK
WKHDLPWRJHWDGHQVHUDQGPRUHGXUDEOHFRQFUHWHWKHZFUDWLRZDVORZHUWKDQLQWKHILUVWWZRSHULRGV7KHKLJKHU
&6FRQWHQWDQGWKHKLJKHUILQHQHVVRIWKHFHPHQWKDGLQFUHDVHGWKHHDUO\VWUHQJWKRIWKHVHPL[WXUHV7KLVPDGHLW
SRVVLEOHWREXLOGIDVWHU7KLVKRZHYHUKDGUHVXOWHGLQDKLJKHUSUREDELOLW\RIHDUO\DJHWKHUPDOFUDFNLQJDQGRQWRS
RI WKDW KLJKHU DXWRJHQRXV VKULQNDJH RI WKH ORZ ZDWHUFHPHQW UDWLR PL[WXUHV 7KH KLJKHU SURQHQHVV WR HDUO\DJH
PLFUR FUDFNLQJZDVWKHPRVWSODXVLEOHUHDVRQIRUGXUDELOLW\SUREOHPVDWODWHUDJHV
,Q WKH IRXUWK SHULRG WKH WHQGHQF\ WR JR IRU KLJKHU VWUHQJWKV FRQWLQXHG *HQHUDOO\ WKLV ZDV UHDOL]HG E\ XVLQJ
PL[WXUHVZLWKDORZZDWHUELQGHUUDWLR7KHXVHRIORZZDWHUELQGHUPL[WXUHVIXUWKHULQFUHDVHGWKHULVNRIFUDFNLQJ
)RUEULGJHGHFNVPRGHUDWHVWUHQJWKVEHWZHHQDQG03DZHUHIRXQG$PRQJEULGJHGHFNVWKHFUDFNLQJLQ
03DEULGJHGHFNVZDVWZLFHWKDWLQ03DEULGJHGHFNV

5.2. Ageing of more advanced concrete mixtures – possible causes

0HKWD¶VLQYHQWRU\RIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIEULGJHGHFNVLOOXVWUDWHVKRZWKHSUHVVXUHIURPWKHPDUNHWWREXLOGIDVWHU
KDVFUHDWHGDGHPDQGIRUPL[WXUHVZLWKDKLJKHDUO\VWUHQJWK7KLVZDVPDGHSRVVLEOHE\XVLQJILQHUFHPHQWVZLWKD
KLJKHU&6FRQWHQW7KHSULFHRIWKLVKRZHYHUZDVDKLJKHUSUREDELOLW\RIHDUO\DJHFUDFNLQJRIWKHEULGJHGHFNV
*HQHUDOO\ VSHDNLQJ LW KROGV WKDW IRU UHDOL]LQJ WKLQQHU DQG PRUH VOHQGHU VWUXFWXUHV FRQFUHWHV ZLWK D KLJKHU ILQDO
VWUHQJWK DUH UHTXLUHG $ KLJK ILQDO VWUHQJWK LV DWWDLQDEOH E\ UHGXFLQJ WKH ZDWHUELQGHU UDWLR 7KH XVH RI
VXSHU SODVWLFL]HUVKDVPDGHLWSRVVLEOHWRUHGXFHWKHZDWHUELQGHUUDWLRRIFRQFUHWHPL[WXUHVWRYDOXHVHYHQEHORZ
:LWKWKHVHORZZDWHUELQGHUUDWLRPL[WXUHVGHQVHFRQFUHWHVDUHREWDLQHGZLWKDYHU\ORZSHUPHDELOLW\7KLVLV
JRRG IRU WKH FRQFUHWH¶V UHVLVWDQFH DJDLQVW LQJUHVV RI DJJUHVVLYH VXEVWDQFHV $W WKH VDPH WLPH KRZHYHU WKH
FRQFUHWH¶VSURQHQHVVWR PLFUR FUDFNLQJLQFUHDVHVPDLQO\EHFDXVHRILQFUHDVHGDXWRJHQRXVVKULQNDJH
$QRWKHU UHDVRQ IRU D KLJKHU FUDFNLQJ ULVN RI KLJK VWUHQJWK DQG XOWUDKLJK VWUHQJWK FRQFUHWHV DUH WKH KLJK
WHPSHUDWXUHV WKDW RFFXU DV D UHVXOW RI KLJK FHPHQW FRQWHQWV %\ RSWLPL]LQJ WKH SDUWLFOH SDFNLQJ RI WKH DJJUHJDWH
IUDFWLRQV WKH DPRXQW RI FHPHQW DQG KHQFH WKH SHDN WHPSHUDWXUHV FDQ EH UHGXFHG $ ORZ FHPHQW FRQWHQW LV DOVR
FRQVLGHUHGSRVLWLYHIURPWKHVXVWDLQDELOLW\SRLQWRIYLHZ ORZHUFDUERQIRRWSULQW $ORZFHPHQWFRQWHQWKRZHYHU
DOVR KDV D GUDZEDFN LW UHGXFHV WKH LQKHUHQW VHOIKHDOLQJ FDSDFLW\ RI WKH FRQFUHWH )URP WKH VHOIKHDOLQJ SRLQW RI
YLHZDQRWWRRORZFHPHQWFRQWHQWDQGWKHXVHRIµROG¶FRDUVHO\JURXQGFHPHQWLVIDYRUDEOH7KLVSDUWO\H[SODLQVWKH
RXWFRPHRI0HKWD¶VLQYHQWRU\WKDWROGEULGJHGHFNVSHUIRUPHGEHWWHUWKDQQHZHURQHV,QWKHWHUPLQRORJ\RIWKLV
SDSHUZHZRXOGVD\WKDWWKHROGFRQFUHWHPL[WXUHVZLWKFRDUVHFHPHQWDQGZLWKDORZ&6FRQWHQWZHUHOHVVSURQHWR
 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63 61

