Introduction to Electroacoustics and Audio Amplifier Design Third Edition W. Marshall Leach, Jr. Georgia Institute of Technology [Ki] scrosseneercoetisne DNCover inage ©2003 Digi Vision Cort 1998, 10, 203 by W Marsh Lae. tnt Pigg Company ts ala ight rradice his werk, Aight ened. No prof his pletion may be prec, selina sau ort yor ‘hue prow perms of Renin Poi Company. Printed a th Ul Stef AriaContents 1 Baste Principles of Sound EI Sound 12 Saizes of Sound 13 Wocty of Sod 14 Froqaeney of Sound 15 Pach 36 Thenan Soa 12 Frequency Bands 18 Andla Sab Bans 19. Send Press Level 250 Bau Letdness Contos 1 Toads Level 112 Ato Tost Signe 18 Problems 2 Paulamentals of Acoustics 21 Basic Eqution of Acoustics 22. The Atcnstie Wave Equation 23. The Plane Wave 2A Sree Impedance 25. Aen Enerey 20 Aas ivensty 27 Welsh 28 Particle Displacement 29. The Ona Dretional Spleical Wave 210 Volume Vileity 211 The Simple Spherical Souice 212 Acoute mages 2113 Tho Plane Crete Piston 214 The Pattern Benawidth 2.15 Frese Difrertion Bets 28 conte Refections 2.7 Problems 4 Analogous Cireults of Acoustical Systems AD Atastie Sources 82 Acoustic npetnce 33. The Plane Wave Tube AM Acastc Resto 35 Acostc Compliance38 Acmustic Mae 87 Acoustic hnpaisnce on a Piston i « Dalle 38 Acoustic Impedanes on a Piston in a Tul ‘39. Ravation npedaace on x Piston in Fiee ie 3.10 Probleme 7 : Analogous Circuits of Mochanieal Systems 461 Mechanical Sourses 42, Mase, Compiinsc, ad Hesse 43° Mechanical Syems 44 Moving Col Traneeaoor 45 Crystal Trsucer 40 Condenser Trancer 47 Mecano Accustie Transucor 43. Problems Microphones SA Chassifentious 52 Modeling Dipivagin Refctions 5.3 Diapragn Back Acoustical Load 54 Diaphragm Mechasia! Paranisers 55 Condenser Microphone. 5.8 Condenser Microphone SPICE Sinulation BT Condenser Microphone Buller Arapifers 58 Dynanie Miczophoue 59 Ribbou Microphone 510 Proximity Eifct ‘511 Combination Mlexopoue 52 Prsbione 7 Moving-Coll Londspeake 61 Construction ss 82 Analogous Cucuits 53 Combination Aaslngous Circuit | 4 Infinite Bate Analogous Clcit 85. Low-Froquancy Sutin fr Up =. 86 Low Broquoney Bode Pat for ip 57 SmaltSignal Poramctae » 68. High-Frequency Solution fer Op 69. OnAxis Premare i 610 Prosare Transfer Funition 6.11 Bode Plots of On-Anis Procure 612 Filter Thoory Description of (3) 618 Cotof rogues (614 Elst of Nom Zero Generator Resntsce 6.15 Frequency of Peak Response {516 VoicoCall impedance =... 817 The Lossy Voice Call Inductance {8.18 On-Atis Prooute Sensitivity 610 Acoustic Power Response 620 Reference Picleney 21 Diaphragm Diplasemest Fanclion conrenrs © s 4 6 « 40 2 Py 51 2 5 5 2 is 105,f ea 825 62 625 a 72 3 7 a 78 am a 0 ' m0 mat 59 S10 sit 812 Bia Bu a oa 93 oa a5, ans CONTENTS. Voice Cai Betrcal Power Rating, Dioplacement Limited Power Rating SPICE Model Problems 7 Clocod-Box Loudepeaker Systems Modellg the Box ‘The Astle Ciena ‘The Yoluue Vetocty Trier Bunton ‘The On-Axie Penner Traneor Fntion ft ofthe Don the System Response Soasiviy ofthe Lower Cototf Pogueuey System Design with & Glen Dror Shetem Verifeation System Dosigu From Specifations 2 SPICE Sinalation Example Probst 8. Vonted-Box Loudspoakoe Systome Modeling the Encloute lt of the Vent ‘The On-Axic Pressure Tyesfer Penction. Veie-Cel Impedance Ranetion ‘The Magntud-Sqnneed Fonction ‘Tin Bi Abgument ‘The Qi Align ‘Tho Chabysbov Aligamenis rane Pree Responses Design with a Given Dever Spatam Verfatba Dasga fen Specicetione ‘ented Bex SPICE Fee Probar 9 Aconetie Horns "The Webster Horn Equation Sslnon'sFaily of Hors Fate Length Hoes Sa A Horn Analogous Cireuit SPICE Exams Hor Driving Units Mid-Prequeney Range Conon for Maina Pan, ‘Tye Horm Eine The Low-Frequency Range The High-Premency Range Low-Frequency Systane Des 9321 Drign with a Given Driver 9122 Sysiew Design from Specitications Probl ioe% ‘conTENTS 10 Crossover Network 163 101 Role of Cynsover Nevworks ce 188 1022 Pasive Crossover Neorore a i z 16h 103 LPodDetige - : a 17 1A Eiect ofthe Voce Got impedance : | 109 10.5 Bloct of ehe Driver Phase Response 10 1058 Constant-Veltge and All-Pass Futons 5 1027 Active Cramover Netwoeks. 108 A SPICE Modeling Example 109 Problems 12 11 A Loudspeaker Potpourri at TL The lobar Connection ‘| 187 TLL The Acoustieat Analogous Circle 1st TLL2 The StahSignal Parmsetes 188 1113 SPICE Simuation Bearple 188 1.2 Sth-Order Bandpass Syaterns 7 10 11.21 System Deserptin 7 199 11.22 Ouaput Volume Valoiy 199 1123 On-Asie Promare 7 : i 1124 Fourth Order Band-Pass Punetions : TO ane 1125 System Parameters : eats 11.206 Design with «Giver Driver | 2 : 2185 11.8 6th-Order Bandpass Systems Reo : 193 ALB Syston Tansler Faction + : 1953 1132 Stem Aligucent Functions 195, 13.8 Systm Desig fon Speifenions 196 ALBA Exarppe System Design iw 114 Passive Radistor Syste 198 LAG System Transfor Puneson 108 11422 Frampie System Deng 230 215 Aisted Ventat- Bex Alignments sti 220 us 11.52 Seh-Order Aligavueste 1153 6¢H-Order Aigunents ‘System Transfer Function an oa LEA The Vented Box Systm Paramecarh 7 2 204 26 26 155 Examplo Design fom Specitionions 16 A Closod Bas System Equalizer A621 Bqualier Tne Function 1162 Baualiee Cree HES Beataple Roaiaton LT Dyiver Paraueler Messireraats M71 Base Theory ‘| 11.7.2 Tho Measurement Tet Se 200 LR Moesucing Re, fe, Que, Que, end Ore 210 1174 Mensuring Vag 7 a LULZ Conversion to Inuit Balle Paraoctors fon 1.76 Measuing the Voiee-Cll Inductance 22 118 Parariter Messavement Summary Sheet a8cowrRvrs 12 Audio Power Amplifiers 121 Power Specifeations 122 Biects of Fedack 1222 Feedback Aunpiliee Cain 12.23 Bffoct of Feeback on Distortion and Noo 1223 Bffet of Fodback on Ontput Resintance 129 Amplifse Medal 7 1231 Open-Loop Transfer Function 1232 Gain Bandwidth Product 1233 Slow Rate TLE-6 Rolations betwoor Slew Rate and Gaip-Bandvidth Prods 1225 Chwed-Loop Transfer Funtion 12.45 Tansee Response 1287 Input Stage Overioad HAS Bul Power Bandwidth 1289. Pifex of an tape Low-Pese Filter 12.10 JFBT DAF Amp 12.511, Dif Amp with Oxrren- Mirror Loud 124 Signal Tracing : 125. "The Stabitny Criterion 1251 The Bole Stability Theorem 1252 SinglePole Ample 1288 TworPols Aimer 1254 Au Alsemate Stability Citeron 126 “Teenie for Compensating Feeback Ariens 1281 Gain Constant Resiesion 1252 Fiat Pole Lag Componseion 12633 Serond Pots Lead Compensation 126.4 Feedforward Compensation Output Stage Topoagies| 1271 Commor-Collactar Ste 1272 Commor-Bmiter tage 1273 Quasi-Complementary Output Sige 127A MOSFET Ourpue States 128 Vallage Gain Stage 129 Input Ste. 1210 Completed Axpier Ceca 1211 Prowesion Chews UL BUT Provction Ciruite 1211.2 MOSPET Protection Chreste 1212 Powe Supply Design 1213 Decoupling aud Grovaing 2:14 Power Dissipation and Etkency 3215 The Cise-D Anplifie 1215 Ample Messurements 1217 Probleas 5 A. References BB Blcctroacoustic Glossary of Symbols az a7 219 ais 20 cy 2 oe eo co 2 2s Bs 2% mm 2 21 4 248 246 at uF 20 20 20 251 252 24 256vii contents Preface ‘This book js an cutgroweh of a senor Level eacive cours in ain enginverng tat [have taught to lect ennering students at the Georg Tnstitito of Teciology. The St pact ofthe Bonk covers Baie ‘sroustios. The emplass ison that pare of acoustics tha pertains tothe eld of mo engineering, Most the ceuainder of the book coneeras th application of the tots of elesroncctics to the ely sel ‘yulhesis of microphones, Iondspealors, cossver petenrk, and seovec horns. The lock sao concludes ‘ith chapter that covers the basi theory of