Section 15 Adjectives

INTRODUCTION
English has a large class of adjectives which can express a variety of meanings:
classification, description, evaluation and m any other ideas. Most European
languages, and m any others, have similar classes of adjectives. Some of the
w orld's languages, however, have few if any adjectives. In such languages the
relevant ideas might be expressed by using nouns or verbs; so the equivalent of,
for example, She’s angry could be som ething corresponding to 'She has anger' or
‘She rages’.

English adjectives are relatively easy to use, since (except for comparatives and
superlatives, ►Section 17) an adjective can only have one possible form. There
are som e complications of position and w ord order: these and a few other points
are covered in the following entries.

Do you know what's wrong with these, and why?

© He lives in a palace grand. ► 183.1
© She’s three years elder than me. ► 183.2
© an asleep baby ► 183.3
© It's a political old idea. ► 184.1
© Look at the green beautiful m ountains. ► 184.2
© an attractive, traditional, woollen dress ► 184.6
О an angry and young m an ► 185.3
© After two days crossing the foothills, they reached the proper
m ountain. ► 186.3
© The tree is high thirty feet. ► 186.4
О They’re advertising for skilled in design people. ► 186.5
© It’s a difficult to solve problem . ► 186.5
© I like your so beautiful country. ► 187
© The m ost im portant is to be happy. ► 188.4
© The blind next door is getting a new job. ► 188.1
О This governm ent isn't interested in the poor's problem s. ► 188.1
© My sister’s m arrying a Welsh. ► 188.2

CONTENTS OF THIS SECTION

183 adjectives: norm al position
184 order of adjectives
185 adjectives with and
186 adjectives after nouns
and pronouns
187 adjectives: position after as, how,
so, too
188 adjectives w ithout nouns
189 gradable and non-gradable
adjectives
190 m easurem ents: ‘m arked’ and
‘unm arked’ forms
191 pronunciation of aged,
naked, etc
192 W hat can follow an adjective?

gram m ar • Section 15 Adjectives

183 adjectives: normal position
1 tw o positions
Most adjectives can go in two m ain places in a sentence.
a with a noun, usually before it. This is called ‘attributive position’.
The new secretary doesn’t like me.
He's going out with a rich businesswom an.
In older English (► 318.10), it was quite com m on to put adjectives after nouns,
especially in poetry and songs.
He came fro m his palace grand.
In m odern English, this only happens in a few cases.

For adjectives before personal pronouns (e.g. Poor you!), ► 174.7.

b after be, seem, look, become and other linking verbs (► 11). This is called
'predicative position'.
That dress is new, isn't it? She looks rich. I fe e l unhappy.

2 adjectives used only before nouns

Some adjectives are used only (or mostly) before nouns. After verbs, other words
m ust be used. C om m on examples:
elder and eldest Compare:
My elder sister is a pilot. She’s three years older than me.
live /laiv/ (m eaning ‘not d ead ’) Compare:
a live fish It's still alive.
old (referring to relationships that have lasted a long time)
an old friend (not the sam e as a friend who is old)
little (in BrE: ►580) Compare:
a nice little house The house is quite small.
Some others:
H e’s a mere child, ( but n o t That child is mere.)
I t’s sheer madness, ( but n o t That madness is sheer.)
I was studying fo r m y fu tu r e career as a lawyer, ( but n o t My career as a lawyer
w asfruture.)
This is the m a in problem! ( but n o t This problem is m ain.)

3 adjectives used only after verbs

Some adjectives beginning with a-, and a few others, are used mainly after
linking verbs, especially be. Com m on examples: ablaze, afloat, afraid, alight,
alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake. Compare:
- The baby's asleep. - He was afraid.
a sleeping baby ( n o t an asleep baby) a frightened m an
- The ship's still afloat,
a flo a tin g leaf
The adjectives ill (► 494) and well (► 622) are m ost com m on after verbs. Before
nouns, m any people prefer other words.

gram m ar • 183 adjectives: norm al position

 Adjectives Section 15

Compare:
- He's very w ell - You look ill.
a healthy/fit m an Nurses take care o f sick people.

verb + object + adjective

Another possible position for adjectives is after the object, in the structure
verb + object + adjective.
I'll get the car ready. Do I m ake you happy? Let's p a in t the kitchen yellow.

184 order of adjectives

W hen several adjectives come before a noun (or w hen nouns are used as
modifiers before another noun), they are usually put in a m ore or less fixed
order. However, this is a com plicated gram matical area, and it is not possible to
give simple reliable rules for adjective order. The following guidelines will help.

description before classification: an old political idea

Words w hich describe com e before words which classify (say w hat type of thing
we are talking about).
description classification noun
an old political idea
the latest educational reform
a green wine bottle
leather dancing shoes

opinion before description: a w onderful old house

Words which express opinions, attitudes and judgem ents usually come before
words that simply describe. Examples are lovely, definite, pure, absolute, extreme,
perfect, wonderful, silly.
opinion description noun
a lovely cool drink
a wonderful old house
beautiful green m ountains
that silly fa t cat

order of descriptive words

The order of descriptive words is not completely fixed. Words for origin and
m aterial usually come last. Words for size, age, shape and colour often come in
that order.
size age shape colour origin m aterial noun
a fa t old white horse
a big grey woollen sweater
new Italian boots
a sm all round black leather handbag
an enormous brown German glass m ug
a little modern square brick house

gram m ar • 184 order of adjectives

 4 numbers
Num bers usually go before adjectives.
six large eggs the second big shock
First, next and last m ost often go before one, two, three, etc.
the fir s t three days (More com m on than the three first days)
m y last tw o jobs

5 noun modifiers after adjectives

Note that noun modifiers (which often classify, or refer to material) usually
follow adjectives.
a big new car factory enormous black iron gates

6 commas
Before nouns, we generally use com m as betw een adjectives (especially in longer
sequences) which give similar kinds of information, as in physical descriptions.
a steep, slippery, grassy slope
an expensive, ill-planned, wasteful project
But com m as can be dropped before short com m on adjectives.
a tall(,) dark(,) handsom e cowboy
We do not use com m as betw een adjectives which give different kinds of
information.
an attractive traditional woollen dress
Com m as are not used after num bers or other determiners.
ten green bottles ( n o t ten, green bottles)
these new ideas ( n o t these, new ideas)
For more details, ►296.9.

7 after a verb
The order of adjectives in predicative position (after be, seem and similar verbs,
► 11) is similar to the order before nouns. Note that noun modifiers are not
used in this position.
a big, green wine bottle but n o t The bottle is big, green and wine.
For and with adjectives before nouns and after verbs, ► 185.

185 adjectives with and

W hen two or m ore adjectives (or other modifiers) com e together, we sometimes
put and before the last one, and som etim es not. It depends partly on their
position in the sentence, and partly the kinds of information they give.

1 after a verb
W hen adjectives come in predicative position (after be, seem and similar verbs,
► 11), we usually p u t a nd before the last one.
He was tall, dark a n d handsome.
You're like a w inter’s day: short, dark a n d dirty.
In a very literary style, and is som etim es left out.
M y soul is exotic, mysterious, incomprehensible.

gram m ar • 185 adjectives with and

 Adjectives Section 15

2 before a noun
In attributive position (before a noun), and is less common.
a big beautiful garden
However, a nd is possible w hen the adjectives give similar kinds of information,
especially w hen we are 'piling u p ’ favourable or unfavourable descriptions.
a cruel (and) vicious tyrant a warm (and) generous personality
an ill-planned, expensive (and) wasteful project
A n d is necessary w hen two or m ore adjectives (or other modifiers) refer to
different parts of something, or distinguish different types of thing.
a yellow an d black sports car a concrete an d glass factory
hot an d cold drinks (= hot drinks and cold drinks)
We also use a n d w hen we say that som ething belongs to two or m ore
different classes.
It's a social a n d political problem.
She's a m usical an d artistic genius.