DJHLQJWKDQPRGHUQPL[WXUHVZLWKILQHO\JURXQGFHPHQWVZLWKDKLJK&6FRQWHQW0RUHRYHULWOHQGVVXSSRUWWRWKH
SOHDRI$LWFLQHWDO>@IRUXVLQJµJRRGROG¶7\SH,,,FOLQNHULIJRRGSHUIRUPDQFHRIFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHVLVRXUJRDO

,QYHVWPHQWVIRUWKHUHVHDUFKDJHQGDLQYLHZRIPLWLJDWLQJWKHLPSDFWRIDJHLQJ

,QWKHIRUJRLQJVHFWLRQVLWKDVEHHQH[SODLQHGWKDWDJHLQJRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHEXLOGLQJVLVDKXJHILQDQFLDOEXUGHQIRU
WKHVRFLHW\$SRVVLEOHZD\WRUHGXFHWKLVEXUGHQLVE\UHGXFLQJWKHPDLQWHQDQFHFRVWVDQGH[WHQGLQJWKHOLIHWLPHRI
LQIUDVWUXFWXUH7KHSRVVLELOLWLHVIRUUHDOL]LQJVDYLQJVRQWKHORQJWHUPZHUHEULHIO\DGGUHVVHGLQVHFWLRQ VHHDOVR
)LJ ,QWKDWVHFWLRQLWZDVLQGLFDWHGKRZHYHUWKDWIRUJHQHUDWLQJVDYLQJKLJKHULQLWLDOFRVWVKDYHWREHIDFHG$
UHODWHGTXHVWLRQLVKRZPXFKPRQH\ZHKDYHWRVSHQGLQUHVHDUFKWKDWPLJKWOHDGWRWKRVHVDYLQJV$IHZWKRXJKWV
RQWKLVZLOOIROORZEHORZ VHHDOVR>@ 
,QWKH,QWURGXFWLRQWKHJOREDOYDOXHRIWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVWRFNKDVEHHQHVWLPDWHGDW¼WULOOLRQ/HWXVDVVXPH
DQ DYHUDJH OLIHWLPH RI WKHVH LQIUDVWUXFWXUH DVVHWV RI  \HDUV (DFK \HDU ¼  ELOOLRQ KDV WKHQ WR EH VSHQW RQ
UHSODFHPHQW RI REVROHWH DVVHWV /HW XV IXUWKHU DVVXPH WKDW WKURXJK GHGLFDWHG UHVHDUFK WKH DYHUDJH OLIHWLPH FDQ EH
LQFUHDVHGE\LHIURPWR\HDUV7KH\HDUO\UHSODFHPHQWFRVWVZRXOGWKHQGHFUHDVHWRIURP¼WR¼
ELOOLRQ7KLVLVDUHGXFWLRQRIUHSODFHPHQWFRVWVRI¼ELOOLRQSHU\HDU/HWXVDVVXPHWKDWIRUVDYLQJWKHVH¼
ELOOLRQZHKDYHWRLQYHVWRIWKLVDPRXQWLQUHVHDUFKLH¼ELOOLRQSHU\HDU/HWXVIXUWKHUDVVXPHWKDWRI