tudo ampiter design, nectoscoustics is that parte aousies that peta othe modelig of scat ystems with elactrical sivclts. esate most acoustical dovews have a mechanical par, the ihodeing of mechanical systems wl lest circuits ew basic gat of elctzoaoasties. Separate chapters in the Book kee devhed to analogs ui of meclsical systems ad to analogous dzeite of acrutical estes, Ta teatime appre it {hese creas hes hoon to se transformers to mode! the coupling betwee theeectsiosl, the melt), an ‘he acoustical parts. A major departure i tls book =the we of eontolledsousee Wo model the coupling An advantage ofthis approuc i Gat avoid Ube need for tantly aalogs In ation, se foun that students have much ee eiicalty with the approach. Perhaps this is beonve the conteolat-soure eeu ‘ane more intuitive chan tho teausfonmer creat Ta cc can be eal aval with teat siultion ‘elise auch ae SPICE, Eletroucvustic modls ace developed fr the more common microphone types and forthe moving loudspoakar driver. Separate cheptes cover cloai-box ad vented-vax loudspeaker ays Althengh tho emphasis on bass systre toot, practical methods of design are wlio presented, Because crosses setworks sr sich an important part of loudgpslar eyton a chapter is devoted to comer twats Acoustic horns are vial eomponeat in pubie addres aystems. A chapter devoted to hors model ‘chapter enited “A Loudspeaksr Potpotsr* cote topics sack ss the chasis loudspeaker connection, ‘nandpassapstems, pusiveradator systems, equalized sytem, aad loudxptcierpraieler measure nal exms, SPICE sizulation example ate esata where approprnte ‘Onw might ask wy w ehepier on audio amma inside in book tha a primary concert with lectronousties. Without a powor amplifar, «loudepaalerenuld aot male sound. Thesefore, one anght ‘ay tht the role ofan amplifier in a syste is Jar as important oo the role af» lodepenbee, Ths capler| ‘om amplifiers is not intended to be an in-dopth chapter of electronic tory. Tarte dese te are Importane aspects of amplir design with an emphasis on che bese operation of the arcu, Practica ‘samples are presented that ilstate how some of tho pitas of amplifier design ea be aveide, ‘In the text, to paral ins Between varinbies denote the product divide by the sum, Le segh An esta and updates can bo found at t/ meron ntact deal dott W, Marsha Lea, J “Apne 200Chapter 1 Basic Principles of Sound 1.1 Sound Unie electromagnetic wes which proparate rheough fee saa, sound waves rolce a medina. ‘The smodiun can be a gas, a Daud, ora soli. The definition of sound is an acoustic or mechanical wa ‘Boton by 9m elie asda "The most famuar smodhn js st Docause tia tha metus tough whic ‘we ecmmuaicnts with spect, slid can be a beter vac fr tb propagation of sound tha ie. Ror ‘ramp, may have seen old western usvies Nhete trl eobbers put tel eas tot acs £0 stan for ‘Setanta Vj ( \ Wavefront Figuee 1: Motion of an ae pastice in an artic wave ‘Wen yound wave propagates in as, he aie melseee or panties vibrate ina direction parle othe reton of wave propagation. This sutra in Fig.l. steady-state snsvidal time vcitions a ssn the position or diplacemeat of a ai particle with rapes to its et pesttion can be written (0) = Re [rae] = frlooe(et 9) ay here Res the teal past operator, 2 i complex phasor, isthe phase mag af, and ‘og foqueey. The erage daplncrment of the air parc m0 sf the 1.2 Sources of Sound ‘Sosresof run canbe divide into xe categoria ase ars (1) vteatng body, (2) voted sir stream, (@) Herma, (4) explosion, (8) af, nd (0) arian or vortex. ‘The visting body ithe most fala A L2 (CHAPTER 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND Joudspenko is 8 good example. Mor common is spcth which is produend by n vibrating vocal cord. A ‘white prodaces sound by mana of «thzoiled ar area Bue Wie conntod fo an alternating cureat {govarats sound by tho thermal eft. As the cure incrosss, tho wire hosts the adjocou ae exasing it tecxpand. When the instantaneous curent goes though sere th ar cools and contact. A sound wave | genoroted which bas a fequoney that fe ties thet of th eurent inthe wis. ‘The round of «Srecrcioe Jean example an explesion. Thunder isan example of sound produced by aa ac. When wid blow» ov ‘Sine wie stotched boven to mupporte, en aelian or vrlercound wave ie generated, Th aalian arp tes very ol etringed musja! instrument that generate sound by Ue machanian. Encased ia a foaitare box, the harp is st in an open window to generts an etheoal mascal cond when wie blows through i 1.3 Velocity of Sound ‘Tho velocity of sound i the velocity with which cho wave propagerat not the velolty of the ae pasteles I fve as, acouatie weve modeled thoriodynanioaly aa an hinbatic procs fr which the valacty of ropa ie ian by ony (12) whore the ratio ofthe apes Hen af alr a constant prema tothe spose rat at constant volume, [yi tho stati air prssure, ant fp 6 the density of i. For alr at standard presare ted texaperature, these have tbe aceptndnltes y= 14h Pp = 1.013 MP Pa (Nn?) ey = 118 kaos. Ava tazperatuce of 22°°G, the vlorty of sound jn many refaences on Iulspeakns ton taken to be ¢ = 843 m/s or 1181 aps 1.4 Frequency of Sound ‘The frequency’ of sound wave eax bo dana only ifthe wave ie period in time, Masical notes pc ly acontical inatrtnents do not normally have a foquency beratom try ace not period. A soled wave ‘het varias sicily veh time scalled a pute tons, and it hes «definable fequoncy. ‘The air patie ‘rhe the motion dasribod by Ba. (11). The eguancy of the wave in Hs (cyces/s) isthe recipe! of the poring, ia. f= 1/T. ‘ho racian ragueney in gives by w ~ 2x} ead “The audible freguncy bad ie often tein to he fromn 20 He fo 20 tz. Howe, the range from 30 He to 15 Klee probably mone reac. Mast people eanmot hear fequencen as high ae 20 M2. Anyono who Jin ver ta ood tweeter Inudspetor ae eonnected I to fonction generator can easly tst heehee highetequency hosing, Even ffeequoncae above 15 Hz ean be heard, saone who ties this woul aoe ‘Mateus high Seequency sounds have tle elation to wat i heard ix mseor spec. In FM brome, ‘Se bendoridth ofthe signal [sntentinally Lime to 18 XHs with sharp eau? le-pacs Stor. The tare fre necessary to prevent lising cstortin from being produce by the stereo generation procs. Othe Jew ong, sounds witha frequency below A Ha age fat mae than heard, Aside from th lowest sll tes ofthe bgt pipe ongne, acourtia! nmtruments dot prodice sound wnves below abot 30 He “The infrasouie hand the hand below the lowest frequency that ean be beard, These sounds ae felt and not haind. Organ af the human body ean exhibit roxanne frequencies in the inrasone band, An ‘organ ca be damaged by intzusoiniresonie sous having a freqvency equal to the resonance requeney of ‘he onpan_ A mtd of ewe control dusig soe shat bas boen )akngly propose eansss of genacating Intense infaeonie sounds at ehe rnerineefreqleney ofthe colon. Jim! Hendrie, «suecssful rock putas, ofthe late 19606 and early 1970s bas been quoted seping thet a particular lw-‘rogueney note he played ‘Mfc the blades of people inhi aidience. The lnrasone ban is often incerecty elle tho subscaic Tan Thus to all an ffracnle Sera “subonic Aer” ilies that theft is “slower than the ec of nn" “The usasonic bands the bend abovo the highest froquenc that can be beard, Not coe conf wth ‘he term sujeonie, whlch iaans faster than the vlodtyof sound, utrasoie sounds are used in alrsonic4s, Pret a anes, for tec detection, ultrasonic