3 and not used

We do not use and betw een adjectives that give different kinds of information.
an angry young m an
a ridiculous economic policy ( n o t a ridiculous and economic policy)

4 nice a n d . . .
In an informal style, the expression nice a nd is often used before another
adjective or an adverb. It m eans som ething like ‘pleasandy’ or ‘suitably’.
I t’s nice a n d warm in fro n t o f the fire. (= pleasandy warm)
The work was nice and easy.
N ow ju s t p u t your gun dow n nice a n d slow.
For m ore information about and, ►226.

186 adjectives after nouns and pronouns

Adjectives come im m ediately after nouns in a few special cases.

1 fixed phrases: Secretary General; court martial

Adjectives com e after nouns in som e fixed phrases.
Secretary General President elect
court m artial (= military court) Attorney General
Poet Laureate

2 available, possible, etc

Some adjectives can be used after nouns in a similar way to relative clauses.
This is com m on with adjectives ending in -able/-ible.
Send all the tickets available / available tickets. (= . . . tickets which
are available.)
I t’s the only solution possible / possible solution.
Some adverbs can also be used like this.
the wom an upstairs the people outside -»

gram m ar • 186 adjectives after nouns and pronouns

 3 present, proper
Before a noun, present refers to time; after a noun it m eans 'h e re/th e re’, 'not
absent'. Compare:
the present m em bers (= those who are m em bers now)
the m em bers present (= those who are/w ere at the meeting)
Before a noun, proper (especially in British English) m eans ‘real’, ‘genuine’.
After a noun it refers to the central or m ain part of something. Compare:
Snow don’s a proper m ountain, not a hill.
After two days crossing the foothills, they reached the m ou n ta in proper.
For the position and m eaning of opposite, ►548.

4 expressions of measurement: two metres high

Adjectives usually follow m easurem ent nouns.
two metres high ten years older two miles long six fe et deep
Exception: worth (e.g. worth 100 euros). ►634

5 adjectives with complements: people skilled in design

W hen an adjective has its own com plem ent (e.g. skilled in design), the whole
expression normally com es after a noun.
We are looking fo r people skilled in design, ( n o t . . . skilled in design people. )
A relative clause is often m ore natural.
We are looking fo r people who are skilled in design.
In som e cases an adjective can be put before a noun and its com plem ent after it.
This happens with different, similar, the same, next, last, first, second, etc;
com paratives and superlatives; and a few other adjectives like difficult and easy,
a different life fr o m this one the second train fr o m this platform
the next house to the Royal Hotel the best mother in the world
( or the house next to the Royal Hotel) a difficult problem to solve

6 something, everything, etc

Adjectives com e after something, everything, anything, nothing, somebody,
anywhere and similar words.
Have you read anything interesting lately? Let's go som ewhere quiet.

187 adjectives: position after as, how, so, too

After as, how, so, too and this/that m eaning so, adjectives go before a/an.
This structure is com m on in a formal style.
as/h ow /so/too/this/that + adjective + a /a n + noun
I have as good a voice as you. She is too polite a person to refuse.
H ow good a pianist is he? I couldn’t afford th a t big a car.
It was so w arm a d a y that I could hardly work.
The structure is not possible w ithout a/an.
I like your country - it's so beautiful.
Those girls are too kind to refuse, ( n o t -
For the structure with adjective + as in expressions like tired as I was . • 255.

gram m ar • 187 adjectives: position after as, how, so, too

 Adjectives Section 1 5

188 adjectives w ithout nouns

We cannot usually leave out a noun after an adjective.
Poor little boy! ( n o t Poor little!)
The m ost im p o rta n t thing is to be happy, ( n o t The-m&st im portant is . . .)
But there are som e exceptions.

1 w ell-known groups: the old; the poor

The + adjective is used to talk about certain well-known groups of people who
are in a particular physical or social condition. Com m on expressions:
the blind the disabled the mentally ill the rich
the dead the handicapped the old the unemployed
the d e a f the jobless the poor the young
The term handicapped is now often considered offensive; people with physical
disabilities generally prefer the adjective disabled.
He’s collecting money fo r the blind.
The unem ployed are losing hope.
The m eaning is usually general; occasionally a limited group is referred to.
After the accident, the injured were taken to hospital.
These expressions are norm ally plural: the dead m eans ‘all dead people’ or
‘the dead people', but not 'the dead p erson’.
The d ead have no further worries, ( but n o t The dead has . . .)
Note that these expressions cannot be used with a p o ssessive's.
the problems o f the poor or poor people’s problems ( n o t the poor's problems)
Adjectives are norm ally only used in this way with the or a determ iner.
This governm ent doesn’t care about the poor, ( n o t . . . about poor.)
There are m ore unem ployed than ever before.
However, adjectives w ithout the are som etim es used in paired structures with
both . . . a nd . . .
opportunities fo r both rich a n d poor

2 adjectives of nationality: the Irish; the Dutch

A few adjectives of nationality ending in -sh or -ch (► 321.3) are used after the
w ithout nouns. They include Irish, Welsh, English, British, Spanish,
Dutch, French.
The Irish are very proud o f their sense o f humour.
These expressions are plural; singular equivalents are for example an
Irishwoman, a Welshman ( n o t a- Welsh).
W here nouns exist, these are preferred to expressions with the . . .ish: we say
the Danes or the Turks ( n o t the Danish or the Turkish).

3 singular examples: the accused

In a few formal fixed phrases, the + adjective can have a singular meaning.
These include the accused, the undersigned, the deceased, the form er and
the latter.
The accused was released on bail.
. . . Stephen Gray a nd Susan Cook; the latter is a well-known designer.

gram m ar • 188 adjectives without nouns

 4 abstract ideas: the supernatural
Adjectives are som etim es used after the to refer to general abstract ideas,
especially in philosophical writing. (Examples: the beautiful, the supernatural,
the unreal.) These expressions are singular.
She’s interested in the supernatural.
The difficult we do immediately; the im possible takes a little longer.
5 choices: White or brown?
We som etim es leave out a noun that has already been m entioned, or which
does not need to be m entioned, w hen thinking about a choice betw een two or
m ore different kinds of thing.
‘Have you got any bread?' ‘Do you w ant w hite or brown?'
I ’d like two large packets and one small.
Colour adjectives can som etim es have a plural -s in this situation, effectively
becom ing nouns.
Wash the reds and blues separately. (= red and blue clothes)
6 superlatives: We bought the cheapest.
Nouns are often left out after superlative adjectives.
I ’m the tallest in m y fam ily. We bought the cheapest.
For other structures in which nouns can be left out, ►278.

189 gradable and non-gradable adjectives

Adjectives can be divided into gradable and non-gradable. Gradable adjectives
(e.g. difficult, important, happy, tired) are words for qualities that exist in
different degrees. Things can be m ore or less difficult or important; people can
be m ore or less happy or tired. Non-gradable adjectives (e.g. impossible,
essential, alive, exhausted) are words for 'e ith e r-o r' qualities. We d o n 't generally
say that some things are m ore impossible than others, or that som ebody is not
very exhausted: things are either im possible or not, and people are either
exhausted or not.
Degree adverbs like very or more are mostly used with gradable adjectives, and it
is mainly gradable adjectives that have com parative and superlative forms.
Note that quite has different m eanings in British English with gradable and
non-gradable adjectives (► 564).

190 measurements: 'm arked' and

'unm arked' forms
Many adjectives that are used in m easurem ents come in pairs (e.g. tall/short,
old/young, heavy/light, fast/slow ). The w ord that is used for the ‘top' end of the
m easurem ent scale can usually be used in another sense, to talk about the
quality in general. For instance, one can ask how long som ething is even if it is
relatively short. Gram m arians call these uses ‘unm arked’. Compare:
- She’s very tall a nd he’s very short, (marked)
Exactly how tall are they both? (unm arked) ( n o t Exaetly-how sh o rt. . .)

gram m ar • 189 gradable and non-gradable adjectives

 Adjectives Section 1 5

- Will you still love m e when I ’m old? (marked)

He's only twenty-three years old. (unm arked) ( n o t . . . years young.)
- Lead is one o f the heaviest metals, (marked)
Scales measure how heavy things are. (unm arked) ( n o t . . . how light.
Some nouns are used in similar 'unm arked' ways. Compare:
- Age brings wisdom but I ’d rather have youth a nd stupidity, (marked)
W hat is her exact age? (unm arked)
- The worst thing about the film was its length, (marked)
What's the length o f the runway? (unm arked) ( n o t ■
?)