WKHUHTXLUHGUHVHDUFKPRQH\LH¼ELOOLRQKDVWREHVSHQWRQPDQDJHPHQWRULHQWHGUHVHDUFKDQGWKHRWKHURQ
VFLHQFHRULHQWHG UHVHDUFK RQ PDWHULDOV DQG VWUXFWXUHV $ SDUW RI WKLV VFLHQFHRULHQWHG UHVHDUFK KDV WR EH VSHQW RQ
DJHLQJUHVHDUFK$UHDVRQDEOHWKRXJKFRQVHUYDWLYHDVVXPSWLRQLVWKDWRIVFLHQFHRULHQWHGUHVHDUFKLH¼
ELOOLRQSHU\HDUVKRXOGEHVSHQWRQIXQGDPHQWDODJHLQJUHVHDUFK7KLV¼ELOOLRQLVRIWKHUHTXLUHGUHVHDUFK
EXGJHWIRUUHDOL]LQJWKHVDYLQJVRI\HDUO\UHSODFHPHQWFRVWVDQGRQO\RIWKHWDUJHWHGVDYLQJV6FKHPDWLFDOO\WKLV
LVVKRZQLQILJXUH%\YDU\LQJWKHDVVXPSWLRQVLQWKLVH[HUFLVHRWKHUYDOXHVIRUUHTXLUHGLQYHVWPHQWVDUHREWDLQHG
EXW GR QRW FKDQJH WKH RUGHU RI PDJQLWXGH RI WKHVH ILJXUHV ,I ZH MXGJH WKH UHTXLUHG UHVHDUFK EXGJHW RQ DJHLQJ
DJDLQVWWKHVDYLQJVWKDWFDQEHUHDOL]HGWKHFRQFOXVLRQLVMXVWLILHGWKDWUHVHDUFKSD\VRII


D9DOXHRIJOREDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUH
¼

E$QQXDOUHSODFHPHQWFRVWRIDVVHWVEDVHGRQ
D PHDQOLIHWLPHRI\HDUV
¼

F$QQXDOVDYLQJVLIVHUYLFHOLIHLVLQFUHDVHGE\
¼\HDU

G,QYHVWPHQWLQUHVHDUFKRIJHQHUDWHGVDYLQJV
¼\HDU

H,QYHVWPHQWLQIXQGDPHQWDOPDWHULDOVUHVHDUFK
¼\HDU
E 
IRIPDWHULDOVUHVHDUFKWREHVSHQWRQDJHLQJ
F
¼\HDU

G H I 

)LJXUH6FKHPDWLFSUHVHQWDWLRQRIUHTXLUHGLQYHVWPHQWLQDJHLQJUHVHDUFKIRUUHDOL]LQJDQH[WHQVLRQRIWKHPHDQVHUYLFHOLIHRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHRI
 LQWHUHVWLQIODWLRQQRWFRQVLGHUHG (VWLPDWHGDYHUDJHOLIHWLPH\HDUV DIWHU9DQ%UHXJHOHWDO>@PRGLILHG 
62 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63

