10.

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

10.0 INTRODUCTION

We have had a great deal to do wi th fractions at school level. The process started in pri-
mary school with arithmetic, where we had to simplify frictions like + to obtain i ~1

.
1 .
4+~ = i. At secondary level, the simplification of fractions was used in AJgebra, where

fractions such as ~ -+ ~ were simplified as:

X• - l X t l

2 3 _ 2 + 3
~ + x + I - (x - l)( x + 1) xTI
_ 2 + 3(x - 1)
- (x - 1).(x + 1)
2 + 3x - 3
= (x - l)( x + 1)
3x - 1
= x 2 - 1'

Partial fractions is the name of the inverse operation of the simplificat ion of fractions . It is
of cardinal importance when we reach the stage in mathematics where we wish to integrate
cerfain functions (see Chapter 13). The name "partial fractions" indicates that we will
take a simplified algebraic function and _rewrite it in as many other fractions as possible 1

without changing the value of the original fraction.

Ii · 10.1 LONG DMSION

,1
,:
We have already used one of the techniques of the method of partial fractions namely long 1 1
.,
I

divisi~n: In this section we discuss more techniques . Let us first recap on a little long divi-
sion with some explanation about the name of this section.
Consider the following addition:
1- x tx2+- ~= l(x -1 ) - x~x -1 ~ + x2(x - 1) + 2
X - 1 X - l
x - 1 - x2 + x + x3 - x2 +2
= ( x- I)
x3 - 2x2 + 2x + 1
= X - 1 .

&xample 1:
22 2
If we were given xJ - ~ _ +1 x +1 and asked to find the original parts

added together 1 long division yi elds:

I
112 TECHNIICON MATHEMATICS I

x2 - X + 1

x-1 x3 - 2x 2 + 2x + 1
x3 - x2
-x2 + 2x
-x2 + X

X + 1
X - 1
2

Thus: x
3
2x2 + 2x + 1 = x2 - x + 1 +
x-1
-
· x-1
h = 1 - x + x2 + x-1
~
and we are back where we started.
The method of partial fractions involves. being given a compound fraction such as
x3 - 2x2 + 2x + 1 x3 - x + 1
x- 1 or say x2 + 2x - 3
and asking for the original parts and importantly, as many parts as possible. For example
the long division process:
x2 - X

x- 1 x 3 - 2x2 + 2x + 1
x3 - x 2
-x2 + 2x
- x2 + X

X + 1

2x 2 + 2x + 1
xl - +1
may be halted at this stage and x_ 1 = x2 - x + xx=-J· We know that
~ can be further "parted " to give 1 + x- 1
x-1
h .
x3 - 2x2 + 2x + 1 = x2 - x + xx + 11 1•s not the partial
. : .
Hence x_ 1 fract10n desired.

X + 1
Example 2: x3 -
x + 2
2 =x -
2
x + 3 -m
5
vta:
. .

x2 - 2x + 3
x+2 x 3 + Ox 2 - x + 1
x3 + 2x 2
- 2x2 - X

- 2x2 - 4x

3x + 1

3x + 6
-5
•

CHAPTER 10. PARTIAL FRACTIONS 113

5 3 26
Example 3: x - x + x = x• - 2x3 + 3x 2 - 6x + 13 - + 2 via:
X + 2 X

x• - 2x3 + 3x 2 - 6x + 13
x +2 x5+ Ox• - x 3 + Ox2 + x + 0
x5 + 2x4

-2x4 - x3
- 2x4 - 4xa

3xS + Ox 2
3x 3 + 6x2
- 6x2 + X

- 6x2 - 12x
13x + 0
13x + 26
-26
The next exercise involves long division only. We use our new terminology here
in the
instruction:

Exercise 10.1

Write as partial fractions:

1i
x3 - 2x2 + x - 3 3 +2
1.
-2 2. x. - 2x
3. x5 - x3 - x
X X - l X +2
4.
x5 _ x3 -x2 + 1 x4 - X x• - 3x3 + 2x2 - 1
x- 3 5. 6.
X +f . X + 3

NOTE: We distinguish between different types of partial fractions. The "type" is deter-
mined by the different types of factors wh.ich are possible in the denominator of
the simpli-
fied fraction.

