GRACELAND COLLEGE, ENUGU

NOTE OF LESSON FOR SECOND TERM

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY

CLASS: 10TH GRADE

INSTRUCTOR: MR. OGBONNA FELIX C.

SCHEME OF WORK

WEE TOPIC CONTENT

K
1 Kinetic Theory of Matter
2 Gas Laws I
3 Gas Laws II
4 Gas Laws III
5 Acids, Bases and Salts I
6 Acids, Bases and Salts II
7 Practical Chemistry
8 Acids, Bases and Salts III
9 Salts
10 Revision/Examination
11 Examination/vacation
States of matter. Phenomena supporting kinetic theory.
The postulates of the kinetic theory of gases.
Boyle’s law; Charles’ law; General gas equation; Ideal gas
equation; Concept of s.t.p. and calculations.
Dalton’s law of partial pressures; calculations based on
saturated vapour pressure of gases collected over water.
Graham’s law of diffusion of gases.
Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes, and Avogadro’s
law, and related calculations.
Acids: definition, properties, types of acids, basicity of
acids, uses of acids.
Bases and Alkalis: Definitions, properties, uses of alkalis.
pH of a solution, calculations.
Volumetric Analysis: Acid-base Titration
Salts: types of salts, preparations, Uses.
Important terms: Efflorescence, deliquescence,
hygroscopy. Drying agents. Rules of solubility of salts in
water. Hydrolysis of salts.
WEEK 1
TOPIC: Kinetic Theory of Matter
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. State the kinetic theory;
2. Explain states of matter using the kinetic theory;
3. State the postulates of kinetic theory of gases;
4. Explain the evidences in support of the kinetic theory;
5. Explain the terms: Real gas and Ideal gas.

NOTE
Kinetic Theory of Matter
All substances are made up of minute particles (atom, or ions or molecules). Many of the differences
between solids, liquids and gases can be explained by a study of the way these particles move.
Scientists have observed substances under different conditions and have formulated laws which predict
the behavior of these substances. These laws are based on an understanding of the kinetic theory of
matter which states that the particles of all substances move constantly.

States of Matter and the Kinetic Theory

A given substance can exist as a solid, a liquid or a gas. Example, ice, water and steam are all chemically
the same substance. Change of state is brought about by a change in temperature (i.e. heating or
cooling). When a substance is heated, its particles acquire more kinetic energy. When cooled, they
become less energetic.
Solids: In a solid, particles are packed very closely together and are unable to move about. They are held
together by fairly strong forces of attraction and can only vibrate. A piece of a solid has a fixed shape
and volume. Because there is little or no space between particles, a solid has a high density.

Liquids: The particles in a liquid are still quite close together, so the density is still fairly high. They can
now move about because the forces of attraction are weaker than those in a solid. Therefore, a liquid
does not have a fixed shape and will take the shape of whatever container it is put in. the volume of a
liquid is fixed, however, at a given temperature.

Gases: The particles in a gas are moving about very fast and there are large distances between them.
The forces of attraction between them are very weak and so a gas will be able to spread out to fill any
container into which it is put. Because of the large spaces between the molecules, a gas can be
compressed easily. Gases have very low densities.

Solid Liquid Gas

1. Fixed shape Variable shape Variable shape
2. Fixed volume, cannot be Fixed volume, difficult to Variable volume, can easily
compressed compress be compressed.
3. High density Fairly high density Low density

Activity
1. State the Kinetic Theory of Matter.
2. What happens to the particles of a solid at its melting point?
3. Why does a given gas occupy all the available space in a container?
4. How does evaporation occur and why does it cause cooling?

Kinetic Theory of Gases

The motion of particles in a solid and in a liquid is limited compared with the movement of gas particles.
Because of this, the kinetic theory can be applied to gases in much more detail.
In order to simplify the description of the behavior of gases we consider the ideal gas. Kinetic theory
makes the following postulations about an ideal gas.
1. A gas is made up of very tiny particles (atoms, molecules) which are separated by distances large
compared to their size.
2. The particles have mass but their individual volumes are negligible compared to the volume of the
container.
3. The particles are in constant, random motion and their average kinetic energy is constant at a given
temperature.
4. Collisions between the particles themselves and between the particles and the walls of the container
are elastic (that is, kinetic energy can be transferred but not lost during collision).
5. There are no special attractive or repulsive forces between the particles.

Activity
1. State two postulates of kinetic theory of gases.

Pressure
The 4th postulation of the kinetic theory allows us to explain why a gas exerts a pressure. This pressure
results from the constant bombardment of the walls of a container by the millions of molecules in a gas.
Their motion is random and the number of gas particles is so large that the number of collision will be
the same on all the inside surfaces of a container. This explains why gas pressure is the same in all
directions.

Units of Pressure
Pressure can be measured in atmospheres (atm) or mmHg. More recently, the unit used has been the
pascal (Pa) which is calculated as newton per square metre (Nm-2). These units are related as follows:
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101325Nm-2.

Activity
1. State the units of pressure, and how are they related?