191 pronunciation of aged, naked, etc

A few adjectives ending in -ed have a special pronunciation: die last syllable is
pronounced /id/ instead of Id/ or It/ (► 44.2).
aged /'e id jid / (= very old) blessed /'blesid/
b e lo v e d /b i'\\v id / dogged /'dngid/
crooked /'k ru k id / learned /'b in id /
cursed /'k3:sid/ sacred /'seik rid /
naked /'n eik id / wicked /'w ikid/
ragged /'ra g id / wretched /'retj'id/
rugged /‘rAgid/ one/three/four-legged /'legid/
Note that aged is pronounced /eidgd/ w hen it m eans ‘years old’ (as in He has a
daughter aged ten), or w hen it is a verb.

192 What can follow an adjective?

Many adjectives can be followed by ‘com plem ents’ - words and expressions that
‘com plete’ their m eaning. Not all adjectives are followed by the sam e kind of
com plem ent. Some can be followed by preposition + noun/-iw g (► 103).
I'm interested in cookery. I'm interested in learning to cook.
Some can be followed by infinitives (► 101).
You d on't look happy to see me. The soup is ready to eat.
An infinitive may have its own subject, introduced by fo r (► 113).
I ’m anxious fo r her to get a good education. (= I’m anxious that she
should g e t . . .)
Some adjectives can be followed by clauses (► 264).
I'm glad th a t you were able to come.
It's im portant th a t everybody should fe e l comfortable.
And m any adjectives can have m ore than one kind of com plem ent.
I ’m pleased a b o u t her promotion. I'm pleased to see you here.
I'm pleased th a t we seem to agree.
We rarely put adjective + com plem ent before a noun (► 186.5).
H e’s a difficult person to understand, ( n o t i

For the structures that are possible with a particular adjective, see a good dictionary.

gram m ar «192 What can follow an adjective?

Section 16 Adverbs and Adverbials
INTRODUCTION
The term adverb is used for a wide variety of words with different kinds of use:
for example frankly, now, very, right, regularly. Their general function is to
modify (add m eaning to) sentences, clauses or various parts of clauses
(but not nouns).
Frankly, I think she’s crazy.
You did that very well.
Please answer now.
She went right up the stairs.
When I was a student, I went to the gym regularly.

Other longer expressions can modify sentences, clauses, verbs, etc in the same
way as adverbs.To be honest, I think she's crazy.
You did that quite rem arkably well.
Please answer right away.
She went all the w ay up the stairs.
When I was a student, I w ent to the gym every day.

It can be convenient to use a single word to talk about modifiers of this kind,
w hether they are adverbs, or longer expressions functioning like adverbs. In this
Section they are called 'adverbials' w hen necessary. For adverbial clauses
(e.g. When I was a student), ►Sections 20, 22-23.

Note that not all languages make a gram matical distinction betw een adverbs and
adjectives. This can cause problem s for som e learners.

gram m ar • Section 16 Adverbs and Adverbials

 Do you know what's wrong with these, and why?
© She danced happy into the room . ► 193.1
О I d o n 't rem em ber him very good. ► 193.1
О It’s terrible cold today. ► 193.2
© They smiled friendly at us. ► 194.1
© You’re doing finely. ► 194.2
© I worked very hardly for the exam. ► 194.2
© The door was widely open. ► 194.2
© I get often headaches. ► 196.1
© She speaks very well English. ► 196.1
© Never I get up early. ► 198.1
© Here your bus comes. ►201.2
© Put the butter at once in the fridge. ►201.4
© I play always tennis on Saturdays. ►200.1
© I never have seen a whale. ►200.1
© He does probably not know. ►200.2
© I often am late for work. ►200.1
© I will completely have finished by next year. ► 198.3

CONTENTS OF THIS SECTION

193 adverbs of m anner 197 connecting and com m ent
and adjectives adverbials
194 adverbs or adjectives: 198 indefinite frequency, certainty
confusing cases and com pleteness
195 adverb particles: up, down, back, 199 focusing adverbials
away, etc 200 mid-position: details
196 position of adverbials: 201 m anner, place and time
introduction 202 adverbials modifying adverbials:
terribly sorry, right past me

gram m ar • Section 16 Adverbs and Adverbials

193 adverbs of manner and adjectives
1 adverbs of manner with verbs: He sang badly.
Adverbs of m anner typically say how som ething happens or is done.
Examples: happily, terribly, fast, badly, well
Adverbs of m anner can modify verbs. They should not be confused with
adjectives {happy, terrible, etc). Adjectives are not used to modify verbs.

I
verb + adverb

She danced happily into the room, ( n o t She danced happy . . .)

She sang badly, ( n o t She sang bad.)
I d o n ’t rem em ber him very well, ( n o t . . . very good.)
But note that some adjective forms are som etim es used as adverbs in an
informal style, especially in American English (► 194.4).
She talks fu n n y.
For the use of adjectives after linking verbs like look or seem, ► 11.

2 other uses: terribly cold

These adverbs can also modify adjectives, past participles, other adverbs and
prepositional phrases.

I-------------- *
adverb + adjective

It’s terribly cold today, (not ,

adverb + past participle

This steak is very badly cooked, (n o t .

I \
adverb + adverb

They're playing unusually fast, (not . . . unusual fast.)

I-----------
adverb + prepositional phrase

He was m adly in love with her. (not .

For adjectives ending in -ly, ► 194.1. For adverbs and adjectives with the sam e form, ► 194.2.
For the adjective well, ►622. For the position of adverbs of manner, ►201.1.
For spelling rules, ►345.

gram m ar • 193 adverbs of m anner and adjectives

 Adverbs and Adverbials Section 1 6

194 adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases

1 adjectives ending in -ly: friendly, lively
Some words ending in -ly are adjectives, and not normally adverbs. Common
examples: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely, silly,
ugly, unlikely.
She gave m e a frie n d ly smile. Her singing was lovely.
There are no adverbs friendlyZfriendlily, lovely/lovelily, etc.
She smiled in a frien d ly way.
He gave a silly laugh.
Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early and leisurely are both adjectives
and adverbs.
It's a daily paper. It comes out daily. an early train I got up early.

2 adjectives and adverbs with the same form; adverbs with

tw o forms
Some adjectives and adverbs have the sam e form: for example, a fa st car goes
fast] if you do hard work, you work hard. In other cases, the adverb may have
two forms (e.g. late and lately), one like the adjective and the other with -ly.
There is usually a difference of m eaning or use. Some examples follow; for more
detailed information, check in a good dictionary.
clean The adverb clean m eans 'com pletely' before forget (informal) and some
expressions of movement.
Sorry I did n 't turn up - I clean forgot.
The explosion blew the cooker clean through the wall.
dead The adverb dead is used in certain expressions to m ean 'exactly',
'com pletely' or ‘very’. Examples: dead ahead, dead certain, dead drunk, dead
right, dead slow, dead straight, dead sure, dead tired.
Note that deadly is an adjective, m eaning ‘fatal’, 'causing death’. The adverb for
this m eaning is fatally. Compare:
Cyanide is a deadly poison. She was fa ta lly injured in the crash.
direct Direct is often used informally as an adverb.
The plane goes direct fro m London to Houston w ithout stopping.
50% cheaper - order direct fro m the factory!
easy Easy is used as an adverb in some informal expressions.
Go easy! (= Not too fast!) Take it easy! {= Relax!)
Easy come, easy go. Easier said than done.
fair Fair is used as an adverb after a verb in som e expressions.
to play fa ir to fig h t fa ir to hit/w in som ethingfair and square

