Pramāṇa (Sources of Valid Knowledge)

The concept of Pramāṇa is central to Indian epistemology and is discussed extensively in various
philosophical schools, particularly Nyāya and Mīmāṃsā. Pramāṇa refers to the means or instruments
of acquiring valid knowledge (pramā). The classical Indian philosophers generally accepted six
pramāṇas:

1. Pratyakṣa (Perception)

2. Anumāna (Inference)

3. Upamāna (Comparison or Analogy)

4. Śabda (Verbal Testimony or Scriptural Authority)

5. Arthāpatti (Postulation or Implication)

6. Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension or Negative Proof)

The 12 divisions you mentioned are likely referring to the 12 categories of objects of valid knowledge
(prameyā) according to the Nyāya school, which include Ātman (Self), Śarīra (Body), Indriya (Senses),
Artha (Object), Buddhi (Intellect), Manas (Mind), Pravṛtti (Activity), Doṣa (Defect), Pretyabhāva (Life
after Death), Phala (Result), Duḥkha (Pain), and Apavarga (Liberation).

Vaiśeṣika

The Vaiśeṣika system, founded by the sage Kaṇāda, is one of the oldest and most influential schools
of Indian philosophy. It is closely associated with the Nyāya school and shares many epistemological
principles. The Vaiśeṣika system is known for its elaborate analysis of the nature of reality and its
atomic theory of matter.

The seven categories (padārthas) of reality, as mentioned earlier, are:

1. Dravya (Substance): There are nine substances - Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Space, Self,
and Mind.

2. Guṇa (Quality): Qualities like color, taste, smell, touch, number, etc.

3. Karma (Action): Motion or movement.

4. Sāmānya (Universality): The universal or general attributes shared by multiple objects.

5. Viśeṣa (Particularity): The unique or individual attributes that distinguish one object from another.

6. Samavāya (Inherence): The relation between a substance and its qualities or actions.

7. Abhāva (Non-existence): The absence or negation of an object.

The Vaiśeṣika system emphasizes the principle of atomism, where all material objects are composed
of indivisible atoms (paramāṇu). It also explores various types of causes and effects, and the nature
of the self (ātman).

Sāṃkhya

The Sāṃkhya system, founded by the sage Kapila, is one of the oldest and most influential schools of
Indian philosophy. Its central concept is the duality of Puruṣa (consciousness or spirit) and Prakṛti
(matter or nature).

According to Sāṃkhya, Prakṛti is the primordial material cause of the universe and is composed of
three guṇas (qualities):

1. Sattva (Purity, Lightness, Knowledge)

2. Rajas (Activity, Passion, Energy)

3. Tamas (Inertia, Darkness, Ignorance)

The interplay of these three guṇas gives rise to the entire manifested universe. Puruṣa, on the other
hand, is the pure consciousness or witness, distinct from Prakṛti. The goal of the Sāṃkhya system is
to achieve the liberation of Puruṣa from the bondage of Prakṛti through the cultivation of
discriminative knowledge (viveka-khyāti).

The Sāṃkhya system also discusses the concept of the 25 tattvas (principles or categories), which
include the three guṇas, the 16 evolutes of Prakṛti (such as Buddhi, Ahaṃkāra, and the five subtle
elements), and Puruṣa.

Yoga

The Yoga system, as expounded in Patañjali's Yoga-sūtras, is closely related to the Sāṃkhya
philosophy but with a theistic orientation. The central aim of Yoga is the cessation of mental
fluctuations (citta-vṛtti-nirodha) and the attainment of a state of pure consciousness or samādhi.
The Yoga-sūtras outline an eightfold path (aṣṭāṅga-yoga) for achieving this goal:

1. Yama (Ethical Disciplines)

2. Niyama (Self-Purification)

3. Āsana (Postures)

4. Prāṇāyāma (Breath Control)

5. Pratyāhāra (Sense Withdrawal)

6. Dhāraṇā (Concentration)

7. Dhyāna (Meditation)

8. Samādhi (Absorption or Enlightenment)

Yoga also discusses various concepts such as the eight siddhis (supernatural powers), the five kleshas
(afflictions), and the practice of various meditation techniques (dhyāna, dhāraṇā, samādhi) to attain
the ultimate goal of kaivalya (liberation).

**Mīmāṃsā**

The Mīmāṃsā system, founded by the sage Jaimini, is primarily concerned with the interpretation
and application of the Vedic rituals and texts. It is divided into two branches:

1. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (Early Mīmāṃsā): Focuses on the ritual aspects of the Vedas and the correct
performance of Vedic sacrifices and ceremonies. It discusses topics like the authority of the Vedas,
the nature of dharma (righteous duty), and the principles of Vedic hermeneutics.

2. Uttara Mīmāṃsā (Later Mīmāṃsā): Also known as Vedānta, it deals with the philosophical and
metaphysical aspects of the Vedas, particularly the Upaniṣads. It explores the nature of Brahman
(the ultimate reality), the relationship between the individual self (jīvātman) and Brahman, and the
means of achieving liberation (mokṣa).

The Mīmāṃsā system emphasizes the authority of the Vedas and the importance of ritual actions
(karma) for achieving dharma and spiritual progress. It also discusses various epistemological and
linguistic principles for interpreting the Vedic texts.
Heterodox (Nāstika) Schools**

The term "heterodox" (Nāstika) refers to the philosophical systems that did not accept the authority
of the Vedas and were considered "non-orthodox" by the Āstika (orthodox) schools. The major
heterodox schools include:

1. Buddhism: Founded by Gautama Buddha, Buddhism rejects the notion of a permanent self
(ātman) and emphasizes the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as the means to end suffering
(duḥkha) and attain nirvāṇa (liberation).

2. Jainism: Founded by Mahāvīra, Jainism teaches the principles of non-violence (ahiṃsā), non-
attachment (aparigraha), and the existence of multiple eternal souls (jīvas). It emphasizes the three
jewels (ratna-traya) of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.

3. Cārvāka: Also known as Lokāyata, it was a materialistic and atheistic school that rejected the
existence of the soul, the afterlife, and the authority of the Vedas. It emphasized the pursuit of
pleasure and material happiness in the present life.

These heterodox schools presented alternative views on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and the
nature of reality, challenging the orthodox schools and contributing to the rich diversity of Indian
philosophical thought.

It's important to note that this is a broad overview, and each of these philosophical systems is
incredibly rich and complex, with various sub-schools, interpretations, and developments over time.
The study of Indian philosophy requires a deep understanding of the historical, cultural, and
linguistic contexts in which these systems emerged and evolved.