Evidences in Support of the Kinetic Theory

Particles of matter (i.e. atoms, molecules and ions) are so tiny that we cannot see them with our naked
eyes. How then can we prove that they are in constant motion as stated by the kinetic theory?
The following natural phenomena are evidences in support of the theory: Diffusion, osmosis, Brownian
motion, dialysis.
1. Diffusion: This is the movement of solute particles through a medium along the diffusion gradient
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion of gas from a
cylinder when the tap is opened shows that the particles of the gas are in constant motion.
2. Osmosis: This is the movement of water molecules from a more dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane. A dry bean seed in a beaker of water swell
after some time because water molecules have moved through the semi-permeable skin into the seed
by osmosis. Thus, osmosis indicates movement of water molecules.
3. Brownian motion: This is the haphazard, zig-zag motion of pollen grains suspended in a drop of
water. Under a microscope, this irregular constant motion was later found to be due to the
bombardment of the suspended solute particle (pollen grain) by the surrounding molecules of the liquid
medium. A smoke also shows this irregular and constant motion.
4. Dialysis: This describes the method used to separate crystalloids from colloidal particles by using a
semi-permeable membrane which allows only crystalloids to pass through it.

Activity
Mention two natural phenomena that support the theory that particles of matter are in constant
motion.

Real Gases
All the gases in the world are real gases e.g. hydrogen gas, H2; chlorine gas, Cl2; oxygen gas, O2; nitrogen
gas, N2, etc. Their behavior is not strictly in agreement with kinetic theory of gases. For instance, their
molecular volume is not completely negligible when compared with the volume of their container. Also,
intermolecular force of attraction and repulsion is not completely negligible as assumed by the kinetic
theory. A real gas obeys gas laws under normal conditions of temperature and pressure.

Ideal Gas
There is nothing like ideal gas in existence. But for easy calculations of gaseous pressure, volume and
temperature, gases are assumed to be ideal (i.e. to always have negligible volume and negligible
intermolecular forces). An ideal gas obeys gas laws at all temperatures and pressure.
The behavior of a gas becomes ideal at high temperature and low pressure.

Activity
1. Give three differences between an ideal gas and a real gas.
2. State the condition under which the behavior of a gas becomes (i) ideal (ii) non-ideal.
3. Explain why gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressure and low temperature.
4. Arrange the following gases in increasing order of deviation from ideal gas behavior: HCl, O 2, Cl2.

Assignment
1. List and explain two natural phenomena which support the kinetic theory of matter.
2. State three postulates of kinetic theory of gases.
3. State the units of pressure and show how they are related.
WEEK 2
TOPIC: Gas Laws I: Boyle’s law;
Charles’ law;
General gas equation;
Ideal gas equation;
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. State Boyle’s law, write its mathematical expression and draw its graph.
2. State Charles’ law, write its mathematical expression and draw its graph.
3. Solve calculations involving Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
4. Explain General gas equation and Ideal gas equation and apply them in solving calculations;
5. Explain the Concept of standard temperature and pressure.

NOTE
BOYLE’S LAW
Boyle’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure,
provided that the temperature remains constant.
Mathematically, V ∝ 1/p
V = k/P where k is a constant
Or PV = K
This means that, if the pressure of a given mass of gas increases, its volume will decrease by a similar
proportion, and vice versa, as long as the temperature remains constant.

Note: P1V1 = P2V2

Where V1 = volume at pressure P1
V2 = volume at pressure P2
Graphical representation
Calculations
1. 375cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 770mmHg. Find its volume, if the pressure is reduced to 750mmHg.
Solution

P1V1 = P2V2

P1 = 770mmHg P2 = 750mmHg
V1 = 375cm3 V2 = ?

V2 = P1V1 = 770 x 375

P2 750

= 385cm3

Activity
1. State Boyle’s law and write its mathematical expression.
2. 200cm3 of a given mass of gas exerts a pressure of 600mmHg. What will be the pressure of the gas, if
the volume is doubled at constant temperature.
3. At a pressure of 3 atmospheres, a given mass of gas has a volume of 300cm3. What volume would it
occupy at a pressure of 1 atmosphere? (The temperature remains constant).

CHARLES’ LAW
Charles’ law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature in
kelvin, provided that pressure remains constant.
Mathematically, V ∝ T
V = kT where k is a constant.
Or V = k
T
This means that the volume of the gas decreases as the temperature decreases.
Also note: V1 = V2
T1 T2

Graphical representation

Kelvin Temperatures
The kelvin temperature scale has -273oC as its starting point. (The Celsius or centigrade temperature
scale uses the freezing point of water, 0oC, as its starting point). Before we can apply the gas laws in our
calculations, we must convert all the temperature readings involved to the Kelvin scale. The Kelvin
temperatures are also called the absolute temperatures.

Temperature conversions
Temp. in kelvin = Temp. in centigrade + 273
K = oC + 273

Examples
Convert the following Celsius temperatures to Kelvin temperatures:
a. 25oC b. 0oC c. -132oC

solution
K = oC + 273
a. 25oC = ( 25 + 273 ) K = 298K
b. 0oC = ( 0 + 273 ) K = 273K
c. -132oC = ( -132 + 273 ) K = 141K

Activity
1. Convert the following Celsius temperatures to Kelvin temperatures:
a. 100oC b. 37oC
2. Convert the following Kelvin temperatures to Celsius temperatures
a. 390K b. 253K

Calculations involving Charles’ Law

1. At 17oC a sample of hydrogen gas occupies 125cm3. What will the volume be at 100oC, if the pressure
remains constant?

Solution
V1 = V2
T1 T2

V1 = 125cm3 , V2 = ?
T1 = (17 + 273) K = 290K, T2 = (100 + 273) K = 373K

V2 = V1T2
T1
= 125 x 373
290
= 161cm3

Activity
1. State Charles’ law and sketch a graph to illustrate it.
2. At what temperature will the volume of a given mass of a gas become 50cm3, if its volume at 25oC is
150cm3.