imaging in mica applications, bury alarm systems, renote into ete, ane as good high-frequency lasing, tras trafic descctors can often be heard st tale Jigs. The fyback transforms in television sets often develop mechanialplobiens whidh case Chet 2 it an ultrasonic ound at the 1575 KE Requecy of the borioutal eclser, LS Pitch ‘The tor pitch is sed fo deyote the perceved fequency of son. The unit of pite the mel, By nition, the pte of» 1 ME ove i 1000 els, Paychoncoustic tats age and vo generate curves which reat itch to frequency forthe aorage patton. These eves are generated fy Iti autre fst bese stone which thy ae told esa pte of 100) apele The requeney ofthe tone be ten changed at the auditor are ark fora best estizate ofthe pitch ofthe new tage. Th date are then averaged over AR eons to generate the perceive fequeey o pitch of w toue versus its actual frequoses- Suc a ule shown in Fig. 12. This graphs based on dato publisiod by Stevens wl Velbnn i te America Journal 9 Prycology, vl. 68, pp 829358 (1950), 350 sa Peroaived Pach in male 10 Ak oo 100 te Frequency inte igure 12: Mol pitch vermis frnneney, ‘Tho wy that tho human cor perecives tho pltch of « note produced by a mnsicelinsetment je nat now. IF the yellage output ofa microphone i ober owt onioeeope while picking up aot paged lyran instrument, the chgorsed waveform would ok wothing Ike the ei wave of» pure tone. Therefore, the curve of male verse fequency is meaningless for nor-sinuacial sound. Toilette ee oft i has boos shown that « sree of tones having tho feequmncce 1 KE, 12 bla, 1.4 Bia, 16 BE ete, when ‘aad together have pitch of 200 tele ‘Ths was erable by allowing andters t alternately ten hem ofthe tonee aad a puro tne wile aeurting the frequency of the pure sone until ta two sounds hae the same pte. Ely vesarchersinvostigatod this generating te sud With a throttled mi stream bing though equally spaced hoje around concen rl on a rotating, dik. The lsqeney of the Ivdnl ters was cotzolled by the angular velocity of Une dsk nid the numberof ole mud exch4 CUAPTER 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND Circle, Although pure tones ace not genarated Ly thia mathed, the component terms ae periodic ad ane ia ‘hace gyuchronism with each other elnbnlte concsived his famous distortion hypothesis to explain how the eas detrtine pitch. He ‘bojeved tat noabneaities inthe ear produce a boterodsne mixing est to produce eum and difesence feequency compeneats between the ilvidual temas of a complex sound ‘The theory wea that th bean responds to the lowest cffrence fequncy teem, ‘his explained low the ear Sstorprats a series of tone having tho froqumcice 1 KH, 1.2 EM, 2. Ma, 1.6 kHs, os, se ving a pitch of 20) unl. Tu the 1000, Inwewe, 2. . Skouton in the Nethorlaeds shoved that's sais of tones basing the frequencies 304 ke, 24K, 141 Ea, 161100, ele, hae pitch of 208ml taser than the 200ml edited by Hebel’ lim. I was not coromonly accepted tat Shouten's work defected Helmbolt' lew until tho 19805. The wy that ch ear poresives pitch eal ot known “The tame pitch no on eiforent musical instruments may heve very difernt distributions in the fe ‘ayeary domain. The differences can be investigatad ly wsing Fourie twasform to analyze time records ‘of notes produced by instruments. For exampo, tbe 7th through the 10th pity harmonies predomi for the low to midztch potas on a saxophoae. For the French bor, lass than 0.46 of the power fst the ite frequency for some notes. Higher pitch notes fem ferent instrament tend to zowsd mere sil than ‘he ower pic nats beeause the overtonas of the higher pitch notes oe fll ose the tage of uma hearing. Tes the audible overtone structure of anode that mala instrument mound diferer. 1.6 Human Speech Moet of the power in humsa speech isin tho frequenay band fot 200 He to 4 bla, Speech lined to @ ange loss han thes til jtlligsla. Fer cmp, the foqueney response ofa alpine & normally taken to be from 800 He to 3 kis. This fequoncy bund cammmanly rforsed to as the tipone baad. Not oly 15 spowch limitod to ei baad ites, but alo the tal can be easily recogalend. ‘The labial sowads (lore minty with the ips, eg. ban, and p) and the fisative sound (pronounced by forcing the breath {rough a nazow opening beswoen tho tot eg. f 9 ¥, and 3) have Bequeney components high oe 8 lle to 10 Liz, Hower, there & elatvaly lie power a! thee high foqumeie, 1.7 Frequency Bands Audio quency bands aro aormally expres in octaves or fractions of octaves. By definition, an octave iif etave, aoe a thind octve,reepectively, are defied as the Bequeney band between to frome fi tnd fa such that Octave f/f; =2 Hab Octaves fel Example 1 Calculate the numberof baifacts tn the band frors 20 Hs a 20 kis Solution. Denote the auuber by m. 1 must sale 297 = 20kKe/20Hx = 1000, Solution form yields 189, ‘The Tnueratioul Standards Onyanization, commonly referred to asthe TSO, has exablished standard for specifying requences Dat aze cea ye forthe center frequencies of tnd flrs and ental ‘Weguneles of igl-past aud low-pass Ass weed for sented meamiements, Those fequences ace gies by Third Octave fh 29 (13) Jx=1000% 2" nm, £1, 22, 23,06 aa) ‘where q= 1 for octave spacings, ¢= 2 for haloctave spacing, ¢ = 8 for third octave spacings, ete. The 150 frequency standards ee oft used ln causumar and profasionl audio equipment. For exampin tn-band jective staple equalace covering the 29 to 20 Be baad mi have control tte TSO frei 3.25 “is, 625 Th, 124 Te, 260 ey 800 Hl, 1 Rls 2 Ma, Lis, 8 KH, and 0 kia18, AUDIO SUB BANDS 5 In profesional andi applications hird-octvo graphic equalizers are often used to eyualze o Batten out tbo flequency respons of oudspelans, Paychoncuste renee nx sown nt the hm zou tl He Aifereace ithe fier bandits ars les than onsthid an octave. ‘The oqualizars ete installed presding, the poner ampliers that dive the laudspeatrs. They are adjusted by dvng the eytain with meando slg tht is ealled pak noise The ont ofthe loudspeebee ia pishel up ty a usopine thal dies ‘8 throctare sal tina apectrum analyaer. This strane dpe th fsqurney spectra of the sigal Jn tindoctave bande Hessian pink sole kes eal poor por onethitd octave. the spectav espa ‘hows tho fequmcy response of He Jowopauer Dy alerving the ral tine spectrum naslyaer, the erphic feplacr cen be adjusted fr the Rater. overall feqeenc response atte potion ofthe miroptee Beample 2 Gelelate the contr fropamcy ond the tay 8 dB evtol frquncies of bond poss file f the centr froquocy 18th thi! ISO halotave frequency blow 1 ie Selton. The canter fequency is fe = 1000 2°27? = 958.6 He, The lover snd upper ent Geqeness satay fe = 28" aul fo = VTi. Solution for the cut fequencies yields Je = f/24 = 207.8 He ani fu = fe x25" = 420.5 He. Pte enol frquencies are normaly specif tthe teenies where the resis is do by a factor of V2, Le. by 3 dB. This i iastraved in Fi 1.S(a) forthe band-pass er sin Fig 1-0) fr he low-pass and high-pass ta, gin cain i ifr he Ve ve X , 4 Sih Su te @ ® iquee 13: Filter gia versie frequency: (1) Band pass (b) Low pe a high ps 1.8 Audio Sub Bands ‘The audio band ean be divided into fve sub bands which hae distinc ilferent carnctristies. The Sst |: betwen 20 Ha and 0 He. Sounds in ths rang are both fle abd heaté. in msn aly the lowe sell, ners of the largest pie ores hase poor inthis aod. ‘The majerity of Jndepees do nck repronoe ths ange. The naxt bund is etweon 30 He and 80 Hr, This band eontsine the