'LVFXVVLRQDQGFRQFOXVLRQV

7KHZRUOG¶VLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLQFUHDVHVUDSLGO\LQYROXPHDQGFRPSOH[LW\$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKHZHOOIXQFWLRQLQJRI
D VRFLHW\ KHDYLO\ GHSHQGV RQ SURSHU IXQFWLRQLQJ RI WKLV LQIUDVWUXFWXUH 7R JXDUDQWHH UHOLDEOH IXQFWLRQLQJ RI WKH
LQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQLQWHJUDORUKROLVWLFDSSURDFKLVEHFRPLQJDSUHUHTXLVLWH>@,QVXFKDQLQWHJUDODSSURDFKPDWHULDOV
DVSHFWV DUH LQKHUHQWO\ FRXSOHG ZLWK D YDULHW\ RI DVSHFWV OLNH ORJLVWLFV DYDLODELOLW\ FKDQJHV LQ HQYLURQPHQWDO
DZDUHQHVVDHVWKHWLFVDQGODQGXVHSODQQLQJWRPHQWLRQRQO\DIHZRIWKHP7KHJURZLQJFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHLVVXH
LPSOLHV WKDW VHUYLFH OLIH GHVLJQ LV QR ORQJHU D PDWWHU RI RQO\ SUHGLFWLQJ WKH GHFD\ UDWH RU DJHLQJ RI D EXLOGLQJ
PDWHULDO7RGD\VHUYLFHOLIHGHVLJQDOVRUHTXLUHVDVWUDWHJ\IRUHQVXULQJXQGLVWXUEHGRSHUDWLRQRIWUDQVSRUWV\VWHPV
IRUDSUHGHILQHGSHULRGRIWLPHXQGHUDVHWRI\HWXQNQRZQFKDQJHVRIWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
7KHWRWDOYDOXHRIWKHZRUOG¶VLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVHVWLPDWHGDW¼WULOOLRQ7KLVLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVDJHLQJ:LWKWKH
H[LVWHQFHJURZWK PDLQWHQDQFH DQGUHSODFHPHQW RI DJHLQJ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH D KXJHUHVSRQVLELOLW\ FRPHV WR DOO DFWRUV
LQYROYHG LQ SODQQLQJ GHVLJQLQJ EXLOGLQJ DQG RSHUDWLQJ RXU DVVHWV ,W LV D PDWWHU RI responsible stewardship WR
PLWLJDWHWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLPSDFWWKDWFRPHVDORQJZLWKUHDOL]LQJDQGRSHUDWLQJRXULQIUDVWUXFWXUH
,QFUHDVLQJ VL]H DQG FRPSOH[LW\ RI VWUXFWXUHV V\VWHPV DQG SODQWV PDNH UHOLDEOH MXGJPHQW RI WKH DFWXDO VWDWH RI
DJHLQJRIRXUDVVHWVH[WUHPHO\GLIILFXOW7KHGHYHORSPHQWRIQHZEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOVWRGD\RIWHQLQWURGXFHGZLWKWKH
FODLP RI EHLQJ HQYLURQPHQWDO IULHQGO\ EXW IRUZKLFK ORQJWHUP H[SHULHQFH LV VWLOO ODFNLQJ IXUWKHU FRPSOLFDWHV WKH
ZKROH LVVXH 7KH FRQVHTXHQFHV RI IDLOXUH RI LQIUDVWUXFWXUH EXLOGLQJV KRZHYHU FDQ EH HQRUPRXV &DWDVWURSKLF
DFFLGHQWVRQODUJHFKHPLFDOSODQWVIRUH[DPSOHFDQUHVXOWLQKXJHGLUHFWORVVHVRIOLIHDQGSURSHUW\1RWWRPHQWLRQ
WKHLQGLUHFWORVVHVZKLFKPD\HDVLO\UHDFKWHQWLPHVWKHGLUHFWORVVHV7KHLQGLUHFWORVVHVLQFOXGHIRUH[DPSOHWKH
ULVNRISURFHVVLQWHUUXSWLRQLQWHUUXSWLRQRIVXSSO\RIHOHFWULFLW\DQGDVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIWKLVIDLOLQJVDIHW\V\VWHPV
DQGORVVRIFRQILGHQFHLQWKHUREXVWQHVVRIRXUVRFLHW\0LWLJDWLQJWKHSUREDELOLW\RIDJHLQJLQGXFHGIDLOXUHVVKRXOG