10.2
if ..
-~
TYPE 1: LINEAR FACTORS IN THE DENOMINATOR, NONE REPEATED.
.. ·1

Observe the sum: + 1

X
x=-r-~2 (a)

Simplify (o): X + 1 _ 2 ..... ( X2 +X- 2) +X + 2 - 2X +2

.x=-f xn - (x - I )( x + 2)
x3 + x2 - 2x +x+ 2 - 2x +· 2
= (x - I)( x + 2)
+ x2 - 3x + 4
x3 '
= (x - 2)(x + 2 f
114 TECIINIKON MATHEMATICS I

Again by long division we can reverse the process to a certain extent. Firstly:

(x - l){x + 2) = x2 + x - 2 and so
X

x2 + X - 2 x3 + x2 - 3x + 4
x3 + x2 - 2x

-'.x + 4

The division process cannot be continued because x 2 does not divide into -x to give a
polynomial.

Thus x3 + x2 - 3x + 4 _ x + ~-x + 4)
{x - l){x + 2) - x +x - 2
By turning back to the beginning of this paragraph, we know that the remainder
-x +4
x2 t X - 2
can be separated further into:
x +
x2- + x _4 2 = 1 - xTI
x-7" 2 lcf. (a) abovel.

The question arises: How do we find the "parts" of x2-x ++x 4_ 2 without peeking at the
previous work? The method is illustrated by the next example:

Write (x _-xl }(+X t 2) , th at IS. xr-x_ :.. :x+ _4 2 as partl.al fraCtlODS

4 .
Example 1 .
....,__ ,

-x +4 . A B
(x - 1)( X t 2) = :x=-1 t x+2
where "A" and "B" are numbers (constants) to be determined. Using addition of fractions
-x + 4 _ A(x + 2) + B ( x - 1)
on the RHS we obtain: (x _ I)( x + 2) - {x _ 1)( x + 2)
The denominators on the LHS and RHS are equal and so the numerators are equal. Thus
we obtain the following important equation from the numerators, called the *-equation:

-x + 4 = A(x + 2) + B(x-1)

Now choosing x = -2, then x + 2 = 0 and (*) yields:

-(-2) +4 = AxO + B(-2 - 1)
6 = 0-3B

B = '"'l6 = -2.
X = 1 in (*): -1 + 4 = A x (3) + Bx 0
A= 1.
-x +4 l · 2·
{x - I ){x + 2) = :x=7' - xTI ·
r -
CHAPTER 10. PARTIAL FRACTIONS 115

ExamPe
x(x _x2 1+
l 2 .
Wnte ) (x1 + l) as part!'al frac t ions
·
.
Method (1) Division? Not possible because of the second
degree in x in the numera-
tor and the third degree in x in the denominator
. Thus go to step {2) immediately:
·(2) There are three different linear factors in the
divisor. Thus:

.x2 + 1 A B · C
x(x - 1)(x + 1) = x + x=- T + xT T

_ A(x tl)( x-ll + Bx( x+l ) + Cx(x-1)

- xx -l) (x+ l)
. The denominators on the LHS ~nd RHS are
equal and hence the numerators too. We agai
determine the t-equation: n

x2 + 1 = A(xtl)(x-1) + Bx(x+l) + Cx{x-1)

I
(u)
X = 1:
i
II 2 = A•2•0 + B•l•2 + C•l•O
2= 0 + 2B + O
B = 1.
X = -}: 2 = A•O + C•(-l)•(-2)
2 = 2C
C = 1.
x = 0: 1 = A•( l )•(-1) + B•O•(l) + C•0•(-1)
A =-1 .

