Section 10.

1: Infectious Diseases

Key Concepts

1. Infectious Diseases
○ Definition: Diseases caused by pathogens and transmissible between
human hosts.
○ Pathogens: Include bacteria, protoctists, and viruses.
2. Pathogens and Diseases
○ Cholera
■ Pathogen: Bacterium Vibrio cholerae
○ Malaria
■ Pathogen: Protoctists Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae,
Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium vivax
○ Tuberculosis (TB)
■ Pathogen: Bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium
bovis
○ HIV/AIDS
■ Pathogen: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
3. Transmission Methods
○ Cholera: Through contaminated water or food.
○ Malaria: Via bite of infected Anopheles mosquitoes (vector transmission).
○ Tuberculosis (TB): Through airborne droplets from coughing or sneezing.
○ HIV/AIDS: Through contact with infected bodily fluids (sexual contact, needle
sharing, mother-to-child transmission).
4. Prevention and Control Factors
○ Biological Factors:
■ Understanding pathogen biology and transmission.
■ Vaccinations and medical treatments.
○ Social Factors:
■ Education and awareness.
■ Reducing stigma and promoting safe practices.
○ Economic Factors:
■ Accessibility and affordability of healthcare.
■ Funding for public health initiatives and research.

Section 10.2: Antibiotics

Key Concepts

1. Mechanism of Penicillin
○ Action: Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis, causing bacteria to burst and die.
○ Selectivity: Effective against bacteria due to their cell wall structure;
ineffective against viruses, which lack cell walls.
 2. Antibiotic Resistance
○ Consequences:
■ Harder to treat bacterial infections.
■ Increased medical costs and prolonged illness.
■ Higher mortality rates.
○ Prevention Strategies:
■ Judicious use of antibiotics (avoiding overuse and misuse).
■ Completing prescribed antibiotic courses.
■ Development of new antibiotics.
■ Stringent infection control measures in healthcare settings.
■ Public education on antibiotic use and resistance

Section 11.1: The Immune System

Key Concepts

1. Phagocytes (Macrophages and Neutrophils)

○ Mode of Action:
■ Phagocytosis: The process where phagocytes engulf and digest
pathogens.
■ Steps:
■ Chemotaxis: Phagocytes move towards the site of infection in
response to chemical signals.
■ Adherence: Phagocytes bind to the pathogens.
■ Ingestion: The pathogen is engulfed into a phagosome.
■ Digestion: Lysosomes fuse with the phagosome to form a
phagolysosome, where digestive enzymes break down the
pathogen.
■ Exocytosis: Waste materials are expelled from the phagocyte.
2. Antigens
○ Definition: Molecules capable of inducing an immune response.
○ Types:
■ Self Antigens: Molecules recognized as part of the body.
■ Non-Self Antigens: Molecules recognized as foreign.
3. Primary Immune Response
○ Sequence of Events:
■ Macrophages: Engulf pathogens and present antigens on their
surface.
■ B-Lymphocytes:
■ Activation: B-cells bind to antigens and are activated by
T-helper cells.
■ Proliferation: Activated B-cells multiply and differentiate into
plasma cells.
■ Plasma Cells: Produce antibodies specific to the pathogen.
■ T-Lymphocytes:
■ T-Helper Cells: Activate B-cells and other immune cells.
 ■
T-Killer Cells: Destroy infected host cells by inducing
apoptosis.
4. Secondary Immune Response and Memory Cells
○ Memory Cells: Long-lived cells that remember past infections.
○ Role in Immunity:
■ Secondary Response: Faster and more robust response upon
re-exposure to the same pathogen.
■ Long-Term Immunity: Provides lasting protection against previously
encountered pathogens.

Section 11.2: Antibodies and Vaccination

Key Concepts

1. Antibodies
○ Structure: Y-shaped molecules with variable regions (specific to antigens)
and constant regions.
○ Functions:
■ Neutralization: Blocking pathogens from entering cells.
■ Opsonization: Marking pathogens for phagocytosis.
■ Agglutination: Clumping pathogens together for easier phagocytosis.
2. Hybridoma Method for Monoclonal Antibodies
○ Steps:
■ Immunization: Injecting an animal with an antigen.
■ Cell Fusion: Fusing B-cells from the animal with myeloma cells to
form hybridomas.
■ Selection: Identifying hybridomas that produce the desired antibody.
■ Cultivation: Cloning and mass-producing the selected hybridoma
cells.
3. Monoclonal Antibodies in Disease Diagnosis and Treatment
○ Diagnosis: Used in diagnostic tests to detect specific antigens (e.g.,
pregnancy tests, disease markers).
○ Treatment: Used to target specific cells (e.g., cancer cells) or molecules (e.g.,
autoimmune diseases).
4. Types of Immunity
○ Active Immunity: The body produces its own antibodies.
■ Natural: Through infection.
■ Artificial: Through vaccination.
○ Passive Immunity: Receiving antibodies from another source.
■ Natural: From mother to baby (e.g., breastfeeding).
■ Artificial: Through antibody injections.
5. Vaccination
○ Mechanism: Vaccines contain antigens that stimulate an immune response
without causing disease.
○ Long-Term Immunity: Memory cells are formed, providing lasting protection.
○ Control of Infectious Diseases:
 ■ Herd Immunity: Reduces the spread of disease by protecting
unvaccinated individuals.
■ Eradication Programs: Large-scale vaccination efforts can eliminate
diseases (e.g., smallpox).