KDYHWKHUHIRUHDKLJKSULRULW\
$JHLQJLVDQinherentIHDWXUHRIPDWHULDOV+HQFHDJHLQJLVDQLQKHUHQWIHDWXUHRIDQ\GHYLFHVWUXFWXUHV\VWHPRU
SODQW VLPSO\ EHFDXVH WKH\ DUH DOO PDGH RI PDWHULDOV WKDW DJH /RVV RI SHUIRUPDQFH GXH WR DJHLQJ LV WKHUHIRUH
GLIIHUHQW IURP GDPDJH RU IDLOXUHV FDXVHG E\ GHVLJQ HUURUV SRRU ZRUNPDQVKLS SURGXFWLRQ IDLOXUHV RU LQDGHTXDWH
PDLQWHQDQFH $JHLQJ LV D W\SLFDO PDWHULDOV UHODWHG LVVXH 7KLV PHDQV WKDW GHDOLQJ ZLWK DJHLQJ DQG VROYLQJ DJHLQJ
SUREOHPVUHTXLUHDIXQGDPHQWDOPDWHULDOVVFLHQFHRULHQWHGDSSURDFK
)XQGDPHQWDO UHVHDUFK RQ DJHLQJ LV UHFRPPHQGHG LQ RUGHU WR LPSURYH WKH WRROV IRU DFFXUDWH DQG UHOLDEOH
SUHGLFWLRQV RI WKH ORQJWHUP SHUIRUPDQFH RI DJHLQJ LQIUDVWUXFWXUH 0RQLWRULQJ WKH SHUIRUPDQFH RI ROG DQG QHZ
VWUXFWXUHV PDGH ZLWK WUDGLWLRQDO DQG QHZ FRQFUHWH PL[WXUHV DQG GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI FHPHQW PD\ H[SODLQ ZK\ ROG
VWUXFWXUHVVHHPWREHOHVVSURQHWRDJHLQJWKDQPRGHUQVWUXFWXUHV)URPWKHVHREVHUYDWLRQVOHVVRQVFDQEHOHDUQHGLQ
YLHZRIGHVLJQLQJVWUXFWXUHVZLWKDORZVXVFHSWLELOLW\WRDJHLQJ
/LNHPDQ\RWKHULQGXVWULHVDOVRWKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\LVXQGHUSUHVVXUH6WUXFWXUHVKDYHWREHUHDOLVHGIDVWHUEXW
ZLWK ORZHU HQYLURQPHQWDO LPSDFW $Q\ SURGXFW KRZHYHU UHDOLVHG µXQGHU SUHVVXUH¶ LUUHVSHFWLYH RI ZKDW NLQG RI
SUHVVXUHKDVDQLQKHUHQWWHQGHQF\WRDJH HQWURS\SULQFLSOH 7RFRSHZLWKWKHULVNRILQFUHDVLQJDJHLQJUDWHVLQ
GHSWKNQRZOHGJHRIWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIPDWHULDOVDQGVWUXFWXUHVZLWKHODSVHRIWLPHLVQHHGHG
7KHFRVWVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDJHLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUHVLVDKHDY\ILQDQFLDOEXUGHQIRUWKHVRFLHW\DQGDEXUGHQIRUWKH
HQYLURQPHQWDVZHOO&RQWUROOLQJDJHLQJLQGXFHGGHJUDGDWLRQSURFHVVHVDQGKHQFHUHGXFLQJFRVWVRIQHZEXLOWDQG
RIPDLQWHQDQFHRIH[LVWLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUHFRQWULEXWHWRUHGXFHWKLVEXUGHQ)RUGHYHORSLQJORZDJHLQJFRQFHSWVDQG
PRGHOVZHKDYHWRLQYHVWLQUHVHDUFK$QH[DPSOHKDVEHHQSUHVHQWHGLOOXVWUDWLQJKRZLQYHVWPHQWVLQUHVHDUFKFDQ
UHVXOWLQVDYLQJVIRUWKHVRFLHW\WKDWIDUH[FHHGWKHLQYHVWPHQWVQHHGHGWRJHQHUDWHWKHVHVDYLQJV$QLQFUHDVHRIWKH
DYHUDJHVHUYLFHOLIHRIRXULQIUDVWUXFWXUHE\ZRXOGVDYHWHQVRIELOOLRQVRIHXURVHDFK\HDU7KHLQYHVWPHQWWR
UHDOLVH WKHVH VDYLQJV ZDV HVWLPDWHG DW  RI WKHVH VDYLQJV +DOI RI WKLV DPRXQW ZDV DVVXPHG WR EH QHHGHG IRU
UHVHDUFKRQPDWHULDOVDQGVWUXFWXUHVRIZKLFKDPRXQWZDVDVVXPHGWREHQHHGHGIRUIXQGDPHQWDOUHVHDUFKRQ
 Klaas van Breugel / Procedia Engineering 171 (2017) 53 – 63 63