For the adverb of degree fairly, ►460.

gram m ar • 194 adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases

fast Fast can m ean both ‘quick’ and ‘quickly’ (a fa st car goes fast). Fast m eans
‘com pletely’ in the expression fa s t asleep, and it m eans ‘tight’, ‘impossible to
rem ove’ in expressions like hold fa st, stick fa st, fa s t colours.
fine The adverb fin e (= well) is used in som e informal expressions.
That suits m e fine. You’re doing fine.
The adverb finely is used to talk about small careful adjustm ents and
similar ideas.
a fin e ly tuned engine fin e ly chopped onions (= cut up very small)
flat Flat can be used as an adverb in a m usical sense {to sing fla t m eans ‘to sing
on a note that is too low’). In m ost other cases, the adverb is flatly.
free The adverb free (used after a verb) m eans 'w ithout paym ent’; freely m eans
‘w ithout limit or restriction’. Compare;
You can eat free in m y restaurant whenever you like.
You can speak freely - 1 w on't tell anyone w hat you say.
h ard The adverb hard m eans ‘with a lot of force, energetically’.
H it it hard. I trained really h a rd fo r the marathon.
Hardly m eans ‘alm ost not’.
I ’ve hardly got any clean clothes left.
Compare:
A nna works hard. Her brother hardly works.
For h a rd ly. . . when in clauses of time, ►480. For hardly any, ever, etc, ►366.3.

high High refers to height; highly (rather formal) expresses an extreme degree
(it often m eans ‘very m u ch ’). Compare:
- He can ju m p really high. - It’s highly amusing.
Throw it as high as you can. I can highly recommend it.
just Just is an adverb with several m eanings (► 503). There is also an adjective
just, m eaning ‘in accordance with justice or the law’; the adverb is justly.
He was ju stly punished fo r his crimes.
late The adverb late has a similar m eaning to the adjective late; lately m eans
‘recently’. Compare:
I hate arriving late.I haven't been to the theatre m uch lately.
loud Loud is often used informally as an adverb after a verb.
D on’t talk so loud(ly) - y o u ’ll wake the whole street.
low Low is an adjective and adverb {a low bridge, a low voice, bend low).
m ost Most is the superlative of much, and is used to form superlative adjectives
and adverbs (► 204).
Which part o f the concert did you like most?
This is the m ost extraordinary day o f m y life.
In a formal style, m ost can be used to m ean ‘very’.
You're a m ost unusual person.
Mostly m eans ‘mainly’, ‘m ost often’ or ‘in m ost cases'.
My friends are m ostly non-smokers.

gram m ar • 194 adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases

 Adverbs and Adverbials Section 1 6

pretty The informal adverb of degree pretty is similar to rather (► 460).

Prettily m eans 'in a pretty way’. Compare:
I ’m getting pretty fe d up. Isn't your little girl dressed prettily?
quick In an informal style, quick is often used instead of quickly, especially after
verbs of m ovem ent.
I'll get back as quick(ly) as I can.
real In informal American English, real is often used instead of really before
adjectives and adverbs.
That was real nice. He cooks real well.
right Right with adverbials m eans 'ju st’, ‘exactly’ or 'all the way'.
She arrived right after breakfast.
The snowball hit m e right on the nose.
Turn the gas right down.
Right and rightly can both be used to m ean 'correctiy'. Right is only used after
verbs, and is usually informal. Compare:
I rightly assum ed that Henry was not coming. You guessed right.
It serves you right. (. . . rightly is not possible.)
sharp Sharp can be used as an adverb to m ean 'punctually'.
Can you be there at six o'clock sharp?
It also has a m usical sense (to sing sharp m eans 'to sing on a note that is too
high’), and is used in the expressions turn sharp left and turn sharp right
(m eaning ‘with a big change of direction’).
In other senses the adverb is sharply.
She looked a t him sharply.
I thought you spoke to her rather sharply.
short Short is used as an adverb in the expressions stop short (= ‘stop suddenly')
and cut short (= 'interrupt'). Shortly m eans 'soon'; it can also describe an
im patient way of speaking.
slow Slow is used as an adverb in road signs (e.g. SLOW - DANGEROUS BEND), and
informally after go and some other verbs. Examples: go slow, drive slow.
sound Sound is used as an adverb in the expression sound asleep. In other
cases, soundly is used (e.g. She’s sleeping soundly).
straight The adverb and the adjective are the same. A straight road goes straight
from one place to another.
sure Sure is often used to m ean 'certainly’ in an informal style, especially in
American English.
‘Can I borrow your tennis racket?' ‘Sure.’
Surely (not) is used to express opinions or surprise (► 600 for details).
Surely house prices will stop rising soon!
Surely y o u ’re not going out in that old coat?
tight After a verb, tight can be used instead of tightly, especially in an informal
style. Typical expressions: hold tight, packed tight (com pare tightly packed).

gram m ar • 194 adverbs or adjectives: confusing cases

 well Well is an adverb corresponding to the adjective good (a good singer sings
well). Well is also an adjective m eaning 'in good health' (the opposite of ill).
For details, ►622.
w ide The norm al adverb is wide; widely suggests distance or separation.
Compare:
The door was wide open. She's travelled widely.
They have widely differing opinions.
Note also the expression wide aw ake (the opposite of fa st asleep).
w rong Wrong can be used informally instead of wrongly after a verb. Compare:
I wrongly believed that you wanted to help me.
You guessed wrong.

3 comparatives and superlatives

Informal uses of adjective forms as adverbs are especially com m on with
comparatives and superlatives.
Can you drive a bit slower? Let's see who can do it quickest.

4 American English
In informal American English, m any other adjective forms can also be used as
adverbs of m anner.
He looked a t me real strange. Think positive.

195 adverb particles: up, down, back, away, etc

1 adverb particles and prepositions
W ords like down, in, up are not always prepositions. Compare:
- I ran do w n the road.
Please sit down.
- Something's climbing up m y leg.
She's not up yet.
- He's in his office.
You can go in.
In the expressions dow n the road, in his office and up m y leg, the words down, in
and up are prepositions: they have objects (the road, his office and m y leg).
In sit down, go in and S he’s not up, the words down, in and up have no objects.
They are adverbs, not prepositions.
Small adverbs like these are usually called 'adverb(ial) particles'. They include
above, about, across, ahead, along, (a)round, aside, away, back, before, behind,
below, by, down, forward, in, home, near, off, on, out, over, past, through, under,
up. Many words of this kind can be used as both adverb particles and
prepositions, but there are som e exceptions: for example back, away (only
adverb particles); from , during (only prepositions).

gram m ar • 195 adverb particles: up, down, back, away, etc

 Adverbs and Adverbials Section 1 6

2 phrasal verbs: give up, break down

Adverb particles often join together with verbs to make two-word verbs,
som etim es with completely new m eanings (e.g. break down, p u t off, work out,
give up). These are often called 'phrasal verbs'. For details of their use, ► 12.

3 adverb particles with be: I'm off!

Adverb particles are often used, rather like adjectives, as com plem ents of
the verb be.
Why are all the lights on? Hello! You’re back!
The match will be over by 4.30. I'm o ff - see you later!
For inverted word order in sentences beginning with an adverb particle (e.g. Out walked Sarah), ►271.

196 position of adverbials: introduction

Different kinds of adverbials typically go in different positions in a clause.
The very simple explanations below show the com m onest patterns; entries
►197-202 give some m ore detail. However, this is a very com plicated area of
gram m ar, and it is im possible to give reliable rules that apply all the tim e to all
adverbials.

1 verb and object: She speaks English well.

We do not usually p u t adverbials betw een a verb and its object.
a d v e r b ia l + v e rb + o b je c t

I often get headaches, (not I get often headaches.)

verb + object + adverbial
She speaks English well, ( n o t She speaks well English.)
But an adverb particle like on, off, out can go betw een a verb and a noun object.
Could you sw itch o ff the light?