Kinetic Theory Explanation of Boyle’s Law

When the volume of a gas is increased, the molecules of the gas will have a larger distance thereby
making the number of collisions to be less frequent. As a result, the pressure exerted by the gas on the
walls of the container will be less, with the temperature remaining constant.

Kinetic Theory Explanation of Charles’ Law

For a gas confined in vessel with a movable piston, if the gas is heated, the molecules acquire more
kinetic energy, move faster and collide more often with the walls of the vessel thereby increasing the
pressure they exert. To maintain the same number of collisions on the walls of the vessel, the piston
moves up so that the volume of the gas is increased.

Assignment
1. 150cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 680mmHg. Find its volume if the pressure is increased to 740mmHg
2. State Charles’ law and sketch a graph to illustrate it.
3. At 27oC a sample of hydrogen gas occupies 150cm3. What will the volume be at 110oC, if the pressure
remains constant?

GENERAL GAS EQUATION

If V ∝ 1/p (at constant T)—Boyle’s Law

And V ∝ T (at constant P)—Charles’ law

Then V ∝ 1/p x T

PV = K where K is constant
T

It follows that P1 V1 = P2 V2 This is general gas equation.

T1 T2

IDEAL GAS EQUATION

For an ideal gas PV = is a constant
T

PV = R where R is a constant termed as the molar gas constant.

T
PV = RT
For n moles of gas PV = nRT
The equation is called the ideal gas equation and holds true for all gases. ( P is in atm, V in dm3, T in K, n
= number of moles of gases).

Standard Temperature and Pressure (s.t.p.)

To make calculations on experiment in gaseous volume uniform worldwide, scientists agree that it must
be done at a standard temperature ( 0oC or 273K ) and at standard pressure ( 760mmHg or 1 atm or 1.01
x 105 N/m2 ). This is because room temperature and pressure varies from place to place worldwide.

Calculations involving General Gas Equation

1. At s.t.p. a certain mass of gas occupies a volume of 790cm3. Find the temperature at which the gas
occupies 1000cm3 and has a pressure of 726mmHg.

solution
P1 V1 = P2 V2
T1 T2
P1 = s.p. = 760mmHg P2 = 726mmHg
V1 = 790cm3 V2 = 1000cm3
 T1 = s.t. = 273K T2 = ?

Make T2 the subject of the formula

T2 = P2V2T1
P1V1
= 726 x 1000 x 273
760 x 790
= 330.1K

Activity
1. 130cm3 of a gas at 20oC exerts a pressure of 750mmHg. Calculate its pressure if its volume is
increased to 150cm3 at 35oC.
2. A given mass of gas occupies 850cm3 at 320K and 0.92 x 105 N/m2 pressure. Calculate the volume of
the gas at s.t.p.

Calculations involving Ideal Gas Equation

1. A certain amount of gas occupies 5.0dm3 at 2atm and 10oC. Calculate the number of moles present.
(R = 0.082 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1).

Solution.
From the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT
P = 2 atm V = 5.0 dm3
T = (10 + 273)K = 283K
R = 0.082 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1
n=?
n= PV
RT
= 2 x 5.0
0.082 x 283
= 0.431 mole

Activity
1. 2.0moles of an ideal gas are at a temperature of -13oC and a pressure of 2atm. What volume in dm3
will the gas occupy at that temperature? (R = 0.082 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1 )

2. What volume will 2moles of a gas occupy at 10 atm and 70oC. (R = 0.082 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1 )

Evaluation
1. Write the general gas equation and the ideal gas equation.
2. A given mass of nitrogen is 0.12dm3 at 60oC and 1.01 x 105 N/m2. Find its pressure at the same
temperature, if its volume is changed to 0.24dm3.
WEEK 3
TOPIC: Gas Laws II: Dalton’s law of partial pressures;
Graham’s law of diffusion of gases.

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures;
2. Solve calculations involving Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures (for gases collected over water).
3. Graham’s law of diffusion of gases.
4. Solve calculations involving Graham’s law of diffusion.

NOTE
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES
This states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of the component gases provided the gases do not react chemically.
This means that the total pressure Ptotal of a mixture of gases A,B,C is equal to the sum of their partial
pressures PA, PB, PC.
Mathematically, Ptotal = PA + PB + PC

Worked example
1. Two flasks were connected by a narrow glass tube with a closed tap. One flask contains 300cm 3 of
oxygen at 1.0 x 105 N/m2, while the other contains 200cm3 of nitrogen at 2.0 x 105 N/m2. After opening
the tap, calculate the (a) partial pressures of each gas;
(b) total pressure of the mixture, at constant temperature.