DJHLQJSKHQRPHQDDWWKHPDWHULDOVOHYHO6HWWLQJVXFKWDUJHWVIRUVDYLQJVLVQRWRQO\FKDOOHQJLQJDQGDVWLPXOXVIRU
UHVHDUFKDQGLQQRYDWLRQ7KHILJXUHVDOVRLOOXVWUDWHWKDWFDULQJIRURXULQIUDVWUXFWXUHILQDOO\SD\VRII
6LQFH DJHLQJ LV DQ LQKHUHQW IHDWXUH RI DOO PDWHULDOV ZH NQRZ D EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI DJHLQJ ZLOO SRWHQWLDOO\
LPSURYH WKH ZD\ ZH XVH PDWHULDOV DQG KRZ ZH GHVLJQ DQG SURGXFH VWUXFWXUHV DQG V\VWHPV ,Q WKH HQG D PRUH
DSSURSULDWHXVHRIPDWHULDOVLVDPDWWHURIUHVSRQVLEOHVWHZDUGVKLS

$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV

7KH $JHLQJ &HQWUH IRU 0DWHULDOV 6WUXFWXUHV DQG 6\VWHPV RI WKH 78 'HOIW LV JUDWHIXOO\ DFNQRZOHGJHG IRU
FROODERUDWLQJLQSUHSDULQJWKLVSDSHU