Th x2 + 1
us x(x - I )(x + I) -__ !x + ~
1 + 1
xT I ·

Example 3 .x2 + 1
Wnte x(x 2 _ l) as partial frac tions.

Method (1) Division? No!

(2) The term x2 - 1 in the divisor has fac~ors and
these must be found otherwise we do
not obtain the maximum amount of !'parts"
in our answer.

Because x2 -1 = (x - l )(x"+ 1), we have:

x2 +1 x2 +1
x(x2 - 1) = x(x - I )(x + I)

and we are back to Example 2 .

According to Example 2:
 r

116

Example-t ·
Wnte xl _ Sx 2
xl
TECBNlKON MATHEMATICS I

t 2
+ 6x as partial fractions .
l I

Method (1) Division? No!

(2) Factorise the divisor:
x2 + 2 x2 + 2
x! -5x 1 + 6x=x(x2 - 5x + 6)
x2 + 2
= x(x - 2){x - 3)

There are three different factors and·so:

2
x +2
x{x - 2 ){x - 3) = x ___9..___ + r p_ +
x=-2 x-=-1
= p(x - 2)(x - 3)
.
+ r(x -3) + rx(x - 2) ·.
x(x - 2} x - 3)
x1 +2 =p(x -2)(x- 3) +qx(x-3) +rx(x -2) (***)
:r:=2: 6 = 0 2q + 0
q =-3.

Similarly r = ¥ and p =½·by letting x = 0 and x = 3 respectively in (••• ).

Thus x2 +2 1 3 11
3- 5X 2 t 6x = :Ji - x=:-1 + ~

Exercise 10.2

Write as partial fractions

3x - 4 2
(x - l}(x - 2} 2· x(x x - 1 3 X t 1
1. - 2}(x + 2) · x(x2 - 4}
4· xJ x2 + 1 5_ 3x2 + 4x + 1 1
+ 5x 2 + 6x (x + l}( x - l){x + 2) 6· {x + l)(x + 2}
7· 6x2 - X - 1
x(x2 - l} 8· (x2 1
- l)(xr.=-n ·

10.3 TYPE 2: LINEAR FACTORS IN THE DENOMINATOR, SOME REPEATED

v_._
mAUJPIe 1 nte (x _xll} +
1
w· ·

2{x + I). as partl'al frac t·ions.

Method (1) Division?· No!

' t'
(2) (x - l)l = (x - l)(x - 1). Thus the linear factor (x - 1) repeats. Hence let:

. x2 + 1 A B C
{x - 1)2 (x + 1) = x-=-1 + (x - 1)2 + :x--+T

I
L
 CHAPTER 10. PARTIAL FRACTIONS 117

x2 + 1 _ A(x l)(x + 1) + Bf x + ll + C(x - 1)

2
{x- 1)2 {x+ l)- 2
(x- 1) x+ l
Note: The LCM of (x -1}, (x - 1)2 and (x + 1) must be chosen on the RHS as above,
otherwise we cannot compare RHS and LHS.

Thus x2 + 1 = A(x - l)(x + 1)+ B(x + 1) + C(x -1) 2

x= l: 2 = 0 + 2B +0 B = 1
x=-1 : 2 = 0 + 0 + 4C 1
C = 2' .
No other choice of x will yield zero on the RHS of (*).

With B = 1 l!,nd C = ~ we find that (•) becomes:

x2+ 1 = A(x -l)( x+l )+(x +l)t ~x- 1)2 (•)

Choose any other value of x which has not yet been used, for
instance x = 0:
0 + 1 = A(O - 1)(0 + 1) + (0 + 1) + ~O - 1)2

1 = -A + 1 + 2'1 A= 1 ·
1

Thus: x2 +1 1 1
(x - I) 2(x + I) = 2(x - I)+ (x - 1)2 + 2(x +1 I) ·
.I
(Incidentally, x = 2 , among others, also yields A,=~. Try
it yourself!)