. Stages of Aerobic Respiration in Eukaryotic Cells

● Glycolysis: Occurs in the cytoplasm.

● Link Reaction: Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
● Krebs Cycle: Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.
● Oxidative Phosphorylation: Occurs on the inner membrane of mitochondria.

2. Outline of Glycolysis

● Phosphorylation of Glucose: Glucose (6C) is phosphorylated using ATP to form

glucose-6-phosphate.
● Splitting of Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate: Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (6C) is split
into two triose phosphate molecules (3C).
● Oxidation to Pyruvate: Triose phosphate is oxidized to pyruvate (3C), producing
ATP and reduced NAD (NADH) in the process.

3. Pyruvate in Aerobic Conditions

● When oxygen is available, pyruvate enters the mitochondria to take part in the link
reaction.

4. The Link Reaction

● Conversion of Pyruvate: Pyruvate (3C) is decarboxylated to form an acetyl group

(2C).
● Role of Coenzyme A: The acetyl group is transferred to coenzyme A, forming acetyl
coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA).
● Release of CO₂: One molecule of CO₂ is released.

5. The Krebs Cycle

● Formation of Citrate: Oxaloacetate (4C) accepts the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA
to form citrate (6C).
● Conversion to Oxaloacetate: Citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate through a
series of small steps, releasing CO₂ and generating ATP, NADH, and FADH₂.
6. Reactions in the Krebs Cycle

● Decarboxylation: Removal of carbon atoms, released as CO₂.

● Dehydrogenation: Removal of hydrogen atoms, which reduces NAD and FAD to
NADH and FADH₂, respectively.

7. Role of NAD and FAD

● Hydrogen Transfer: NADH and FADH₂ transfer hydrogen atoms to carriers in the
inner mitochondrial membrane during oxidative phosphorylation.

8. Oxidative Phosphorylation

● Hydrogen Atom Splitting: Hydrogen atoms split into protons (H⁺) and energetic
electrons.
● Electron Transport Chain: Energetic electrons pass through the electron transport
chain, releasing energy.
● Proton Transfer: The released energy is used to transfer protons across the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
● ATP Synthesis: Protons return to the mitochondrial matrix by facilitated diffusion
through ATP synthase, providing energy for ATP synthesis.
● Oxygen's Role: Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, forming water (H₂O).

9. Structure and Function of Mitochondria

● Diagrams and Electron Micrographs: Illustrate the double membrane structure,

cristae, and matrix.
● Function: Cristae increase surface area for oxidative phosphorylation, and the matrix
contains enzymes for the Krebs cycle.

10. Anaerobic Respiration

● In Mammals (Lactate Fermentation): Pyruvate is reduced to lactate, regenerating

NAD⁺.
● In Yeast (Ethanol Fermentation): Pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde,
which is then reduced to ethanol, regenerating NAD⁺.
11. Energy Yield Comparison

● Aerobic Respiration: Produces more ATP per glucose molecule due to complete
oxidation of glucose in the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
● Anaerobic Respiration: Produces less ATP because glucose is only partially
oxidized.

12. Adaptations of Rice

● Aerenchyma Development: Specialized tissue in roots allowing gas exchange in

waterlogged conditions.
● Ethanol Fermentation: Roots can undergo anaerobic respiration.
● Faster Growth of Stems: Ensures leaves and flowers are above water for
photosynthesis and reproduction.

13. Investigations with Redox Indicators

● Redox Indicators: DCPIP and methylene blue change color when reduced.
● Experiment: Determine the effects of temperature and substrate concentration on
the rate of respiration in yeast by observing color changes.

14. Investigations with Respirometers

● Simple Respirometers: Measure oxygen consumption.

● Experiment: Determine the effect of temperature on the rate of respiration by
measuring changes in gas volume.