Answer
A combination of of Boyle’s law and dalton’s law of partial pressures will be used.
a. To find the partial pressure of each gas
Total volume = (300 + 200) cm3 = 500cm3
i. for oxygen: P1V1 = P2V2
1.0 x 105 x 300 = P2 x 500
P2 = 0.6 x 105 N/m2
Hence, p(O2) = 0.6 x 105N/m2

ii. for nitrogen:P1V1 = P2V2

2.0 x 105 x 200 = P2 x 500
P2 = 0.8 x 105 N/m2
Hence, p(N2) = 0.8 x 105N/m2

b. To find pressure of the mixture of gases

 PTotal = p(O2) + p(N2)
= [(0.6 x 105 ) + (0.8 x 105 )] N/m2
= 1.40 x 105N/m2

Activity
1a. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
b. What is the partial pressure of a gas?
2. A container is partitioned into two compartments. One contains 5.0dm3 of helium at 4.0
atmospheres, while the other contains 3.0dm3 of air at 6.0atmospheres. After the partition is removed
at constant temperature, calculate the
(a) partial pressure of (i) helium, (ii) air
(b) pressure of the mixture.

Gases Collected Over Water

If a gas is collected over water, it is likely to be saturated with water vapour, and the total pressure
becomes: Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapour
The effective pressure of the dry gas itself can be calculated by subtracting the saturated vapour
pressure of water at that particular temperature and pressure from the total gas pressure.

Worked example
1. A certain mass of hydrogen gas collected over water at 6oC and 765mmHg pressure has a volume of
35cm3. Calculate the volume when it is dry at s.t.p.
(saturated vapour pressure of water at 6oC = 7mmHg)

solution
Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapour
Ptotal = PH2 + Pwater vapour

PH2 = Ptotal - Pwater vapour

= ( 765 – 7 ) mmHg
= 758 mmHg

P1 V1 = P2 V2
T1 T2
P1 = 758mmHg P2 = s.p. = 760mmHg
V1 = 35cm3 V2 = ?
T1 =(6 + 273)K = 279K T2 = s.t. 273K

Make V2 the subject of the formula

V2 = P1V1T2
P2T1
= 758 x 35 x 273
760 x 279
= 34.2cm3

Activity
1. A certain mass of oxygen gas collected over water was found to occupy a volume of 150cm 3 at 15oC
and 800mmHg. Calculate the volume when it is dry at s.t.p.
(S. V. P. of water at 15oC = 18mmHg)

Mixture of Ideal Gases: Mole fractions

Ptotal = P1 + P2

P1 = nRT/V P2 = nRT/V (partial pressures of gas 1 and 2)

P1 = n1
Ptotal n1 + n2

P1 = n1 x Ptotal or P1 = mole fraction x Ptotal (partial pressure of gas 1 in the mixture)

n1 + n2

P2 = n2 x Ptotal or P2 = mole fraction x Ptotal (partial pressure of gas 1 in the mixture)

n1 + n2

Activity
1. a 2.0dm3 bulb contain 1.20g of hydrogen and 6.40g of oxygen at 27oC. Calculate the
(a) i. mole fraction of hydrogen
ii. mole fraction of oxygen
(b) pressure of the mixture
(c) partial pressure of each gas
(R =0.82 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1, H = 1, O = 16 )

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION OF GASES.

Graham’s law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of its density at constant temperature and pressure.
Mathematically, R ∝ 1/√ d

R = K/√ d where k is the constant

R√ d = K

R 1 √ d 1=R 2 √ d 2 (for two gases diffusing under the same conditions)

R 1=√ d 2
R2 √ d 1

This means that the rate at which a gas will diffuse or spread is determined by the density or molecular
weight of its molecule. The lighter the gas molecules, the faster will be the rate of diffusing or spreading.
The Relationship between Density of a Gas and its Molecular Mass
Density = 1/2 molecular mass
d = M
2
i.e. 2 x d = M

R 1=√ d 2
R2 √ d 1

Then, substituting d = M
2

R 1=√ M 2
R2 √ M 1

Rate of diffusion is usually measured as a volume diffusing in a given time,

R = V
T
If we consider the same time, then
V 1=√ M 2
V2 √ M 1

Or if we consider the same volume, then, since T = 1

V
T 1=√ M 1
T2 √ M 2

Worked examples
1. 60cm3 of a gas A difuses out in 8 secs and 120cm3 of another gas B diffuses in 12 secs. Calculate the
rate of diffusion of the two gases.
Answer
R = V
T
RA = 60 cm3
8 sec
= 7.5 cm3/sec

RB = 120 cm3
12 sec
= 10 cm3/sec

2. 500cm3 of hydrogen gas diffused through a porous pot in 50secs. How long will it take an equal
volume of oxygen gas to diffuse through the same pot? ( H = 1, O = 16).
T 1=√ M 1
T2 √ M 2

T 1=50 sec M 1=1 x 2=2

 T2=? M 2=16 x 2=32

50¿ √ 2
T2 √ 32

50¿ 1
T2 4

T2 = 50 x 4
= 200 sec

3. The rate of diffusion of hydrogen gas is 8 times the rate of diffusion of a gas X. what is the molecular
mass of X? (Molecular mass of H = 2)
Rh=√ Mx
R x √ Mh

8¿ √ Mx
1√ 2

64=Mx
12
Mx = 64 x 2 = 128

4. If 280cm3 of hydrogen diffuses in 40 secs, how long will it take 490cm3 of a gas X, whose density is 25
to diffuse under the same conditions. (Rmm of H = 2)
R 1=√ d 2
R2 √ d 1