Example 2 X X
{x2 - l){x - 1) = {x - l)(x + l)(x - 1) .
A B C
=x=-r+i+7'-+ (x - 1)2
= A(x- l)(xt l) + Bl x-1 )2 + C(xt l)
( X - l) 2 X + 1) .
x = A(x -l)(x +l)t B(x -1)2 +C( xtl)
(u)
X= 1: 1 = C(2)
C= 1
2' .. I
'
x= ·-1: -1 = B(-2)2 1
B = -4
x= 0: 0 = A(-1)(1) - 1(-1)2 + ~1)
1
4 A= 41 ·

X 1 1 i
{x2 - l){x - 1) = 4(x - 1) -4{x + I)+ 2(x 1- 1)2 · I
I

.l· I
Ill[
 118 TECDNIKON MATDEMATICS I

Note: Zero values for the constants are possible when linear factors repeat as
you will find
m:

Exercise 10.3

Write as partial fractions (some of the exercises are Type 1):

3x - x2 + 1
l.
(x - 1)2(x + 2) 2: {3x2x2- + X + 2 3. 3
2X - I)(x - 1) (x - 1)2
4. 9x2 + 6x + 2 5. 6x + Sx - 5
2
(3 x + 1)3 (x2 - I)(x + 2) 6. 6x2 - X- 1
x(x2 - 1)

10.4 TYPt 3: IRREDUCIBLE QUADRATIC FACTORS IN THE DM SOR

An "irreducible quadratic" is a quadratic which has no linear factors. For examp

le:

x2 + 1
x2 + 4
x2 + 2
3x2 - 2x + 1 /

cannot be factorised. Why?

I Answer: · Examine I~ = b2 - 4ac I for each case above:

I
· 1
I x2 + 1 has /J. = 02-4• lx l = -4.

Thus y = x2 + 1 has imaginary roots and so no factors.

x2 + 4 has /). = 02-4Klx4 = -16

x2 + 2 has !:J. = 02 -4)(1)( 2 = -8

3x2 - 2x +1 has ~ = (-2)2 - 4x3x 1 = 4 - 12 = -8.

I
· On the other hand: x2-1 = (x - l)(x + 1). [A= +4]
\
x2 -4 = (x - 2)(x + 2) [A = +16]

x2 - 2 = x2 - (/J.)2 = (x -./1.)(x + ./}.) [A = +8]

3x2 - 2x - 1 =(3x tl)(x - 1) [A = +16].

Rule: Given ax2 + bx+ c: if 6. < O it is irreducible - proceed as follows :

 CHAPTER 10. PARTIAL FRACTIONS 119

Example 1 Write {x2 + Ij{x + I) as partial fractions.

Method (1) Division? No!

(2) x2 + l has /J. = - 4 and is thus irreducible.

Let x Ax ·+ B C·
(x2 + l)(x + l) = x 2 + 1 + xTT
= (Ax + Blx2(x ++ f(
l ~ + C(x2 + l )
x+l
) ·
x = (Ax·+ B)(x + 1) + e(x2 + 1)
x=-1 : -1 = 2C G = -~1 -
No other values of .x make (*) zero. Choose any other. integer
value . Choose the value
as close to zero as possible.
x=O : 0 = (O+ B)(O +l)+ (-i)( 02+1 ) B = 1
~
X = 1: 1 = (A + ~)(2) + (-})(2) A= ~-
1

Thus X
(x2 + 1)(x
X + 1 1
+ 1} = 2(x'z + I) - '"2(-x-:+--......1) ·

Example 2 Put x+l ~ r + s

I
I .
(x2 + 2){x2 - 1) = xrn + x7 xTT , etc.

Example 3 ·x3 ax + b ex +d
Put {3x2 - 2x + 1){x2 + 4) = 3x2 - 2x + 1 + x2 + 4 'etc.