loner and spper bee froqarces of muse. The rhythm sction of msi sia this band. A boast inthe asd fom 60 Hs to 120, He cates mae to havea tooniy sound. Such a bouts characieesti af poorly designed cr inexpensive Toudspeaers. The baad fom 500 Hz to 3 KHz forms the mdeange bund. Spe hited 0 this ba as talophone io sound. If this band is boosted in repre sound, causes stoner fatigue. Cheap radios Ive londspaniets that predominant reprodce ht range. “The bend fom 3 KE fo 8 KHz frm the presece range. The Inbal nd ficative sends of speech are reproduced in thi range. If these sound ae hot reredice, speech eal intelli, but 8 i rons to tho Ustner thatthe ear isnot posent. Th band from 8 HE to 16 kHz scaled the brilliance range Tin, the sounds produend by bells, crlanles, cymbals, ete, ate eeproiued in tis range. Siiinoe hy spoech also extends int this band "Wit person talks clase co a micropono de silane his ore volo ean be pied wp s trnghy that the reproduced spar dows not sotnd core. Excreiesbllnce often eases storton ia bondene! signal, perkulrly in frequency modulsted signals (PMC rato and TV sound). ‘his Decne the high Ei6 CHAPTER 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND frequencies are Boosted bafre boing brondcast to help reduc the noe ithe FM medium, ‘This boost exe ‘use liping ofthe high-frequency signals in th brendcetelactronies. Blectonic devices called acca ‘lance controler or owesors can be used to coato this. When exis high frequencies ee detected ‘in thesignal, the high-equency gan redaced to provntovieloed. The elect in signal cote low-pass finer Prior to the mid 1940s, i wes commonly scape that reproduction of the bilsnco range wa uct prelered by most listeners. Consequent, mamufactarers of High quality record players and bronest twocivers intentionally pressed the reproduction in sir ange, in a elas expand with ive ue the former RCA Laboratoris, Harry F. Quen denonstate thet th toy of laters prefered teporas Deyo 4 kz. This was done by letting mdionees isen to a lve band bebsind « eta with sn acest low-pass filter between che curtain tad the band. The fier was alternately opened yt clued batwese ‘sel selections. Although the aaences not know what ows taking place, majority pelereace ws ‘epresel fr the sounds heard with the acoutieal flter open. Te wes concluded feomn this expeineat tat lie dsfrtcn and aoe in reproduction stems wa che reson that most people did ct lke reproduction ofthe brilianceeenge, This work was reportad in the paper by HLF. Oltot, “Pesqwaney Range Prefcence for Spore and Music” J. Acoust Soc. Arm, 19, 4, 540-595 (IOH7). As th highfequancy distortion wee climinsted with advanceaeute i vcordlng ad Brondenst technology, reprise sytem were ng tw reproduce the biliance rage 1.9 Sound Pressure Level ‘The sound pressure level or SPL ls & moscure of the stength of sound. To dine it, we mast int dine couse preoize, Whea asound wave propagates rast» pot, the al presse furs sb he saint presure Le us denote the total prosure by P(2) and the ambient poesure ly Ph. ‘The instantaneous ‘couse pressure is denoted by p() ae ie delized by PIO=PO-P as) Abou P (0) can be greater than or Is than Phy trons have an average wave of. Thay) varies Dositvely and negatively about an average vlue of zar. Ina elrtonie cect, an ale of P() i fhe total voitage at anode, ie. the de bias waltage plus the ae sigial voltage. ‘The coreponding sual ot? 1s the de voltage while that of p(t ithe ac voltage. ‘The SPL isa dB mowsure ofthe nw or roct-mesa-squaveprestre. Ts i iven by $Pb= 20g (B=) an 09 te png is che rms value of pt). By defitin, dhe ine value of a varabl fs obtained by squaring the ‘obo taking the everage val, then aking the square oot, This ean be wren Pome = VAD), we he symbols () denote ate average. The rs value of sine wav te pen ale divide by V2. The ‘swale of. ringe wave fs peak valu divided by V8. The rms Vali of a aquate wwe weal to ts Denk value, The O dB reference pressure forthe SPL is het =2 10-* Pa. ‘Pie apprimatly the ra bresuce ofthe lest level sound tha ean be hoard by & parson who has to hearing Ibe. ‘The SPLs of ilependost or uncorrelated soul ca be nde to oben the conshined SPL by fat couventing each SPL Dek ino its corresponding rm presse. The rms prssunes ae thn aod hy taking ‘esquire rot ofthe sum ofthe squares. The results then conerted back to aa SPL, Iestaightfrwar to show thus this cambiation of operations yes the fain SP ™ log [Ever] ae an For oxaeple, £8 dB isthe combined SPI. of two 35 dB sounds. The combined SPT of x00 sound and a 70.4D sound is 704 dB, This liter soup lsrates how lle the lower SPL sound flees the combined SPL whan the two ifr by 10 aD.1110. BQUAL LOUDNESS CoNTOURS 7 ‘The cars a vory sensitive menraring Instant which has a wey wide dye range. This he remo tnt the logarithmic decal sae is ead Uo oly the msl pre leve. (Total bel ea fae fir leant Graham Bell who invented it, Tiere aro 10 decibels ina bel.) Tlie total dynamic rage of the ‘ais srully taken to be 10) JB, This determined by taking OB asthe therehold of tring ad 12 {Bas the decomnfrtthenbold, A dynamic range of 130 B rorespunct to netic presure range fo) 21078 Pato 20 Pa, Beene the power density in anand wave vasa ae the sare ofthe pense, his ge represents power ratio of 10" to ‘Te lastrument that ue to mesa SPL called sci level rete. Such a arse consist ‘celeste maerophone, a mcroplione preaaplifer, calfoated atteator, and a mechanical or eto reulout ‘The mest faniliae SPE iets ae hand bed. Laboratory rial level meters with elaborats ‘wring crate are not eo potable. Some examples ofthe SPEs of filer sound ae tabulated in Tae i ‘able 11; Example SPL Loves Tarek ot Pa Jet Accra | 120 8 "Truck | 100 dB Onstor | 8. aB ‘ew Couvesstion | 60 dB ‘Quiet Room | 40 8 stag of Leas | 208 Exposure to high SPL sounds can permacently damage one's hearing. Loud jpulsve und sch ove rated by a guashot or by aa air hammer ave prtcalcly bd. Te sof ei Ut 90 repress {be SPL threshold above which the eas can be damage, The potential for damage depends om tn gt cf espaute. Tt befeved that cine of the exporure efats are culate, For thie teason, ne shoul ‘ens te hearing proteciors when expose to loud outs, Some ofthe snilet ml soa effete honing . Wott age mae of «nol oor ner nt canbe pike nt he bar ear canal. "Theve ae comuaey fold a rag store, ‘A common fru of early hearing loin urman is« decrened sett at about 4 KE, The bearing spove below and above KE reals ose to rol ‘Fis os ca be sundatel with a geplic eatin ty mteng out the gun withthe 4 Aft conizl. As ening Hoss progresses, the with of Ue aot crease va hee Ite vr no high-frequency response Bei, 1.10 Equal Loudness Contours : ‘Theor doesnot have ft fesoncy response, Ts frequency response varies with SP. Although no tw | ‘esons hear aie, psychoacoustic data have been collcted nad averaged. ver @Iergewtmiber of prope to ain the everagefrequeney response of the human ena xfunction of SPL. When displayed graphical, . tape data are cad eal Iudvess contours, The bst known curves were produced by Fete and Moran ‘nd were pabished by the ASA in 1942 asthe American Standavd for Netse Measurement, 7242-1942. (The Aaican Standard Assocation or ASA tas been replaced by tho TSO) Fig, 1 is base on te original Fecher-Muson canton, ‘The equal Ivins contours give the SPL ws a fnetin of feramcy for tones that aro persed as aring qa loucness. By defuition, the loss lovel of each curve i