R1 = 280 cm3 = 7 cm3/sec

40 sec

R2 = 490 cm3 = ?
t sec

d1 = ½ x 2 = 1
d2 = 25
7=√ 25
R2 √ 1
R2 = 7/5 = 1.4 cm3/sec
1.4 = 490
t
t = 490
1.4
= 350sec

Activity
1. A flask full of methane takes 90cm3 to diffuse, while the same volume of gas Y takes 149 secs; what is
the molecular mass of gas Y? (Rmm of methane, CH4 = 16)

Assignment
1. 200cm3 of hydrogen gas diffuse through a porous pot in 40 secs. How long will it take 300cm 3 of
chlorine to diffuse through the same pot? ( H = 1, Cl = 35.5 )

WEEK 4
TOPIC: Gas Laws III: Avogadro’s law;
Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. State Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes,
2. State Avogadro’s law,
3. Solve calculations involving Gay Lussac and Avogadro’s laws.

AVOGADRO’S LAW
Avogadro’s laws states that equal volume of all gases contain the same number of molecules at the
same temperature and pressure.
Mathematically, V ∝ n
This means that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its number of moles at constant
temperature and pressure. Hence, two moles of a gas is proportional to volume of a gas.
Example: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)
2 mols 1 mol 2 mols
2 vols 1 vol 2 vols
2 x 6.02x1023 6.02x1023 2 x 6.02x1023
Since, hydrogen and steam are of equal volume, they contain the same number of molecules.

GAY LUSSAC’S LAW

Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that when gases react, they do so in volumes which are
simple ratios to one another and to the volumes of the products, if gaseous, provided that the
temperature and pressure remain constant.
Example: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)
2 vols 1 vol 2 vols
2 : 1 : 2 simple ratios

Calculations
1. What volume of carbon(II) oxide is required to react with 10cm3 of oxygen to form carbon(IV) oxide?
Equation of reaction: CO (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

Equation of reaction 2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)

Reacting volume 2 vols 1 vol 2 vols
Volume ratio 2 : 1 : 2

i.e. 2cm3 of CO require 1cm3 of O2

 20cm3 of CO require 10cm3 of O2
The required volume of CO is 20cm3

2. Ammonia is produced by Haber process according to the equation: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
If 20cm3 of nitrogen were mixed with 90cm3 of hydrogen under suitable conditions,
a. Which gas is in excess, and by what volume?
b. What will be the volume of ammonia produced?
c. What is the total volume of the gas mixture at the end of the reaction?
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
Volume ratio 1 : 3 : 2
Vol before reaction 20cm3 90cm3 --
Vol that reacted 20cm3 60cm3 40cm3
Vol after reaction -- 30cm3 40cm3

a. Hydrogen is in excess, by 30cm3

b. Volume of NH3 produced = 40cm3
c. Total volume of gas mixture = (30 + 40) cm3 = 70cm3

Activity
1. State Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes.
2. What is the volume of oxygen required to burn completely 100cm3 of methane?
Equation of reaction: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
3. If 50cm3 of CO were burnt in 40cm3 of oxygen, determine the gas that would be in excess, and
calculate the volume of gas that would be unused. Equation of reaction: CO (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

Assignment
1. What volume of hydrogen will be produced if 100cm3 of ammonia is completely decomposed at
constant temperature and pressure? 2NH3 (g) → N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)

2. The following reaction occurred when 100cm3 of carbon(II) oxide was burnt in 70cm3 of oxygen
2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)
Calculate the total volume of gas mixture (residual gas) in the reaction vessel at the end of the
reaction, temperature and pressure remaining constant.
WEEK 5
TOPIC: Acids, Bases and Salts I: Acids

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define an acid;
2. State the physical and chemical properties of acids;
3. Explain the strength of acids;
4. Explain the basicity of acids,
5. Mention the classes of acids, their sources and examples;
6. State uses of acids.

NOTE
ACIDS
An acid is defined as a substance which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ions as the only
positive ion.
Example: HCl (aq) → H+ + Cl-
H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ + SO42-
The hydrogen ions then combine with water molecules to give hydroxonium ion, H 3O+
H+ + H2O → H3O+
An acid therefore, can also be defined as a substance which when dissolved in water produces
hydroxonium ion as its only positive ion.

Physical properties of Acids

1. Acids have a sour taste.
2. Acids turn blue litmus red.
3. They are corrosive in nature.

Chemical properties of Acids

1. Acids react with metals more reactive than hydrogen in the activity series to liberate hydrogen gas.
E.g. Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe.
e.g 2HCl (aq) + Zn (s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2 (g)
acid metal salt hydrogen

2. Acids react with bases to give salt and water only. Such a reaction is known as neutralization.
e.g. 2HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O (l)

3. Acids react with trioxocarbonates(IV) to liberate carbon(IV) oxide and produce salt and water.
e.g. 2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → 2NaCl(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (aq) → CaCl2(s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
4. Acids react with trioxosulphates (IV) to liberate sulphur(IV) oxide and produce salt and water
e.g. 2HCl (aq) + Na2SO3 (aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O (l) + SO2 (g)

Activity
1. Give three physical properties of an acid.
2. Write an equation for the reaction between iron filings and dilute tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid.

Laboratory Preparations of Acids

1. Direct combination reaction: e.g H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → HCl (g)
The hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to give hydrochloric acid. HCl (g) + H2O (l) → HCl (aq)

2. By dissolving acid anhydride in water: e.g.

CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq) (NO2 is a mixed acid anhydride)
Acid anhydrides are oxides of non-metals which dissolve in water to form acids.