2 front, mid- and end position

There are three norm al positions for adverbials:
a fro nt position (at the beginning of a clause)
Yesterday m orning something very strange happened.
b m id-position (with the verb - for exact details ► 200)
M y brother com pletely forgot m y birthday.
I have never understood her.
с end position (at the end of a clause)
W hat are you doing tomorrow?

3 What goes where?

Connecting adverbials (which join a clause to w hat cam e before) and com m ent
adverbials (which show a speaker’s or w riter's opinion of w hat he/sh e is talking
about) usually go in front position.
However, not everybody agreed. Fortunately, nobody was hurt.

gram m ar «196 position of adverbials: introduction

 Adverbials of indefinite frequency (e.g. always, often), certainty (e.g. probably,
definitely) and com pleteness (e.g. completely, almost) usually go
in m id-position.
M y boss often travels to America.
I've definitely decided to change m y job.
The builder said he had alm ost finished, b u t it wasn't true.
Focusing adverbials (e.g. also, just, even) can go in m id-position; other
positions are possible, depending on the particular adverbial.
He's even been to Antarctica.
Adverbials of m a n n e r (how), place (where) and time (when) m ost often go in
end position.
She brushed her hair slowly. The children are playing upstairs.
I phoned Alex this morning.
Time adverbials can also go in front position.
Tom orrow I've got a meeting in Cardiff.
Em phasising adverbials (e.g. terribly, really) usually go with the words
they em phasise.
I ’m terribly sorry about last night.
Degree adverbials (e.g. more, very much, most, a lot, so) go in various places,
depending on their function in the sentence. Details are given in other entries.

For more details about the position of these and other kinds of adverbial, see the next four sections.

197 connecting and comment adverbials

Examples of connecting adverbials: then, next, after that, besides,
anyway, suddenly, however, as a result, on the other hand
These words and expressions show how a clause connects with w hat came
before. Naturally, they generally go in front position.
I worked until five o ’clock. Then I went home.
Next, I w ant to say som ething about the future.
Suddenly the door opened.
Some o f us w ant a new system. However, not everybody agrees.
It was hard work; on the other hand, we really enjoyed the experience.
Examples of com m ent adverbials: fortunately, surprisingly, in m y
opinion, arguably, as you might expect
These adverbials show a speaker’s or w riter's opinion of w hat he/sh e is talking
about. They, too, m ost often go in front position.
Fortunately, several people have decided to help us.
Stupidly, I did not read the contract before signing it.
Arguably, this is her finest novel since ‘Flowers o f D oom ’.
As y o u m ight expect, his remarks have attracted widespread criticism.
Other positions are possible, especially with shorter adverbials.
N ot everybody, however, agrees.
I stupidly did not read the contract before signing it.
For the use of some of these adverbials as discourse markers, ►284, 301.

gram m ar «197 connecting and com m ent adverbials

 Adverbs and Adverbials

198 indefinite frequency, certainty and

completeness
Adverbials in this group m ost often go in m id-position (before a one-part verb
and after an auxiliary verb - for m ore exact details, ►200).

1 adverbials of indefinite frequency: usually, often, etc

Examples: usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally,
always, rarely, ever, hardly ever, seldom, never
We usually go to Scotland in August.
It som etim es gets very w indy here. I have never seen a whale.
You can alw ays come a n d stay with us if you w ant to.
Have you ever played American football?
M y boss is often bad-tempered. I'm seldom late fo r work.
We have never been invited to one o f their parties.
She m ust som etim es have wanted to run away.
Other positions are possible for m ost of them .
Som etim es I think I'd like to live somewhere else.
I see her occasionally.
Always, ever, rarely, seldom and never cannot normally go in front position.
I alw ays/never get up early, ( n o t A lways/Never I get up early.)
However, always and never can begin im perative clauses.
Always look in the mirror before starting to drive.
Never ask her about her marriage.

For rarely, seldom, never, hardly and scarcely in front position before verb + subject ('inversion'), ►270.7.

2 adverbials of certainty: probably, certainly, etc

Examples: probably, certainly, definitely, clearly, obviously
He probably thinks you d o n ’t like him.
It will certainly rain this evening. There is clearly something wrong.
I definitely feel better today. The train has obviously been delayed.
Maybe and perhaps usually com e at the beginning of a clause.
M aybe I ’m right and m aybe I'm wrong. Perhaps her train is late.

3 adverbials of completeness: practically, partly, etc

Examples: completely, practically, almost, nearly, quite, rather, partly,
sort of, kind of, more or less, hardly, scarcely

I have com pletely forgotten your name.

Sophie can practically read. I k in d o f hope she wins.
It was alm ost dark. It hardly matters.
Adverbials of com pleteness usually follow all auxiliary verbs.
I will have com pletely finished by next June.

Do you think the repair has been properly done?

gram m ar «198 indefinite frequency, certainty and completeness

 4 longer adverbials: from time to time, etc
Longer adverbials do not usually go in mid-position. Compare:
I som etim es visit m y old school.
I visit m y old school fr o m tim e to time, ( n o t I fro m time to time v isit. . .)

199 focusing adverbials ___

These adverbials 'point to' one part of a clause.
Examples: also, just, even, only, mainly, mostly, either, or, neither, nor

They often go in m id -p o sitio n .

Your bicycle ju s t needs some oil - that's all.
She neither said 'Thank yo u ' nor looked a t me.
He's been everywhere - h e’s even been to Antarctica.
We’re only going fo r two days.
She’s m y teacher, but she’s also m y friend.
The people a t the meeting were m a in ly scientists.
Some of these adverbials can also go in other places in a clause, direcdy before
the words they modify. For details, see the entries on each adverbial.
Only yo u could do a thing like that. I feel really tired.

200 mid-position^details^ ___ ___

1 What exactly is mid-position?
Mid-position adverbials usually go before one-word verbs (e.g. play, won). If a
verb has m ore than one part (e.g. has written, was trying), they normally go after
the auxiliary. And they go after am /are/is/w as/w ere.
a before one-word verbs
I always play tennis on Saturdays, ( n o t I play always tennis . . .)
It certainly looks like rain. We nearly w on the match.
b after auxiliary verbs
She has never written to me. ( n o t usually She never has written to me.)
He was definitely trying to get into the house.
The train will probably be late. You can alm ost see the sea from here.
с after am/are/is/was/were
She was alw ays kind to me. (not usually She always was kind to m e.)
It is probably too late now. I a m obviously not welcome here.
W hen there are two or m ore auxiliaries, the adverbial usually goes after the first.
You have definitely been working too hard.
She w ould never have been prom oted if she h a d n ’t changed jobs.

gram m ar • 199 focusing adverbials

 Adverbs and Adverbials Section 1 6

W hen an auxiliary verb is used alone instead of a com plete verb phrase (► 279),
a m id-position adverbial com es before it.
‘A re y o u working?’ ‘I certainly am.'
I d o n ’t trust politicians. I never have, a nd I never will.

2 mid-position (details): adverbials with negative verbs

In negative sentences, adverbials generally come before not if they em phasise
the negative; otherwise they com e after. Compare:
I certainly do not agree. I do not often have headaches.
Both positions are possible with som e adverbials, often with a difference of
m eaning. Compare:
I d o n ’t really like her. (mild dislike)
I really d o n ’t like her. (strong dislike)
W hen adverbials com e before not, they m ay also com e before the first auxiliary
verb; they always com e before do.
I probably will not be there, ( o r I will probably not be there.)
He probably does not know, ( n o t lie docs probably-not know.)
Only one position is possible before a contracted negative.
I probably w on ’t be there.

3 mid-position (details): adverbials with emphatic verbs

W hen we em phasise auxiliary verbs or am /are/is/w as/w ere, we put m ost m id­
position adverbials before them instead of after. Compare:
- She has certainly m ade him angry.
She certainly HAS m ade him angry!
- Polite people alw ays say thank-you.
Yes, well, 1 alw ays DO say thank-you.
- I’m really sorry.
I really AM sorry.