equal to its SPL we 1 Kile This Iban eel is called the phon evel ofthe curve, For oxample tenn be see from the cures that an SPL, | ‘fa at 200 Hz tas the sere poroivod loudness a5 an SPL, of 20d at 1 KH. The laude eel of ‘eth tons 29 phen, Th carves show tat the frequency at which tho ear i the most sensitive is sont | “tila, Boesue th low level curves rise mc mote et ow froquencies than at high fequencios, the ear is SEES8 CHAPTER 1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND ‘Sound Pressure Level a Figure 14: Fletcher \Cunson equal oudness contours Sor pure tones "ees snstive to ew fraguencns than to high froquencis at low Joel, Tale why the bats fegpeace La susie do aot scom to reproduco wall at low volume loves “Many home audio componente have a sich nbalad "oudotss coupensnticn.” When activated it couse the traguney response of the ylumne costo approrimeto on ofthe equal loudest cotoxra In theory, {he oot at low an high frequencies qveronbes tke ass of rapanse bythe oar st theve frequencies The equal loudtes eves vary with level, however, x0 tht ths exh arbount of loudiese compensation roid Isa function of th lowiness. Becuuse this depends ca the gaia of the emplier andthe efisioacy of the loudspeakers, itis doubtful if most losdoser companesion acute aze aver calirated cunrciy In flct many of thos excuits amount f Lele mere than bas boat ciete. Combined with th bass boost tat is bull into many loudspeakers, loudness compenatios usualy results a boomy loudspeaker sounting more Tig. 1.82) shown the circlt dlagram of woltne contol with Joudnass compensation that is ofen found in aio peeampliars and recavers. Tt i eed a loudness control. ‘Te cnet consists of 9 tappad potensiometer, two resistors, two expacitor, and a eviteh. With the switch in pation A, the loins Compensation is eff and the frequency response of the control is at, Le. the gain doos ot vary with ‘requeney. In postion B, the loudess eomopansatios i activated. Maximsm compensation oceus whe the Dotentometer wer is athe tap or below When the sniper is above the tap, the Kequsnsy Fee is Sater, becnming Bat when the wiper iat the top af the potentomece, When the wiper it tthe fap, a0 sou in the fi, the voltage gin teaser fonction cam be wet Me _ Me dire Linge Ve Rah Tere ere 1F the break frequencies aro wall yeparated, the te enustants for Cy ean be cfeuated vith Ci an open ‘adhe time constants for Cy can be calculated with Cs a shart, The tne coustats ae given by Ty = (Ryle + Ra) Ca, 72 = BAC, 75 = (By + Ro)C ad re = (Ry Raps +s) Ce (181.1, LOUDNESS LEVELS ° p~——_| 7260. a 20k Frequency ) igre 5 (a) Toppe potentiometer connected tsa does coutrok, (2) Response a dB vests fequency oeeal wiper settings Beample 3 A lag taper 25 AD votry potentiometer i tobe wed f a loudness contol. The potentiometer asa tp that Looted at one-half us angular rotation. Spee th elements i tha vit of Fig. 15(0) {fr the following speifentionss the ffl base Boost et low level nto be (2B, the total ble Bost at tar lio so $2 dB, the foquency below which the base Boost occur i f, =200 He, and the eguency above ‘Shek he rable oor eure fe Mls Solon We ssmune that the cont sos a source impodence that is zero and « los impedance Unt ice, Wh a fog control fs a ts id position (at Wan ceuter tap kn Thi ease), the ati of te estan on each ide of the wiper 10 oI, The we bave 2% — 10Rz and Ry +My = 25 1, Slatin yields My = 22.7 MO and Ry = 227 LO, ‘The anos of bass boost is 20bx(+1/29) = ‘Dlgl Pye) jf) = 12, Soluson for My yikds Ry — 689 0. The amount of treble boost is ‘Dlglra/ra) = Db +1) / lal y+ Wy] = 4 Solution for Ry side Ry = 375 KO The exper are gion by Cj =f Br fo(Hy + Ry ~ 378 pP and Cy = 1f 23) 1.18 pF. The feavency response nl ofthe cote shows in Fig. 1b) for several settings of the wiper. 1.11 Loudness Levels ‘Too ses are semmonly ws 0 spy the ludnes of sound. ‘Thew are the phon aad the sone seals ‘The pun eve of pare tone is seated tothe SPIE Ly a 2 of equal loudness contours uch a the Fete arson cares. The phon level varies logarithmically with Iudnes. ‘That is, mltiplying the loudness by ‘constant translates to adding © eoystat tothe poy Jove Te has bean axperientally deteraned by Jdnsoastic tent at doubling of the perceive Fexdhese vel comeapond to ay cron inthe ha Jv by appraxintely 10 phons. (This holds only ebove the 40 phow level and shen oul appraximtely ‘Te lithe nature of tho phon sea is desirable bocetse the ear ands to have a logarithmic response to ner ‘The moe seal it linear loaves sal in that a doubling of the Ides results in a doling of the sone fel Te eoreert the pon lel of pur ton 4 the we lve, fellowing forme is wat $= 2°) soar 09} oe0 (CHAPTER 1, BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOUND ‘bere Ss the sane level and F is the phon level. The 40 phon ol is choca a he ference lave for Bc ie the pon level increases by 10, tho formula proiet doable of se se nl, Sappose thatthe loudness nvel ofa combination of pare tte is desire. An approach to dotercine this ‘aight be as fellows: (a) Mensure the SPI. ofeach tons by ital. (b) Use eaual loudest carves to conver the SPL of each tone to phon lve. (e) Caleulate Ua total pion lee of tres th Wet sone le ‘by ust the formlas - Pas = 1 (2.0%) pan Sau= 3 (Sao) ms (Lath ‘The methods disuse abow foc determining loudness levee aro contect for pure tones oaly. Bacsuse sudio signal a non-sinusoidal, alternate methods lve been devised fr dtoring the Toudneos level of ‘son inusidal signals. ‘ke cst commonly used method for nisreing ho louoeas of oe signals a Acsdghted SPL. An clot ter ig used ina the SPT. meter which mimes tee Requoay seams ‘of the ear ab the 40 phou lee. ‘The signal pickad up by the misrolie passes Uru the ces Leos ‘he egual is dotocad and displayed on the inter. ‘The inter rensing is called the Acevighted SPEreg 2s uns avo designated dBA, The tequancy respoase of the A-weihtig filter is obtanad hy taking the 1) ho aqulloudans curve and flpping it ont about horizontal line. Because it simone to despa on ‘scr lar that exacty fellows the curve, the reelting filter ie only approximate. An exungle ceeat for an Acweighting filter and its noumalaed femueucy response ae given fe hg, 18. te azn anton ook vad rad vod 200 2k 20% Frequency igure 1.0: A weighting tte and is ortalced gain vers feguency in QD ‘Thre other filter weightings ave buon devised to measure noise levels, The B-weighting Hter mice tte respons ofthe ear at the @0 phon level. The C-oeightng fle mimics the response of the as at the 80 phon lve. The Dovegitog fie hae been propmsl to bo ued for aisrat ols meastement. Te ls approsimately the sam roponse as the weighting filter with the exception tse thm about ed db Deak in its response between 3 and 4 tls The uso ofall of tne ster is emevihat questi bectane ‘messroments made with them do not oxactly correlate with poychoecnistie tee, The Acta sing Inn born use fos lng to document so many uote tasamurcaeals Unt st lanet canara etna For this reson, most noise messvoroeate avo spied in ADA,Sr 112. AUDIO TEST SIGNALS n 1.12 Audio Test Signals ‘The sine waves the “Lng of the tot signal. Ibis the oul en signal ln nabce which preserved shape ty all linear systems, Tis wo to maize frequency respouse,discrtion, and overload charactaristies of eletoai creat, nisopbonen, and loudspeakers. Ha pore sine wave is anayaad withn Foie trast, is spectrum would be find to oman only exe frequency