Exercise 10.4

Write-as partial fractions:

2x2 + X +1 x3 + 6x2 + x
1. x{x 2 + 1) 2· (x2 + 1)(x2 - 1) 3 x2 - 2x3 - JOx - 9
· (3x2 - 2x- l)( x' + 4)
4· {3x2x2 +X +2 5· 5x2 + X t 2
.., 2x + l){x + I) (3x2 - 2x + l}{x + I)
7~ x2 + fl,x - 2 + .p
6 X - 4
· {x - l){x2 + x + 1) (x2 - 2)(x + J7J.)

10.5 DIVIS_ION AND REMAINDER

Example 1 . xs + 2x 4 - 2x3 - x2 + 5x + 1 . . .!
Wnte (x + I){ x _ l}(x + ) as partial fracti ons . I
2
I
Method (1) Division? Yes _we can divide! (Numerator has 5th degree and I
denomi- ·
nator has 3rd degree .) Firstly : (x + 1)(x - 1)(x + 2) = x3 + 2x2
- x-:- 2, thus:

l
120
TECHNIKON MATIIEMATICS I

x2 - 1
x3 + 2x 2 - x - 2 x + 2x - 2x3 - x2 + 5x + 1
x5 + 2x 4 - x3 - 2x 2
-xl + x2 + 5x + 1
-x3 - 2x 2 + x + 2

3x2 + 4x -1 (Remainder!)

Hence: x5 + 2x 4 - 2x3 - x2 + 5x + 1 2 3x2 + 4x - 1

(x + l)( x - l)(x + 2) = x - l + (x + l )(x - l )(x + 2)
Division is no longer possible with ·the remainder and so for
the remainder write :
3x2 + 4x -1 C A B
(x + l)( x - l)(x + 2) = xTT + x - 1 + x+2

and obtain A = 1, B = 1 and C = 1 as usual. Hence

add x2 - 1 to the remainder
1 1 1
x+1 + x=-I + xT I an d obtam:
.

- x5 + 2x 4 - 2x3 - x2 + 5x + 1 1 1 1
(x + l){ x - l ){x + 2) = x2 - l+ xTT + x=-I + x+2

Example 2 If we attempt to put:

x3 - 2 A B
-(x - - --
- l)(x + 1) -- x-=-1· + xTT
without first dividing, we obtain:

· xl-2 = A(x+ ·1)+ B(x -l)

= 1: 1
:x -1 = 2A ~ A= 2'

x = -1: 3
-3 = -2B ~ B=~.

x3 - 2 1 3
Hence: . (x - I)(x + 1) = 2(x - 1) + 2{x + 1)'
which is absurd . Why? Well, add up the RHS and comp
are the LHS.

Rule: If division is possible, do it first, then write the remainder

in terms of constants
A, B, C et ·cetera.

Exercise 10.5

Write as partial fractions:

x3 - X - 2 x2 x4 - 3x3 - x2 + 6x .- 5 x3 - 2
1. · x2 - l 2· {x - 1)2 3- x2 - 4x + 3 4.xr -=-r •
 CHAPTER 10. PARTIAL FRACTIONS
121

10.6 SUMMARY

1. The numerator of the given fraction mus

t be of a lower degree than the denominato
r. If
not, that is, if the numerator is of the sam
e or higher degree than the denominator,
then divide out first.
2. Factorise the denominator into its prim
e (simplest) factors.
3. TYPE 1: A linear factor (ax + b)
gives a partial fraction of the form ax A+ b
•
4. TYPE 2: Linear factors which repeat such
as (ax + b)n, give a partial fraction of the
A A
form (ax + b) + (ax + 6)2 + · · · +(ax A+
bJn ·
5. TYPE 3: An irreducible quadratic fact
or ax2 + bx + c gives a partial fraction of
I Ax + B the
orm ax2 + bx + c·
6. The term ax 2 +b x+ c is irreducible
(has no linear factors) if A < 0. If A > 0,
and a
perfect square, then it m111t first be factorised
. If A > 0 but it is not a perfect square,
the factors become difficult and fall outside
the scope of this course. See Exercise 10.4
Problem 7.