4 mid-position (details): Am erican English

In American English (► 319), m id-position adverbials are often put before
auxiliary verbs and am /are/is/w as/w ere, even w hen the verb is not em phasised,
especially in an informal style. Compare:
He has probably arrived by now. (norm al in both AmE and BrE)
He probably has arrived by now. (also norm al in AmE; em phatic in BrE)
As an extreme example, here are four sentences in a journalistic style taken from
an American new spaper article on crime in Britain. The m ost norm al British
equivalents are given in brackets.
‘Britain long has been know n as a land o f law a n d order.' (BrE Britain has
long been known . . .)
'. . . but it probably w ill lead to a vote . . . ’ (BrE . . . but it will probably
le a d . . .)
'. . . the Labor Party often has criticized police actions. ’ (BrE . . . the Labour
Party has often criticised . . .)
' . . . he ultim ately was responsible fo r the trea tm en t. . . ' (BrE . . . he was
ultim ately responsible . . .)

gram m ar • 200 mid-position: details

201 manner, place and time
Adverbials of m anner, place and tim e usually go in end position, often in that
order.

1 manner
Adverbials of m anner say how som ething happens or is done.
Examples: angrily, happily, fast, slowly, well, badly, nicely, noisily,
quietly, hard, softly
He drove o ff angrily. You speak English well.
She read the notice slowly. Jack works really hard.
Adverbials in -ly can also go in m id-position if the adverb is not the m ain focus
of the message.
She angrily tore up the letter. I slowly began to feel better again.
M id-position (after all auxiliary verbs) is especially com m on with passive verbs.
The driver has been seriously injured

2 place
Examples: upstairs, around, here, to bed, in London, out o f the window

The children are playing upstairs. Come and sit here.

D on't throw orange peel o u t o f the window.
She's sitting a t the end o f the garden.
Front position is also possible, especially in literary writing and if the adverbial is
not the m ain focus of the message. In this case the verb often com es before
the subject (► 271.1).
On the grass sat an enormous frog. Down cam e the rain.
Here and there often begin clauses. Note the word order in Here/There is,
Here comes and There goes.
Here comes your bus. ( n o t Here your bus corner )
There's Alice. There goes our train!
Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.
Here it comes, ( n o t Here comes it.) There she is. ( n o t There is she:)
Adverbials of direction (movem ent) com e before adverbials of position.
The children are running a round upstairs.

3 time and definite frequency

Examples: today, afterwards, in June, last year, finally, before, eventually,
already, soon, still, last, daily, weekly, every year
I'm going to London today. W hat did you do afterwards?
She has a new hairstyle every week.
Front position is also com m on if the adverbial is not the m ain focus of
the message.
Today I'm going to London. Every week she has a new hairstyle.
Finally, eventually, already, soon and last can also go in mid-position.

gram m ar • 201 m anner, place and time

 Adverbs and Adverbials Section 1 6

4 order
Most often, adverbials of m anner, place and tim e go in that order.
Put the butter in the frid g e a t once, ( n o t . . . at once in the fridge.)
Let’s go to bed early, ( n o t . . . early to bed.)
I worked h a rd yesterday. She sang beautifully in the town hall last night.

202 adverbials modifying adverbials:

terribly sorry; right past me
Examples: very, extremely, terribly, ju st (m eaning ‘exactiy’ or ‘a short
tim e’), almost, really, right

These adverbials go directly before the words that they modify.

We all thought she sang very well.
Everybody was extrem ely annoyed with Julian.
I'm terribly sorry about last night.
I'll see you in the pub ju s t before eight o ’clock.
He threw the ball alm ost over the house.
I'm really tired today. She walked right p a st me.
Almost can also go in m id-position (► 198.3).

gram m ar • 202 adverbials modifying adverbials: terribly sorry, right past me

Section 17 Comparison
INTRODUCTION
Various words and structures can be used for comparing. This Section deals
particularly with structures used for expressing equality and inequality.

equality: a s . . . as
To say that people, things, etc are equal in a particular way, we often use the
structure as (m uch/m any) . . . as (► 203).
M y hands were as cold as ice. I earn as much money as you.

inequality: older than, more attractive than, laziest,

most annoying, etc
To say that people, things, etc are unequal in a particular way, we can use
com parative adjectives and adverbs, or m ore + adjective/adverb (► 204-208).
He's m uch older than her. The baby’s more attractive than you.
To say which one of a group is outstanding in a particular way, we can use a
superlative or m ost + adjective/adverb (► 204-208).
You're the laziest a nd m ost annoying person in the whole office.

inequality: less, least: not solas . . . as

We can also talk about inequality by looking at the ‘lower' end of the scale. One
possibility is to use less (than) (► 169) or least (► 170).
The baby's less ugly than you.
I w ant to spend the least possible time working.
In informal usage, we m ore often use not so . . . as or not as . . . as (► 203).
The baby's not so ugly as you.

similarity and identity: as, like, so do I, too, the same, etc

If we w ant to say that people, things, actions or events are similar, we can use
as or like (► 515); so/neither do I and similar structures (► 309); or adverbs such
as too, also and as well (► 369). To say that they are identical, we can use
the same (as) (► 571).
He liked working with horses, as his father did.
Your sister looks ju st like you. She likes music, and so do I.
The fish was over-cooked and the vegetables were too.
His eyes are ju st the sam e colour as mine.

gram m ar • Section 17 Comparison

 Do you know what's wrong with these, and why?
© H e’s not so friendly like she is. ►203.2
© Your hands are as cold like ice. ►203.11
© H e’s the happyest person 1 know. ►204.3
© The m ost easiest solution is to do nothing. ►204.3
© Are hum ans really the intelligentest creatures? ►204.4
© W ould you m ind talking quiedier? ►205
© Emily's the taller of the four girls. ►206.2
© Your accent is the worse in the class. ►206.2
© W e’re going m ore slowly and m ore slowly. ►206.4
© Older I get, m ore I am happy. ►206.5
© The m ore it is dangerous, the m ore I like it. ►206.5
© It’s the longest river of the world. ►206.7
© My boyfriend is very older than me. ►207.1
© I’m not going out with a m an w ho’s twice older than me. ►208.3
© She spent m ore m oney than it was sensible. ►208.4
© Is this the first tim e for you to stay here? ►208.5
© This dictionary is best I could find. ►208.6
© H e's the nicest w hen h e ’s with children. ►208.6

CONTENTS OF THIS SECTION

203 as . . . as; as m uch /m a n y as
204 com parative and superlative
adjectives
205 com parative and superlative
adverbs
206 using comparatives and
superlatives
207 much older, by fa r the oldest, etc
208 comparison: advanced points

gram m ar • Section 17 Comparison

 as .. .as; as much/many as ____
1 use
We use as . . . as to say that people or things are equal in som e way.
She's as tall as her brother. Is it as good as you expected?
She speaks Spanish as well as the rest o f us.
Take as m uch time as you need.

2 negative structures
After not, we can use so . . . as instead of as . . . as.
H e’s not as/so friendly as she is. (m ore informal than He’s less friendly . . .)

3 as . . . as possible, etc
The structures as . . . as possible/necessary I ever/ needed are com m on (and others
using words with similar meanings).
Please get here as soon as possible.
I ’ll spend as much as necessary. You’re as beautiful as ever.
W e’ll do as m uch as practicable before the end o f the week.

4 pronouns after as
In an informal style we can use object pronouns (me, him, etc) after as.
She doesn ’t sing as well as me.
In a formal style, we prefer subject + verb after as.
She doesn’t sing as well as I do.
A subject form w ithout a verb (e.g. as well as he) is unusual in this structure in
m odern English.

5 as m uch/m any. . . as
We can use as m uch/m any . . . as to talk about quantity.
I haven't got as much money as I thought.
We need as m any people as possible.
As m uch/m any can be used w ithout following nouns.
I ate as much as I could. She d id n ’t catch as m any as she’d hoped.
And as much . . . can be used as an adverb.
You ought to rest as much as possible.