3. By displacement of a weak acid salt by a strong acid: e.g.

2NaNO3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq)

Activity
1. List two general methods of preparing acids.
2. Explain how you would prepare Hydrogen chloride gas and then hydrochloric acid from
concentrated H2SO4.
3. Why is CO2 regarded as an acid anhydride?
4. Give the acid anhydrides of the following acids: (i) HNO3 (ii) H2SO4

Strength of Acids
On the basis of their strengths, acids are classified into strong and weak acids.
1. A strong acid is one which ionizes or dissociates completely in water. e.g. H2SO4, HCl, HNO3. They are
strong electrolytes. HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) (100%)
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol

2. A weak acid is one that does not ionize or dissociate completely in solution. e.g. ethanoic acid
CH3COOH and ethanedioic acid H2C2O4.2H2O. Others are H2CO3, H2SO3 and H3PO4. They are weak
electrolytes. CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq) (0.4%)
1 mol 0.004 mol 0.004 mol

Activity
1. Explain what is meant by the strength of an acid.
2. H2SO4 is described as a strong acid. Why?
3. Why is ethanoic acid regarded as a weak acid?

Basicity of an Acid
The basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen ions, H+, in one molecule of the acid.
Basicity of some common acids
Acid Ions produced Basicity
HCl H+, Cl- 1 or monobasic
H2SO4 2H+, SO42- 2 or dibasic
H3PO4 3H+, PO43- 3 or tribasic
CH3COOH H+, CH3COO- 1 or monobasic

Activity
1. What is the basicity of an acid?
2. State the basicity of each of the following acids: (i) H2CO3 (ii) HNO2 (ii) CH3CH2COOH.

Classes of Acids
There are two classes of acids: organic acids and mineral acids.

Organic acids occur as natural products in plant or animal materials. Examples

Organic acid source

Ethanoic acid Vinegar, palm wine
Lactic acid Sour milk
Citric acid Lime, lemon
Amino acids Protein
Fatty acids Fats and oils
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) Oranges
Palmitic acid Palm oil
Methanoic acid Bees and ants’ stings

Mineral or inorganic acids: they can be prepared from mineral elements or inorganic matter.
Examples
Inorganic acid Formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid H2SO4
Trioxonitrate(V) acid HNO3

Uses of Acids
1. Acids are used in many industries to make consumer chemicals such as fertilizers, detergents and
drugs.
2. They are used in industrial processes as drying agents, oxidizing agents and catalysts.

Activity
1. State the natural source of (a) ethanoic acid (b) citric acid (c) amino acids
2. Mention three uses of mineral acids.

Evaluation
1. Define an acid.
2. How would you prove that a given colourless liquid is an acid?
3. Using equations, show the formation of hydroxonium ions in an aqueous solution of H2SO4.
4. SO2 is described an acid anhydride; explain.
5. The basicity of H2SO4 is 2. Explain this statement with an equation showing the reaction between the
acid and KOH.
6. Using an ionic equation, show how an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid containing the
hydroxonium ion neutralizes a potassium hydroxide solution.

WEEK 6
TOPIC: Acids, Bases and Salts II: Bases and Alkalis;
Measurement of Acidity and Alkalinity

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define bases and alkalis;
2. State properties of bases/ alkali;
3. Mention uses of alkalis;
4. Explain the pH scale;
4. Define the pH of a solution;
5. Solve calculations involving the pH of a solution.

NOTE
BASES AND ALKALIS
Most oxides and hydroxides of metals are bases. Common examples of basic oxides are: sodium oxide,
Na2O, potassium oxide, K2O, and magnesium oxide, MgO. They are formed when these metals burn in air
or oxygen. E.g. 4Na (s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O (s)
Most of these metallic oxides are insoluble in water. Some, however, dissolve in water to form
hydroxides. E.g. Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)

A base is a substance which will neutralize an acid to form a salt and water only.
Acid + alkali (base) → salt + water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
This is known as neutralization

An alkali is a basic hydroxide which is soluble in water. e.g. NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2

Physical Properties of Alkalis

1. Alkalis have a bitter taste.
2. Alkalis are soapy to the touch.
3. Alkalis turn red litmus blue.
4. They are corrosive when concentrated.

Chemical Properties of Bases/Alkalis

1. Reactions with acids: All bases react with acids to form salt and water only.
NaOH(aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

2. Reactions with ammonium salts: Alkalis react with ammonium salts, in the presence of heat to
 generate ammonia gas. This reaction can be used as a test for alkalis.
NaOH(aq) + NH4NO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3 (g)

Preparation of Bases
1. Combustion of a reactive metal in air: e.g. 4Na (s) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)

2. Action of a soluble base on water: e.g CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)

3. Action of a reactive metal on cold water e.g. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

Uses of Alkali
1. NaOH is used in the manufacture of sodium salts, and plastics, and petrol refining.
2. KOH is used in dyeing and electroplating.
3. Ca(OH)2 is used in the manufacture of cement.
4. Mg(OH)2 is used in the manufacture of toothpaste.
5. Aqueous ammonia, NH3.H2O is used for bleaching cloth and as a detergent.