5HIHUHQFHV

>@ $( /RQJ 6XVWDLQDEOH EULGJHV WKURXJK LQQRYDWLYH DGYDQFHV ,QVWLWXWLRQ RI &LYLO (QJLQHHUV SUHVHQWHG DW -RLQW ,&( DQG 75) )HOORZV
/HFWXUH
>@5'REEV5HWDO,QIUDVWUXFWXUHSURGXFWLYLW\+RZWRVDYHWULOOLRQD\HDU0F.LQVH\*OREDO,QVWLWXWHS
>@ '0*DQQ%XLOGLQJLQQRYDWLRQ&RPSOH[FRQVWUXFWVLQDFKDQJLQJZRUOG/RQGRQ7KRPDV7HOIRUGS
>@ .YDQ%UHXJHO&DULQJIRUDJHLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUH±6FRSHVWUDWHJ\DQGUHVSRQVLEOHVWHZDUGVKLS3URFUG,QW&RQIRQ6HUYLFH/LIH'HVLJQ
IRU,QIUDVWUXFWXUHV=KXKDL
>@ *&+RII,QWHJUDWLQJGXUDELOLW\LQWRWKHGHVLJQSURFHVV,Q5.'KLUHWDO HGV 3URF,QW6\PSRVLXP&RQWUROOLQJFRQFUHWHGHJUDGDWLRQ
'XQGHH
>@ )URQWLHU,QGLD6WUDWHJLFDQG'HIHQFH1HZV$QDO\VLV2SLQLRQELOOLRQSULFHWDJWRUHSDLUDQGPRGHUQL]H$PHULFD¶VEULGJHVS
>@ '$ /DQJH 7KH UHOHYDQFH RI DJHLQJ IRU FLYLO LQIUDVWUXFWXUH 7KH SURIHVVLRQ 7KH SROLWLFV 7KH &ODVVURRP 3URF VW ,QW &RQIHUHQFH RQ
$JHLQJRI0DWHULDOV 6WUXFWXUHV(G9DQ%UHXJHO .RHQGHUV$06'HOIWSS
>@ $6&(³,QIUDVWUXFWXUH5HSRUW&DUG´KWWSZZZLQIUDVWUXFWXUHUHSRUWFDUGRUJJUDGHV
>@ .YDQ%UHXJHO*OREDOGLPHQVLRQRIDJHLQJRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHDQGRXUUHVSRQVLELOLW\7KHWK,QW:RUNVKRSRQ6WUXFWXUDO/LIH0DQDJHPHQW
RI3RZHU6WUXFWXUHV.RUHD
>@6/LOHV6/LOHV2XUFUXPEOLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUH+RZWKHDJLQJRI$PHULFD¶VLQIUDVWUXFWXUHLVDKRPHODQGVHFXULW\FRQFHUQS
>@./L =&KHQ + /LDQ +&RQFHSWVDQGUHTXLUHPHQWVRIGXUDELOLW\GHVLJQIRUFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHVDQ H[WHQVLYHUHYLHZ RI&&(6-
0DWHULDOV 6WUXFWXUHV
>@.YDQ%UHXJHOHWDO$JHLQJRIPDWHULDOVVWUXFWXUHVDQGV\VWHPV±$QLQFRQYHQLHQWWUXWK9LVLRQGRFXPHQW$JHLQJ&HQWUH'HOIW
>@3+RUURFNVHWDO0DQDJLQJ$JHLQJ3ODQW±$VXPPDU\JXLGH+HDOWKDQG6DIHW\([HFXWLYH55S
>@5,''25 DEEU 5HSRUWLQJRI,QMXULHV'LVHDVHVDQG'DQJHURXV2FFXUUHQFHV5HJXODWLRQV
>@0$56 DEEU (XURSHDQ8QLRQ0DMRU+D]DUG,QFLGHQW'DWDEDVH
>@0+,'$6 DEEU :RUOGZLGHPDMRUKD]DUGLQFLGHQWGDWDEDVH
>@,$($3URDFWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIDJHLQJIRUQXFOHDUSRZHUSODQWV6DIHW\5HSRUW6HULHV1R,QWHUQDWLRQDO$WRPLF(QHUJ\$JHQF\