6 emphatic use: as much as 80kg

As m uch/m any as can be used before a num ber to m ean ‘the large am ount/
quantity o f.
Some o f these fish can weigh as much as 80kg.
There are sometimes as m any as 40 students in the classes.
As little/few can be used to m ean ‘the small am ount/quantity o f.
You can fly to Paris fo r as little as 20 euros.

gram m ar • 203 as . . . as; as much/many as

 Comparison Section 1 7

7 half a s . . . as, etc

Half, twice, three times, etc can be used before as . . . as.
You're not h a lf as clever a s you think you are.
I ’m not going out with a m an w ho’s tw ice as old as me.
It took three tim es as long as I expected, ( o r . . . three tim es longer than I
expected, ►208.3)

8 modification: nearly as . ..
Before as . . . as we can use (not) nearly, almost, just, nothing like, every bit,
exactly, not quite.
It's n o t n early a s cold as yesterday. H e’s ju s t a s strong as ever.
You’re n oth in g like as bad-tempered as you used to be.
She's every b it as beautiful as her sister.
I ’m n o t q u ite as tired as I was last week.

9 tenses
In as . . . ж -clauses (and other kinds of as-clauses), a present tense is often used
to refer to the future, and a past tense can have a m eaning similar to w o u ld +
infinitive (► 231).
We'll get there as soon as you d o /w ill.
I f you married me, I'd give you as much freedom as you w anted.

10 leaving out the second part: twice as long . ..

The second part of the as . . . as or so . . . as structure can be left out w hen the
m eaning is clear from w hat com es before.
The train takes 40 minutes. By car it'll take you twice a s long.
I used to think he was clever. Now I ’m not so sure.
In cases like this, not so is m uch m ore com m on than not as.

11 traditional expressions: as cold as ice

We use the structure as . . . as . . . in a lot of traditional comparative expressions.
as cold as ice as black a s night as hard as nails
The first as can be dropped in these expressions in an informal style.
She's h a rd as nails.

N ote th a t as is usually p ro n o u n c e d /э г / (► 315).

For as long as, ► 379. F o r as well as, ► 382.
For th e w ord o rd e r in sen te n c e s like She’s as good a dancer as her brother, ► 187.
For as replacing su b ject o r o bject (e.g. as m any people as want it), ► 256.
For sen ten ces like (As) cold as it was, we went out, ► 255.

gram m ar • 203 as . . . as; as much/many as

204 comparative and superlative adjectives
One-syllable adjectives norm ally have com paratives and superlatives ending in
-er, -est. Some two-syllable adjectives are similar; others have more and most.
Longer adjectives have more and most.

1 one-syllable adjectives (regular comparison)

Adjective C om parative Superlative

old older oldest

Most adjectives:
tall taller tallest
+ -er, -est.
cheap cheaper cheapest
late later latest Adjectives ending in -e:
nice nicer nicest + -r, -St.
fa t fa tter fa ttest
One vowel + one consonant:
big bigger biggest
double consonant.
thin thinner thinnest

Note the pronunciation of:

younger Г) \щ э(т )/
youngest /'jArjgist/ or /'jArigast/
longer /'lo g g a ^ /
longest/'lorjgist/ o r /'lDggast/
stronger /'strorjgafrj/
strongest /'strnrjgist/ or /'stm g g a st/

2 irregular comparison
Adjective Com parative Superlative

good better best

bad worse worst
ill worse
fa r farther/further farthest/furthest
(► 462)
old older/elder oldest/ eldest
(► 445)

gram m ar • 204 com parative and superlative adjectives

 Comparison Section 17

The determ iners little and m uch/m any have irregular comparatives and
superlatives:
little (► 168) less (► 169) least {*■ 170)
m uch /m a n y (► 165) more (► 166) m ost (► 167)
Few has two possible com paratives and superlatives: fewer/less and fewest/least.
► 169-170.

two-syllable adjectives
Adjectives ending in -y have -ier and -iest.
happy happier happiest
easy easier easiest
Some other two-syllable adjectives can have -er and -est, especially adjectives
ending in an unstressed vowel, /1/ or /э(г)/.
narrow narrower narrowest
simple simpler simplest
clever cleverer cleverest
quiet quieter quietest
With m any two-syllable adjectives (e.g. polite, com m on), -er/-est and m ore/m ost
are both possible. With others (including adjectives ending in -ing, -ed, -ful and
-less), only m ore/m ost is possible. In general, the structure with m ore/m ost is
becom ing more com m on. To find out the norm al comparative and superlative
for a particular two-syllable adjective, check in a good dictionary.

longer adjectives
Adjectives of three or m ore syllables have more and most,
intelligent m ore intelligent m ost intelligent
practical m ore practical m ost practical
beautiful m ore beautiful m ost beautiful
Words like unhappy (the opposites of two-syllable adjectives ending in -y) are an
exception: they can have forms in -er and -est.
unhappy unhappier / m ore unhappy unhappiest / m ost unhappy
untidy untidier / m ore untidy untidiest / m ost untidy
Some com pound adjectives like good-looking or well-known have two possible
comparatives and superlatives.
good-looking better-looking best-looking
or m ore good-looking m ost good-looking
well-known better-known best-known
or m ore well-known m ost well-known

gram m ar • 204 com parative and superlative adjectives

 5 more, most with short adjectives
Sometimes m ore/m ost are used with adjectives that normally have -er/-est.
This can happen, for example, w hen a com parative is not followed immediately
by than; forms with -er are also possible.
The road's getting m ore a n d m ore steep, ( o r . . . steeper and steeper.)
W hen we com pare two descriptions (saying that one is m ore suitable or accurate
than another), we use more; com paratives with -er are not possible.
He's m ore lazy than stupid, ( n o t He's lazier than stupid.)
In a rather formal style, m ost can be used with adjectives expressing approval
and disapproval (including one-syllable adjectives) to m ean 'very'.
Thank you very much indeed. That is m ost kin d o f you. ( n o t . . . That is

You are m o st welcome.

Real, right, wrong and like always have more and most.
She's m ore like her mother than her father, ( n o t . . . Ulcer her mother . . .)

205 comparative and superlative adverbs

Most com parative and superlative adverbs are m ade with more and most.
Could you talk m ore quietly? ( n o t . . .-quietUer)
Adverbs that have the sam e form as adjectives (► 194), and a few others, have
comparatives and superlatives with -er and -est. The m ost com m on are: fast,
early, late, hard, long, near, high, low, soon, well (better, best), badly (worse,
worst), and in informal English slow, loud and quick.
C an't you drive any faster? Can you come earlier?
Talk louder, (informal)
We’ve all got terrible voices, but I sing worst o f all.
Note also the irregular com paratives and superlatives of fa r (farther/further,
farthest/furthest, ►462), m uch (more, most, ► 166 and ► 167), little (less, least,
► 169-170).
For th e use o f c om paratives a n d superlatives, see th e following entries.

206 using comparatives and superlatives_____

1 than
After com paratives we use than, not that or as.
Today’s hotter th a n yesterday, ( n o t . . . hotter th a t. . . or . . . hotter as . . .)

2 the difference between comparatives and superlatives

We use a comparative to com pare one person, thing, action, event or group with
another person, thing, etc. We use a superlative to com pare som ebody/
som ething with the whole group that h e /sh e /it belongs to.

gram m ar • 205 comparative and superlative adverbs

 Comparison Section 17

Compare:
- Em ily’s taller than her three sisters.
Emily's the tallest o f the fo u r girls, (not . . .-the taller . . .)
- Your accent is worse than mine.
Your accent is the worst in the class, ( n o t . . . the worse . . .)
- He plays better than everybody else in the team.
H e’s the best in the team.