Activity
1. Define a base.
2. Mention three physical properties of an alkali.
3. Give two examples of strong alkalis and three examples of weak alkalis.
3. Write an equation to show the (a) reaction between calcium and water;
(b) burning of sodium in oxygen.
4. State two uses of alkali.

MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

pH Scale
The acidity and alkalinity of substances are measured using a scale of numbers from 0 to 14, called the
pH scale.
A solution with a pH value of 7 is neutral, i.e. neither acidic nor alkaline. A solution with a pH value less
than 7 is acidic, while one with a value more than 7 is alkaline.

0______________________________________________________14

The pH of a solution is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the solution.

The pH value is a measure of the hydrogen ion or hydroxonium ion concentration [H +] or [H3O+] in a
dilute solution.

Measuring pH of a Solution
The pH of a solution may be measured by: (a) universal indicators
(b) pH meters
Indicators are weak organic acids or bases that change colours depending on the hydroxonium ion
concentration, pH, of the solution.
They are in the form of solutions or test papers. They are used to indicate whether a solution is acidic,
alkaline or neutral, and are employed during acid-base titrations to detect the end-points.

Indicator Acid Neutral Alkali pH of transition

 Litmus Red Purple Blue 6.0 - 8.0
Methyl orange Pink Orange Yellow 3.1 - 4.4
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink 8.3 - 10.0
Methyl red Pink Red Yellow 4.4 - 6.3

Universal Indicator
A universal indicator is a mixture of dyes (various indicators), which work at different pH ranges. pH
changes can be determined by comparing the colour with that of the standards given.

The pH of a solution can be measured accurately using a pH meter.

Activity
1. Define the pH of a solution.
2. What are acid-base indicators?
3. State the importance of an indicator in an acid-base titration.
4. Name three types of acid-base indicators.
5. The colour of phenolphthalein in dilute HNO3 is____.

Calculations of pH
The pH of a solution can also be defined as follows:
 The negative logarithm to base ten of the hydrogen ion concentration.
 The logarithm to base ten of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration.

Mathematically, pH = -log10 [H+] or pH = -log10[H3O+]

pH = log10 1 or pH = log10 1
[H+] [H3O+]

Worked examples
1. Find the pH, if [H+] = 0.002M
Answer
pH = - log10 [H+]
= - log10 (0.002)
= -log10 ( 2 x 10-3)
= - (log10 2 + log10 10-3 )
= - ( 0.3 + (-3) )
= - ( - 2.7 )
pH = +2.7

2. Calculate [H+] and pH for 0.1M HCl.

Answer
HCl is a strong acid, it ionizes completely in water.
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
0.1M 0.1M 0.1M

[H+] = 0.1M

pH = - log10 [H+]
 = - log10 (0.1)
= - log10 [10-1]
= - (-1)
=+1

pOH Scale
pH = - log10 [H+] …………………..1
Similarly, pOH = - log10 [OH-] ……………….2
At 25 C pure water dissociates slightly to give [H+] of 1 x 10-7 mol/dm3 and [OH-] of 1 x 10-7 mol/dm3
o

[H+] [OH-] = 10-7 x 10-7 = 10-14 mol2/dm6

Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14 mol2/dm6 ……………….. 3
Taking log of equation 3 and using 1 and 2
pH + pOH = 14

3. Calculate the pH of a solution containing 0.001 mol/dm3 of NaOH.

Answer
NaOH is a strong base, it ionizes completely in water.
NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
0.001M 0.001M 0.001M

Hence, [OH-] = 0.001 or 1.0 x 10-3 mol/dm3

For a dilute solution [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

i.e. [H3O+] = 1.0 x 10-14

1.0 x 10-3

= 1.0 x 10-11

Since pH = - log10 [H3O+]

Then pH = - log10 (10-11)
= - ( - 11 )
= 11 (strongly alkaline)

Or
[OH-] = 0.001 = 10-3 mol/dm3
pOH = - log10 [OH-]
= - log10 10-3
= 3
pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 – 3
= 11
Activity
1. What is the pH of a solution containing
a. 0.01 mol/dm3 of H2SO4
b. 0.01 mol/dm3 of HCl
c. 0.05 mol/dm3 of HNO3
 d. Compare the answers in (a) and (b). Explain your observation.

Assignment
1. The table below shows some solutions and their pH values
Solution A B C D E
pH 1.2 7 12 6.5 7.7
(a) State which of the solutions would
(i) react with zinc to liberate hydrogen.
(ii) change the colour of phenolphthalein to pink
(iii) not change the colour of litmus paper.
(b) Which of the solutions is (i) strongly acidic? (ii) strongly alkaline?

2. What is the [OH-] in a solution of pOH of 3?

3. An orange juice is found to have a pOH of 9.5; what is the [H+] in the juice?
4. Arrange the following equimolar solutions in order of increasing pH:
NH3 (aq), HCl (aq), CH3COOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2.
5. How would you prove that sodium hydroxide is a base without using litmus paper test.? Give the
equation for the reaction.
WEEK 7
TOPIC: Practical Chemistry: Volumetric Analysis (Acid-base Titration)
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain volumetric analysis;
2. Define a standard solution;
3. Perform acid-base titration;
4. Report an experiment;
5. Calculate the concentration of a solution

NOTE
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
Volumetric analysis deals with the measurement of the volumes of aqueous solutions of reactants taking
part in a chemical reaction.
Its main objective is to quantitatively determine the amounts of the reactants used in a chemical
reaction and hence, establish the stoichiometry (mole ratio), in order to obtain a balanced equation for
the reaction. From the balanced equation, it is possible to estimate the quantities of products expected
from the reaction.