S
>@79%ORVVHU5&5HLG*:%RQG$%5H\QROGV/$/HH7236SHLGHO':9URRP0$:HOW  $6WXG\RIWKH1XFOHDU
DQG3K\VLFDO3URSHUWLHVRIWKH251/*UDSKLWH5HDFWRU6KLHOGS
>@&%DV\LJLW,$NNXUW5$OWLQGDJ6.LOLQFDUVKDQ$$NNXUW%0DYL5.DUDJX]HO7KH(IIHFWRI)UHH]LQJ7KDZLQJ )7 &\FOHRQWKH
5DGLDWLRQ 6KLHOGLQJ 3URSHUWLHV RI &RQFUHWHV %XLOGLQJ DQG (QYLURQPHQW 9RO    5HWULHYHG -XO\   IURP
KWWSEFRPDNFRPGRV\D$SGI
>@. :LOOLDP < ;L ' 1DXV +/ *UDYHV $ 5HYLHZ RI WKH (IIHFWV RI 5DGLDWLRQ RQ 0LFURVWUXFWXUH DQG 3URSHUWLHV RI &RQFUHWHV 8VHG LQ
1XFOHDU3RZHU3ODQWV861XFOHDU5HJXODWRU\&RPPLVVLRQS
>@. YDQ %UHXJHO 0XOWLVFDOH PRGHOOLQJ 7KH YHKLFOH IRU SURJUHVV LQ IXQGDPHQWDO DQG SUDFWLFHRULHQWHG UHVHDUFK 3URF QG ,QW &RQI RQ
1DQRWHFKQRORJ\LQ&RQVWUXFWLRQ%LOEDR 
>@6 3DUHHN < 6X]XNL ., .LPXUD < )XMLNXUD < $UDNL 5DGLDWLRQ 6KLHOGLQJ 3URSHUWLHV DQG )UHH]H7KDZ 'XUDELOLW\ RI +LJK'HQVLW\
&RQFUHWH IRU 6WRUDJH RI 5DGLRDFWLYH &RQWDPLQDWHG 6RLO LQ )XNXVKLPD 3URF VW ,QW &RQI RQ $JHLQJ RI 0DWHULDOV  6WUXFWXUHV (G 9DQ
%UHXJHO .RHQGHUV$06¶'HOIW
>@.YDQ%UHXJHO,VWKHUHDPDUNHWIRUVHOIKHDOLQJFHPHQWEDVHGPDWHULDOV"3URFVW,QW&RQIRQ6HOI+HDOLQJ0DWHULDOV1RRUGZLMN7KH
1HWKHUODQGVS
>@.YDQ%UHXJHO6HOIKHDOLQJPDWHULDOFRQFHSWVDVVROXWLRQIRUDJLQJLQIUDVWUXFWXUH3URFWK&RQIRQ2XU:RUOGRI&RQFUHWH 6WUXFWXUHV
6LQJDSRUHS
>@5:ROIVHKHU(FRQRPLFDODVSHFWVRIUHSDLUDQGPDLQWHQDQFH,Q36FKZHVKLQJHUHWDO HGV 3URFWK,QW:RUNVKRSRQ0DWHULDOV3URSHUWLHV
DQG'HVLJQ'XUDEOHUHLQIRUFHGFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHV$(',),&$7,23XEOLVKHUV
>@3.0HKWD5:%XUURZV%XLOGLQJGXUDEOHVWUXFWXUHVLQWKHVWFHQWXU\´,QGLDQ&RQFUHWH-RXUQDO
>@.YDQ%UHXJHO$JHLQJRIROGDQGPRGHUQFRQFUHWHVWUXFWXUHV±2EVHUYDWLRQVDQG5HVHDUFK3URFQG515DLNDU,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RQIHUHQFH
DQG%DQWKLD%DVKHHU,QWHUQDWLRQDO6\PSRVLXPRQ$GYDQFHVLQ6FLHQFHDQG7HFKQRORJ\RI&RQFUHWH0XPEDL
>@3&$LWFLQ60LQGHVV%DFNWRWKHIXWXUH&RQFUHWH,QWHUQDWLRQDO
>@16%HUNH0&+LFNV-0DORQH.$5LHGHU&RQFUHWH'XUDELOLW\±$KROLVWLFDSSURDFK&RQFUHWH,QWHUQDWLRQDO