13.1 Photosynthesis as an Energy Transfer Process

Key Concepts

1. Chloroplast Structure and Function

○ Diagrams and Electron Micrographs: Show the double membrane,
thylakoids, grana, stroma, and intermembrane space.
○ Function:
■ Thylakoids: Site of the light-dependent reactions.
■ Stroma: Site of the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle).
2. Energy Transfer in Photosynthesis
○ Light-Dependent Stage: Produces ATP and reduced NADP.
○ Light-Independent Stage (Calvin Cycle): Uses ATP and reduced NADP to
produce complex organic molecules.
3. Sites of Photosynthesis within Chloroplasts
 ○ Thylakoids: Thylakoid membranes and spaces in stacks called grana for the
light-dependent stage.
○ Stroma: Site of the light-independent stage.
4. Role of Chloroplast Pigments
○ Chlorophyll a and b, Carotene, Xanthophyll: Absorb light for
photosynthesis.
○ Absorption Spectrum: Shows the wavelengths of light absorbed by
pigments.
○ Action Spectrum: Shows the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths.
5. Chromatography of Chloroplast Pigments
○ Separation and Identification: Use chromatography to separate pigments
and determine their Rf values.
6. Photophosphorylation
○ Cyclic Photophosphorylation:
■ Only involves Photosystem I (PSI).
■ Photoactivation of chlorophyll.
■ ATP is synthesized.
○ Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation:
■ Involves both Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII).
■ Photoactivation of chlorophyll.
■ Oxygen-evolving complex catalyzes photolysis of water.
■ ATP and reduced NADP are synthesized.
7. Mechanism of Photophosphorylation
○ Electron Transport Chain: Energetic electrons release energy.
○ Proton Transfer: Energy used to transfer protons across the thylakoid
membrane.
○ ATP Synthesis: Protons return to the stroma through ATP synthase,
providing energy for ATP synthesis.
8. Calvin Cycle
○ Three Main Stages:
■ Carbon Fixation: Rubisco catalyzes the fixation of CO₂ with ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP) to form glycerate 3-phosphate (GP).
■ Reduction: GP is reduced to triose phosphate (TP) using ATP and
reduced NADP.
■ Regeneration: RuBP is regenerated from TP using ATP.
○ Production of Other Molecules:
■ GP: Used to produce some amino acids.
■ TP: Used to produce carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.

Practical Activities and Investigations

● Planning Investigations: Design experiments to measure the rate of photosynthesis

under different conditions (e.g., light intensity, CO₂ concentration, temperature).
● Data Analysis and Interpretation: Analyze data from experiments to draw
conclusions about photosynthesis rates.
 ● Evaluating Experimental Procedures: Assess the quality and reliability of
experimental data.

Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

1. Limiting Factors
○ Light Intensity: The amount of light available for photosynthesis.
○ Carbon Dioxide Concentration: The availability of CO₂ for the Calvin cycle.
○ Temperature: Affects the rate of enzymatic reactions involved in
photosynthesis.
2. Effects of Limiting Factors on Photosynthesis Rate
○ Light Intensity:
1. Low Light Intensity: Limits the rate of the light-dependent reactions,
reducing ATP and NADPH production, thus slowing the Calvin cycle.
2. High Light Intensity: Increases the rate up to a point where other
factors become limiting.
○ Carbon Dioxide Concentration:
1. Low CO₂ Concentration: Limits the rate of the Calvin cycle since CO₂
is a substrate for the carbon fixation step.
2. High CO₂ Concentration: Increases the rate until the Calvin cycle
enzymes are saturated or other factors become limiting.
○ Temperature:
1. Low Temperature: Slows down the enzymatic reactions in both
light-dependent and light-independent stages.
2. Optimal Temperature: Increases the rate of photosynthesis as
enzymes work more efficiently.
3.
4.
5. High Temperature: Beyond a certain point, enzymes denature,
reducing the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Investigations Using Redox Indicators
○ Redox Indicators: DCPIP (2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol) and methylene
blue change color when reduced, indicating electron transfer during
photosynthesis.
○ Experimental Procedure:
1. Preparation: Use a suspension of chloroplasts extracted from plant
cells.
2. Setup: Add DCPIP or methylene blue to the chloroplast suspension.
3. Variable Control: Adjust light intensity or wavelength using filters and
light sources.
4. Observation: Monitor the color change of the redox indicator, which
correlates with the rate of photosynthesis.
4. Investigations Using Whole Plants
○ Aquatic Plants (e.g., Elodea or Cabomba): Ideal for observing oxygen
production as a measure of photosynthesis rate.
○ Experimental Procedure:
1. Setup: Place an aquatic plant in a water-filled beaker with a CO₂
source (e.g., sodium bicarbonate).
2. Variable Control: Adjust light intensity using a lamp, CO₂
concentration by adding sodium bicarbonate, and temperature with
water baths.
3. Measurement: Count the number of oxygen bubbles produced per
minute or use an oxygen sensor to measure the oxygen concentration