component. Generating a pure sine wave With tleteonie equipment sn eny- Analog function generators synthesize sine waves bY passing triage ‘we through enenliont diode wave shaping cult to shape the tingle wave ito ewe wave. It te ‘igi aelyned with aspartam alae, i would be fad to contain emyecy compen arate ' ltegcis of the faydacetal. These hertoonis are called distation componant o haraonic dirtert ‘The yur sine waves are generated by lw tortion encilters. Thee czeits ae fendbnck amples dg to have pativefedbck tthe feqwney of oscillation, To winnie distersion, dhe plier lop ‘pin mst be exactly unity. Ths eax be acowed sil an witomatic gain control cet whlch detacte the ‘copludeof dhe elatons and generates a contol voage toads te bop gain. I the apie of tbe ‘ection incrsses, the gain fedacel. Tf the amplited deren, the gui increased. Lowdstorht ‘ecto are commonly ued whea it desc to mensize the distortion generated incre ich wal ‘owe amplfers, For general pulpeco testing the netion ganeralur fa seep tne re Ce ‘The square wave Ia soot pride typeof test ngnal at is wd for aslo frome tet Ty used so mensre what sclled the transtat response of smplier crits, er, ete. The square nave I encely ‘won lodepenbar testing cause the phase and septs characteristics of lodapesbs donot preserve {he aquce nave shape wel enough to he abs fo interpre tho ress. ‘The rewon the aque wav mnken cht god et egoa ie that i contains a fundamental equency component mn harmonics wish ts: be ‘epodiced preity with corectumplitude and phase ifthe signal shape ia to be prone. By obvi the equae-tave reponse of an amplifier on an oecleeenpe, bots the naplrade athe phase te-punse ce be judge without danging the equency ofthe signal. Sons of thew eicte af low foguences ate Bhutto Fig 17, ae fly J fay ben_ Freauency Low Freeney ( alone. In his cave, che equation Tor piu Bi. (2.34) radu to oy Byno e109) "The goneral solution for tho wave that propagatea in the = deston ie met em whee py the phasor amplitede ofthe wavs. Tha slition for & we whi propagate inthe —= dtetion Iscbtsined by changing the sgn! of the expanent nthe expon=atia. ‘The partici wloity can he obtnined from the snl relation im 9. (214). Bacnase the poe is 8 Sines a # alone, the pastce velolty hata =-ltsted component any Ie gn by LP oh sepa = BE pas Bt-rewi-2 ea) ample 1.15 gen tha th pk nasr presen in Be, (2.17) ncn of ren ite by m= Pt (2.19) Tm py enya ral eantand, h eHndmatn spin fore emt preset Souson. Te tine domnin preston fw si? (2)) ean, of Es a) on ft 1+ john yt (wjos)® vt 2.4 Specific Impedance ‘The spesicimpodance is defo! as Un rato of the phasor pessre to the phasor pattie wlocity a ap in m aeouste wave, whore the particle welt i tented ae seal. tis dewoted by the symbel 2 ‘the units are mks ays, nomod in honor of Lord Raylaigh. Fa the plane wave it fllows from Bax (217) seal (218) that che epee bapance Fr ai ia 2, = EE pyc = A ms ple eat)1s (CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS Example 2 1 te density of ori doled, by what factor does the specie smpedance charge? pititton 84 a (210), ea weedy rope oy Ts he sui peace nce by 2.5 Acoustic Energy Consider 8 small volume of gas V having @ mas m = pp. Hf the vole i¢ moving with the velocity 7, he Kinetic energy scored is Wie = ma? /2 — py¥ [3/2 J, Ths expression ia vided ty Vw oath the hinetic energy dousty Die given by Dee ?,t) Sanpete Vt uncon fine, Lat the presse outed V be the abit peau Fo. Let he presre inde V be writen P= Py phere 9 the stig tine ying pecons, Le V nee, ssnount AV,’ miu acon 5 ening V must expand bya citaace fe thas AV © $6. The bees cxerad on $s f= v8. Ths the work cop AW = {5 p88 paV. Te fll thatthe eats ie tentioleory stove in Vi in by pe = ~pAV. ‘Tha wy can wnt an -1m)_ vo oa Sho) hm?) 23 where Ep (27) tas been wed for OV/Ot and Fa. (28) has boon uted for VW. When both ses ofthis ‘uation are divided by V, de let side becomes @Dpp/t, where Dp is the potential energy deta, Tr ‘ou sid of the esultag equation are negra nf, the equston Yee Dre) = $y ea ‘The total energy density i he un oft Kinet ane potalalenergy dense. Is give ty Lyre Ce at am a gue ar borat ean Dea bier af + 2.6 Acoustic Intensity ‘Te acount intensity in sound wave is ce power fw par ua area. To cbtain an cep for thie we ‘seu theoce of ectr calli to wnte = E (Cre gig) = 209 ae where Bax. (2.8), (26), and (2.25) have boon und. Lt the susface Bence the yume V. We ea as tha “vergence chaoan wad the aboye result to wte fre-nis- | 9. om)a=— here Wi (7,0) aud Wor (7,1), respectively, re the kinetic aud th poten energies stored in V. This ‘cqution stots the x ofthe vecior pt Unough eqs the agatiw tine dexrntve ofthe total usrey ‘stored ase E, Thus the wstor yi ast reprewat the acotnte power deny fling through § [DO yv= Weer the weet) ez27. WAVELENGTIE 1» ‘Tho acoustic intensity TI dafied ws the vector pamer Bow per wit are in wine, I flows fom dhe hoa that i even _ T=o@ 25) ‘The units of 7 ate W/a?, Wosee thatthe deetion of power Sow is inthe direction ofthe patie wc, 1 is common to teat the infeuiby ws salar guna. Ts dection is understood to bein Yh ate ‘rection as Kor sinusoid te vars, eh Line average power Be in a we clea Ioan te phasor prewure and particle seloty as flows odin two) vey te hr an bee inh 25 ae ie SRR AS inns eat a, Simone ayn Hau Brample 9 What isthe power density in Wir én plane wove having an SPL of 0 a? Sofation, ‘The rms pressure pny = 2 10-5 IPO = OS Pa, ‘Ts the Inti I Le : (068) 407 = 088 n/n J=tnren om me (230) 2.7 Wavelength ‘Wavelength Is defined 2s the distance « weve uae a ous pedod, ste the period i the reciprocal of the ‘iequney, ie: T= 1/f. Les the wavelengta be dewoted by X. For the plane wave, is given by em) re [Example 4 The ruiaton from a lt cireuiar piston in an infinite ae is eppronsmately omsrrtiona! | Jor frequencies such thet the piston ercunfesence i es shan e wevelenth, For piston rads of 10 em, eta the wavenmnnber tala the reves bal for which the radiation is omni-dvectienl. Sohaon, The piston ercamformnee ie © = 2x % 0.10 = 0605 ms. ‘The waveeng’h of the dint’ sound isqroter than this the raqueney salar f S fC = 845/0.628 = 549 Hr 2.8 Particle Displacement ‘hpi diloeent 1 vr dated se dilettante priate guts We deh dent 6 fed lay wef n tent om ig he nd gies th lin Tipton alone qumtiy, re plas och phae pa sonata teens ane oe $50 Foot ~ Titi eee ere By. (2.18) fr was Does used. Por a constant SPL, € inversely peopational to foqucy. Ths is "is reesou that high SPL sounds canbe fl if the freien b low enon —» CHAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS Example 5 What i the peat-to-peu prtce diplasenent in simusoidel plane wave having an SPL of 1D at 20) He er at 20 He? Solution. The ns poemur is ime = (2x 10-6) 109/ — 16225 Pa, The peak-to-peak displacement s BER BY Gp = 2V Brae /2 fg AL 200 Ha, Ia Gp ~ 0.0088 men, AE 20 ait 6 = O39 ae, 2.9 The Omni-Directional Spherical Wave ‘An ovsuictiectioual spherical wave is ove In which the face of constant instanton presnure are conceatic spheres. Por snusokal time vriatio, a airen of sound radiates an oxan-iretcna spre ‘ove if the cour i sullsiently small compared to tho wswseasth. Thus couton ie oft expeeaed ex R 1, the above example pedis that Jy ()] vss inversely with equency. Pressure gradient ‘oF veloc micrptianes have aa oxtpt eat propetional tothe particle welosty, When atlles cove fo sith a mlcropone, # prououneed boce in th base equencos occ, which i called te peniy eee, ‘The frequency below which the boost occas given by f= e/Ser210. VOLUME VELOCITY a 2.10 Volume Velocity ‘The volune velocty U omit by o eure the tne derivative ofthe volume of alr It iplacea. Ie a apuree satlbio as oppased toa wave yarable. A en example, consider the lowdepesker monuted in a clea be own in Pig, 2.1()- Denote the disphragm piston afc, dsplacanet, and velo, pactvey by Sp, 2p, a ip. The Flume of ait displaced eV Spx Tho volume velocity mite ie wy ue de 50% = Sou 238) Piston Ye ie08 Sp au @) Figure 2:1: (a) Volume velocity U emitted by & udspeaker.