3 groups with tw o members

W hen a group only has two m em bers, we som etim es use a comparative instead
of a superlative.
I like Lily and Mia, but I think M ia’s the nicer/nicest o f the two.
I'll give you the bigger/biggest steak: I'm not very hungry.
Some people feel that a superlative is incorrect in this case.

4 double comparatives: fatter and fatter, more and more slowly

We can use double comparatives to say that som ething is changing.
I ’m getting fa tte r a n d fatter.
W e’re going m ore a n d m ore slowly, ( n o t . . . more slowly and more slowfyi)

5 the . . . the . . .
We can use com paratives with the . . . the . . . to say that things change or vary
together.
Word order (in both clauses):
the + com parative expression + subject + verb
The older I get, the happier I am. ( n o t Older I get, more I am happy.)
The m ore dangerous it is, the m ore I like it. ( n o t T-he-more it

The m ore I study, the less I learn.

Noun phrases with more can be used in this structure.
The m ore m oney he makes, the m ore useless things he buys.
In longer structures, that is som etim es used before the first verb.
The more information th a t comes in, the more confused the picture is.
A short form of this structure is used in the expression The more the merrier, and
in sentences ending the better.
‘How do you like your coffee?' “The stronger the better.’
Note that in this structure, the word the is not really the definite article - it was
originally a form of the dem onstrative pronoun, m eaning 'by that m uch’. -»

gram m ar • 206 using comparatives and superlatives

 6 than me; than I (am)
In an informal style, object pronouns {me, etc) are used after than. In a more
formal style, subject pronouns {I, etc) are used (usually with verbs).
She's older than me. (informal)
She is older than I (am), (formal)

7 the happiest man in the w orld

After superlatives, we do not usually use o f with a singular word referring to a
place or group.
I’m the happiest m an in the world, ( n o t . . . o f the world.)
She’s the fa ste st runner in the class, ( n o t . . . o f the class.-)
But o f can be used before plurals, and before lot.
She’s the fastest runner o f them all. H e’s the best o f the lot.
Note also the structure with p o ssessiv e’s.
He thinks h e’s the w orld’s strongest man.

8 than anybody; the b e s t . . . ever

‘Non-affirmative’ words like ever, yet and any (► 222) often follow comparatives
and superlatives.
It's the best book I ’ve ever read. This is m y hardest jo b yet.
You’re m ore stubborn than anybody I know.
For te n se s after than, ► 231. For the first!second!best, etc + p re s e n t/p a s t perfect, ► 56.

207 much older, by far the oldest, etc

much, far, etc with comparatives
We cannot use very with comparatives. Instead, we use, for example, much, far,
very much, a lot (informal), lots (informal), any and no (► 373), rather, a little,
a bit (informal), and even.
My boyfriend is m u ch /fa r older than me. ( n o t . . . very older than me.)
Russian is m u ch /fa r m ore difficult than Spanish,
very m uch nicer rather more quickly
a bit more sensible (informal) She looks no older than her daughter.
a lot happier (informal) a little less expensive
Is your mother any better? Your cooking is even worse than Harry’s.
Quite cannot be used with com paratives except in the expression quite better,
m eaning ‘recovered from an illness' (► 402.1). Any, no, a bit and a lot are not
normally used to modify com paratives before nouns.
There are m u ch /fa r nicer shops in the town centre.

gram m ar • 207 much older, by far the oldest, etc

 Comparison Section 17

2 many more/less/fewer
W hen more (► 166) begins a plural noun phrase, it is modified by m any instead
of much. Compare:
m uch / fa r / a lot, etc more money
m a n y / fa r / a lot, etc m ore opportunities
Much and m any are not used to modify less or fewer, in plural noun phrases.
f a r few er words [m uch /m a n y few er words)
3 much, by far, quite, etc with superlative noun phrases
Superlative noun phrases can be modified by m uch and by far, and by other
adverbs of degree such as quite (m eaning ‘absolutely’), almost, practically, nearly
and easily. Much and quite are used in this way m osdy in British English.
He's m uch the m ost im aginative o f them all. (BrE)
She's by f a r the oldest. W e’re walking by f a r the slowest.
H e’s quite the m ost stu p id m an I ’ve ever met. (BrE)
I'm nearly the oldest in the company.
This is easily the worst party I've been to this year.
4 very with superlatives
Note the special use of very to em phasise superlatives and first, next and last.
Bring out your very best wine - Michael's coming to dinner.
You're the very fir s t person I ’ve spoken to today.
This is your very last chance.
F or m odificatio n o f too, ► 610.3.

В comparison: advanced points

1 comparative meaning 'relatively', 'more than average'
Comparatives can suggest ideas like ‘relatively', ‘m ore than average’. Used like
this, com paratives make a less clear and narrow selection than superlatives.
Compare:
There are two classes - one fo r the cleverer students and one fo r
the slower learners.
The cleverest students were two girls fro m York.
Comparatives are often used in advertising to make things sound less definite.
less expensive clothes fo r the fu lle r figure (Compare cheap clothes fo r
fa t people.)
2 all/any/none the + comparative
All the + com parative (m ore com m on in British English) suggests the idea of
'even more . . .’.
I feel all the better fo r that swim.
Her accident m ade it all the m ore im p o rta n t to get hom e fast.
A ny and none can be used in similar structures.
He did n 't seem to be any the worse fo r his experience.
He explained it all carefully, but I was still none the wiser.
Note that this structure is used mainly to express abstract ideas. We would not
say, for example, Those pills have m ade him all the slimmer.
In this structure, the was originally a dem onstrative, m eaning ‘by that'.

gram m ar • 208 comparison: advanced points

3 three times . . .er, etc
Instead of three/four, etc times as m uch (► 203.7), we can use three/four, etc
tim es + com parative.
She can walk three tim es fa ste r than you.
It was ten times m ore difficult than I expected.
Note that twice and h a lf axe not possible in this structure.
She's twice as lively as her sister, ( n o t . . . twice livelier . . .)

4 words left out after than

Than often replaces a subject or object pronoun or an adverbial expression,
rather like a relative pronoun or adverb (► 256).
She spent more m oney than was sensible, ( n o t .
There were more people th a n we had expected, ( n o t . .

I love you more th a n she does, ( n o t ---------- ------------- ----------------------------- -

(In som e English dialects, the above sentences would be constructed with
than what.)

the youngest person to . . .

After a superlative, an infinitive can m ean the sam e as a relative clause.
She’s the youngest person ever to sw im the Channel. (= . . . the youngest
person who has ever swum . ..)
This structure is also com m on after first, last and next.
Who was the fir s t w om an to clim b Everest?
The next to speak was Mrs Fenshaw.
Note that this structure is only possible in cases where the noun with the
superlative (or first, etc) has a subject relationship with the following verb. In
other cases, infinitives cannot be used.
Is this the first time that you have stayed here? ( n o t . . . the first time fo r you i
stay here - time is not the subject of stay.)

superlatives with or without the

Nouns with superlative adjectives normally have the article the.
It’s the best book I've ever read.
After linking verbs, superlative adjectives also usually have the, though it is
som etim es dropped in an informal style.
I'm the greatest. Which o f the boys is (the) strongest?
This dictionary is (the) best.
The cannot be dropped w hen a superlative is used with a defining expression.
This dictionary is the best I could fin d , ( n o t This dictionary is best I

However, we do not use the with superlatives w hen we com pare the same
person or thing in different situations. Compare:
- O f all m y friends, he's (the) nicest, (com paring different people)
He’s nicest when he's with children.
( n o t He's the nicest when . . . - w e’re com paring the same person in
different situations.)

gram m ar • 208 comparison: advanced points

 Comparison Section 1 7

- She works (the) hardest in the fam ily; her husband doesn’t know what
work is. (A w om an is being com pared with a m an - the is possible.)
She works hardest when she's doing som ething fo r her fam ily.
( n o t She works the hardest when . . . - a w om an's work is being com pared
in different situations.)
The is som etim es dropped before superlative adverbs in an informal style.
Who can run (the) fastest?

gram m ar • 208 comparison: advanced points