(b) Puating rptier saree, ‘The oqivlent piston neea ofa diaphragm is doin ns the aren of «fat pico which emits the sane ‘wiuine velocity. Foraeteularloutspeske diphragy, convenient re of thumb soften use to estimate tho piston rains. The restates tnt the piston res bu centers ie equ t tho adword Gsmeter ince. Thus inch woofer has piston rads of approxtnately 12 em. Although thio rae xn ents ‘e considered to be approxi, i is arsine to ho inthe flowing for most Inudspeakee calculations Tn practice, the piston ras ofa divor Is nomeally measured. with a ear as te distance fom the contr ‘acs af the dlaphragm to a point halfway into te oer suspension. Fi 2.3(5 strate a pulsing sphese sour of sounds Lt tbe nominat rls of he pbere bor. AE ar japan woe tances sien Ube) tg fa] a em “This exantion can be soln for the coastnt Kn ters of. When the resulgexoresion for Ks wd Jn By. (238), p(p) ean be wren funtion : TrjorF ane aan, 2.11 The Simple Spherical Source ‘The radiae yin the epanent af Eq. (2-40) reprnmte w relative phase sift which ean sualy be nesactl ariJe-t: land the ry inthe saponin the equation can be writen pe) en “Ths equation is ofa refrred to ae the pram redliated ya simple spheres! soaren, For sien Various, a source radnsen approximately a supe source iF ca be contain in 4 apete of radias Rec A, hora i the wneeength2 (CHAPTER 2, PUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS Bxample 7 A loulspester driver with a diophraym piston radius af = 4 om is mounted én smal load tas. The loudepater redtates a8 0 imple soure et f = 150 Hs, Calculate the peaktorpaldiophgn dlplacenent the SPL atr=3 m 280 at Solution, Tho rms peru and wohape veloiy, reapetirely, 6 foe = (2 10) 107 = 0.2 Pe set Ure & Arrraa/ 2 py = OO08TS ts, Ths the practo-pea dphiagin displacement is given hy Sep = DW frat = 4.05 mn, ‘The power radiated by a sme sourea can be obtained by integrating the aoxmal component of the scouti intensity vera spiro centered on the aout Dees che intensity is Contant over the phere, {he total powes canbe btsined by multiplying the soastichnteslty bythe are othe sphere. Todo ti, 1 tin Eq. (2280) fr te acoustic fate, Eq. (2) forthe prom, and Ea (231) fo the spec iapedance. Th poser radiated i given by ime ea) Panel wena] ‘Tho above equation can be written Pan 3IUP Ran U2 Raw 4) ‘where Ran is defined as the rodintion resistance for tho wave. Iti giv by Ran~ SZ form strain ond ey ‘ioe the serian i a anu fell ange. These ave 4 seria in a shere. Ifthe single scarce 4s opeated against an innit gi wall, called as infinite bf jt caintes into a 2 steven ond. It 8 slo in the next section that Che radiation retain ti cace is doubled to the vale Rane ZB fora de stn a eu ample 8 A ml elt layne ote in inf ele, See for pak plcnent of the diaphragm ca a function of freyuency Xf the power radiated isto remain coms. dasume ha the loudspeaker radiates oxo simple sures Seaton Deo the psn aru ofthe dpa by Sp an he pk harap dplscenect by 26 Be: 28} aad (25) an ue to ve forte pom, i ent yy" 2 ngs 220 —} . Pan = 3 P SB = FosaSol? 2A = 1 SE (2) 240) 1 follows from the nbowe example that [ea] aust be iaversely proportional to w? fr a const power ‘output. For ecampl, i the Foutepeker radix asa simple source elon 200 Ha, the peak Saplaceren a 20 is ust bo 100 times greater Unan the peak displacement st 200 Hi forthe ame power, 2.12 Acoustic Images ‘Wher simple source i operated in tee nic, the acoustic radiation fs omnidirectional, Wren the sous Is placed against inne ball ll of the radiation foead to coer nto xe leslie, "The changer in Acoustic presse and power radiatl can be predic by the theory of wcowsleiiagen ig. 22 shows «staple wourco in out ofa wal, The boutdarysoaitons raya the uormal emponent ofthe partici vloity se the wal to be aur. Let a image soos be placed behind the wall a sews i213. THE PLANE CIRCULAR PISTON 2 Figaro 22: Slinpie soar loc in fron of ig iat wall. the figure. If bot cours ait te sane volume weeity 1, the wall ca be rennel dnd the boundary conditions do not lange. Thal, the noetal component of ihe particle velocity a the wall resale 20 ‘The ecousticpresure at point P ean then be waliten tr i | sont Me oo uc om Bou Pg te wl 0 hat ry == 7h oes mr nd te since momar P bane ; panna aw ‘Ths the presume at? is tho sara eo thst radiated by single soioe which emits & volume velocity 20 ‘We coche that simple sonrce operat agsinst a iit ba radiates on qeoutic prema that ‘ twie as grest ae it would Ifill space. Beontna the intaniy wares ta the square af the presuse the caste intensity goes up by a faetor of 4. However, the soures taints its half epoca ao Us the total over redited ane up oly bp factor of 2, Ths he action esietanco Team go up by o face cf Ht ‘he sure fs plod jn 2 cornorbetwooa xo wall, evades ito one-quarie spas, ‘The preanae radiate ‘sequent to the onigial source plex thre age, Tae presice goes a by a fact of he latenity ‘ners by a faetr of 16, the acouste per ralatn increans bya factor of sal the radiation vst fies up by a acto of 4 ifthe soures plac ia covuer betwen thtce wll i endines into oe eights pace." pressure redinted is equivalent to te oigieal mace pls 7 images, ‘The yeeure goee up by fico of 8, tho Intensity incense by «facon of 64, the aeoutic ower rade incre by atte OF 8, ‘nthe radiation retance goes up by afte of 8. Fig 2.3 sutimarizo he mogn eflets fo ech case lage ects cane used to pri what mn happen whan the positon of ladepeake i cnnged a room. Ouly the very lw frequencies where the lorspenle rants as a simple maeo ate ected. We ca ‘onde that te mest bass sobtaina fran re londepenr when its placod on Use Heo inthe corns of ‘oom, Tf sounds boomy n thts oeation, i ean be pill mwy from the corner. I i sil sounds hoor, Ive e ied off of the oor. 218 The Plane Circular Piston "The beating plane cteanernton i a source whic often vod to side the radiation from oudepener Gaphragin. Pi. 24 shows tho geometry of Sue « pston In aint tale We nai ote dik vibes inaoidally with 2-dctel wetocty We th tocaleuate the preszune radiated at point PG 6) inthe yepla, By syunmetr, the pressure rotationally synmetri sb te sie, Ve point P hse "he rectangular eordinates 20, y'= sind, aul —reasd. The point Pon th ds is the recs ‘oudhnaies 2 = r'eosg yf —r'sing/, and :!= 0. The distance between the points P and is given by PP JP IS (0) Petem4 CIIAPTER 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS » 2, HE Source 7, HE | Hesneree a7 Fans 2a Full Space SPhy Hott Space sPLyt6 He | Source — 4p, 8p, KR etl, Pins Bas Quarter Space SPL;t12 Cighth Space SPITS ‘igure 24: Simple source radiating ino fl spec, bal pace, quarter space, and eighth space ee) 20 () (e) ‘igure 24; Plane erclarpston radiator in infnto bat, ‘et the snfice ofthe isk bo divided ino difvetial area slezeats in polar coordinates. Superposition ofthe pessure rated by each clemart can be word to solve forte fetal pressure at P. "Pha aten eemene at P’ radates asa simple source inl a 2x steradina lod. The pressure a P radio bythe area come at Ps obtaied by doubling thn pressure for a seria loa in By, (241) ata piven bs Hip See 250) do = spy ‘where af = da an da = dei the aro eect in polar coordinates, Ir >> +, two approximations can be mae that are cll the fa-feld spproxinations. Fs, the din the denominator Is approuiated lyr. Second, the binomial thooren is appiod to Bq. (249) to proximate the te repute’ by one dx r-rsindalng! ey ‘Th total pressure at pat P canbe solved for by summing Use prnsures radiated by exch aaa element on the disk, In he mits the aes of cach clement approscos cay the aim beconas te saperpestion214, THE PATTERN BRAMWIDTH 2 Integral ven by Peet) = jane [eer serinr tage — sans PY EsHBA) oan shee J (Ensind) 6 Bessel fection and = sau i the atl volume veloty emitted by the disk "To obtain the on-asie premre fom the abow expreson, the aml argument expansion for the Best fmction can be used. Fa [kasi smal, ths approvinnton it J (eas 8) 2 (hon) /2. 1k fallow that "he pretre or =U, fe. along the sans, ego nea seu as) ‘This sam important rsut for i shows thatthe fats on-aepresneradinted by the cela disk the sine the pressure radiated Ly a siople sour against a right wal into Br sterdians ‘When the point 2 ison the 2s, eritrion that Is comnony sed to speeity theese to the ‘ap Gad i that the distanced given ly Ba, (249) vares by no more than 2/16 as” varies over the di, ‘Te mnnimurn value of gecurs when 1” D snd led = "= The maim value of cers when asp that dugg = WFP a? & 4 aP/2r oer 3 Th the fared distance satis th rt Shon oie = 0 /BF <1, Solio fr yas pp Se at 250) ‘whens D = 2 ith diameter of the disk, When stiies this condition, the equonent tery ki fa Ei (220) can vary by no more than (24/3) » (10) = 3/5 = 225° as 7 varies ver the surface of en disk “This males the satiation from each clerect of the disk arvive at dhe ebsexvation pit P ia appevimately tn same phase so that phase cancelation ean occur al the ai or a constant, i follows fom Eq. 232 that [2 (ensind| i (255) ‘his equation shows thet the depradence of the presure on the angle 6 i determin the argue usin = (2ua/2)sin# = (O/) sind, where C = Zea is the ceumforence of te dss the peste Is ‘Tusa of the rato of tbe de ereunfoencs to the wavelength This a fction of fegines Fig. 2.5 ales plots over the dB range fam 0 to ~30 GB of the aonmatied SPL fr a constant + as ‘function of @ for C = 2, 24,8, 2,5, au 10. Tse plots are ralled radiation patterns. Tt eat be ‘een tht the ease A= C gives'apattora chat ie alma cmnilieeioual aver he Hemsphee i font of the ak As A doers, de pattem benines bariower axl presie sidelobes begin to form. ‘The shortest ‘wovelengtt fF which no prose sddabes exist Is A= C/A. Rat X-< G/d, the ration besos highly ret TT the dlaphragen of «loudspeaker fs mailed at Bat etelae piston, it fellows fom Fig. 28 that the lowfregteney radiation is oant-tizectioal wie the high-frequen sounds are rated ina narrow beam fn ont of the diaphrayen. IC the crcmafereno> ofthe dapluegm is made smal, the frequency at whieh ‘te radation became directional is ncoasel so that the high Bexeacy dispersion inprove. THR #8 One of the reesons why sal apo loulapeass are used fr totes 2.14 The Pattern Beamwidth ‘The leamwidth of w radintion pattern is doin as the sugar dstanc betwen the to poluts om ete Se of ite pinepal es have the radiation & dowa by 3B fron ks peak ale on the nis. The presse rallated by theft eieular piston isa maximm along tho axis ofthe dik, ie. eloye the sxe Tn he26 (CIAPTER 2. PUNDAMENTALS OF ACOUSTICS EIN, |_/ (0) (o)} (oy al (ol wa Figure 26: Crue psn eatin patterns for 0 <9 < 8) A= 0, (0) Aw C/2, 0 A=CF5, @A=C/6,) N= 0/5, A= ON, ‘anise the principal as, The radiation pattern arin with #8244 a0) /ka sn "This faneton has ‘eat of tity for 9 = 0. The Valin of 2 kosind for which 2. (2) /2 = 1/V3 iva = £1.60. fella thst sind = 1.60/ka = 40.2550, whore k= 2/2. Ths the 5 dB beamwidth fer the Mat chealar piston Baiven ly 55] ‘een Brample 9 A woofer with arated dianter of 10 inches ha a piston rau a = 10 em, 1f he weer con be ‘modeled asa lt circular piston én an inflie ba, sole forthe loves frequency for which the decay ‘atten hao i Bao ‘MIB Beanie Soliton, Krom, Bq. 286, th avers sie function a not defined for O2552/a > 1, Because e= f2y the foeqamte fo which the 8 Al beamwidth does not exist enison J < 0.255e/a ~ 0.255 345/01 ~869 Be, Wie ooelide that the 10-ch woofer zedatoe a beam that 50 more than 3 dB down in direction 90° from the principal axis for froquenis les than 880 Ei. ‘This example usleate one possible way thatthe upper cessor froqueny fr dene might be epoca 2.15 Fresnel Diffraction Effects ‘The nears precnure rained by sour refered to ws Frome ifftaction, The mite fd ofa source is the ein elow to the coutee where the far-eld appronaations do sot ho, In gear ite inpoble215. PRESNEL DIFFRACTION EFFECTS x to cbtsin cowed form expressions for the mere presure radiated ly w sero. Ts posible, however 0 sole forthe oni neseldpremare radiated by a Bt ctcular ison i a infiie ale. Thi eee solve fo in thi eston Fig 26 ilsirmtes iat crcular piston of ead oi an ive ble, The piston vibrates lnodally tha sdocted velocity w and ene » vlune wlocty = rau. The olvervation pei is ou the ton ais citace fom its center. Let the piston aren be divided int concentric ing cr ties. The fieueihstrates the fst two sac zones, The ea ofthe crs diving the women aro beled 75, et ‘Te distances fom the observation point P to the circles diving the zones att lel dy dy uc. Lec the ac of the somes be chown sich nt dh — 1/2, dp = dh /2 tg = da +-A/2, ee. Dacouse of the Tnfwaveleugth differen n path lenges, the acoustic natn fom Uh moored zone ua the sk sien at P vat of pave from the radiation from the fist or oxrtral sone Ths actuate radinton fen the ied oe ancves nt Pout of phase from the radiation from the second yous, ‘The aco ranton fs the out one ais at P ott of phase rom te adation fiom the thie sone ee y ¥ rodius ¥) i de radius ¥} aN . © ) Figaro 26: Construction of Fresnel zone. (a) Side view. (8) Pont rien. ‘The total mumber 1 of zones on the disk depeads on tho dk radhs a, dhe wavelength 3, aud the stance 2 IF the number is even, tho acoustic vation Geom adjecent ones approximately cancels at ns forming a lor niin in te rainton. If Uso number I od, cancellation ecars betwore N= 1 ‘oes, leaving one zone e te effective radiator. ‘Tix canne a xia inthe endian, Ifthe fancy ‘Stald eonetant and the detanes = is vied the mumlcr of share varies eben an even nye ad ‘i miner. Ths the on-axis radiation asclate Lerween a minty hd misnaun as 3 yee ‘weil ony one sone existe. ‘This aces when > bosoms lange enough go thal VstFa? 3 © )/2. These {Mice az calla Fron or aod dfrrtion ets ‘The superposition integral forte onan presse radia bythe plane cea disk an be writen as ‘ho ntagral of Bi. (250) over the dig wheve d= V7 wad da ~2ar' Tinea iy ae ‘To put Bq. (257) ita forms that malas the Fresnel difivtion effets more obs, Hhe equation can etalon (are) Peal (VR-9] es ‘Thi expresion protic that a maxianum in the peseae errs when the aupument ofthe sine function ta clang of +/2 al eainimiana when the aggmere im mle of Bact 2/4 te condo Lea nasimum is V2"4a0 23/2, 342, 9/2 ett The coniion for a mnimonmn ia VFR = 8, dee neo eanses| SEE eee