Volumetric Apparatus
1. Volumetric flask: used to prepare standard solution to a specific volume.
2. Burette: to hold the solution of the acid.
3. Conical flask: to hold solution of the base.
4. Pipette: ??
Etc

Reporting an Experiment (Format)

1. Date and title: to be written clearly on top of the page.
2. Aim/Objective: States what is to be done or the purpose of the experiment
3. Materials: Chemical substances and laboratory apparatus required for the experiment.
4. Method or procedure: Step-by-step description on how to carry out the experiment.
5. Diagram: Shows the arrangement of the apparatus—the set-up to be used.
6. Precautions: Sources of error to avoid.
7. Observation or Result: What you see or notice, reading, or data you obtained during the experiment.
8. Discussion or Inference: What can be deducted from the observation or result.
9. Conclusion: Summary of findings.

ACID-BASE TITRATIONS
Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base to produce salt and water only.
 H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)
Titration technique is used to determine the average volume of the acid required to neutralize
completely a known volume of the base.
The solution of the acid is gradually added into the solution of a base, in the presence of a suitable
indicator, until the reaction is complete as signaled by a sudden change in the colour of the indicator.
This is the end point or the neutralization point.
A balanced equation of reaction is very important. The fundamental basis of all titration is
Mole of acid used = mole of acid in the equation
Mole of base taken mole of base in the equation

CaVa = na
CbVb nb

In the reaction: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (s) + H2O (l)
1 : 1
n a : nb = 1 : 1

For H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) → K2SO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)

1 : 2
n a : nb = 1 : 2

Importance of Acid-Base Titration

Acid-base titrations are used for the following purposes:
1. To standardize a solution of an acid or a base.
2. To determine the relative molar mass of an acid or a base.
3. To establish the mole ratio of acid to base.
4. To determine the percentage purity/impurity of an acid or a base.
5. To estimate the percentage of water of crystallization in an acid or a base.
6. To determine the solubility of an acid or a base.

Standard Solution
A standard solution is a solution of known concentration. Its concentration can be expressed in g/dm 3
(mass concentration) or in mol/dm3 (molar concentration).
Mathematically,
Mass concentration = molar concentration x molar mass
g/dm3 = mol/dm3 x g/mol

Activity
1. List four apparatus used in acid-base titration and state their uses.
2. State two importance of acid-base titration.
3. Define a standard solution.

Experiment 1
Standardization of a Solution
A is 0.10 mol/dm3 HCl
B is a solution of NaOH
(a) Put A in the burette and titrate 25cm3 portion of B using methyl orange as the indicator. Record the
 size of your pipette. Tabulate the burette readings.
(b) Calculate (i) the average volume of acid used.
(ii) the concentration of B in mol/dm3
(iii) the concentration of B in g/dm3

Equation of reaction: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (s) + H2O (l)

c. Mention three precautions you took to ensure accurate results during the experiment.

Evaluation
A is a solution of H2SO4
B is a solution containing 0.05 mole of anhydrous Na2CO3 per dm3.
In an acid-base titration, 25.0cm3 of B required an average of 24.40cm3 of A for complete neutralization.
(a) Write a balanced equation of the reaction.
(b) Calculate (i) amount of Na2CO3 in 25.0cm3 of B used.
(ii) concentration of A in mol/dm3.
(iii) number of hydrogen ions in 1dm3 of A.

Equation of reaction: H2SO4 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → Na2SO4 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
WEEK 8
TOPIC: Acids, Bases and Salts III: Salts

Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define a salt;
2. Mention types of salts with examples;
3. Explain the methods of preparing soluble and insoluble salts;
4. Explain methods of recovering soluble salts from solutions;
5. Explain the methods of preparing insoluble salts;
4. State the uses of salts.

NOTE
SALTS
A salt is the compound formed when all or part of the ionizable hydrogen of an acid is replaced by
metallic or ammonium ions.

Types of salts
There are five main types of salts: normal salts, acid salts, basic salts, double salts and complex salts.

Normal salts
Normal salts are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in the acids have been completely
replaced by metallic ions.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
H2SO4 + ZnO → ZnSO4 + H2O
Normal salt

Acid Salts
Acid salts are formed when the replaceable hydrogen ions in acids are only partially replaced by a metal.
H2SO4 + KOH → KHSO4 + H2O
Acid salt

Other acid salts include: NaHSO4, NaHCO3, NaH2PO4 and Na2HPO4.

Basic Salts
Basic salts contain hydroxide ion, OH-. They occur when there is an insufficient supply of acid which is
needed for the complete neutralization of the base. Examples include: Zn(OH)Cl, Mg(OH)NO 3,
Bi(OH)2NO3.

Double salts
They are salts which ionize to produce three different types of ions in solution: 2 positively charged ions
and 1 negative ion. Example (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2.6H2O, KAl(SO4)2.12H2O

Complex Salts
They contain complex ions, e.g. Na2Zn(OH)4, K4Fe(CN)6

Activity
1. Define a salt.
2. List three types of salts and give one example of each type.
3. Classify each of the following as: normal salt, acid salt, basic salt, or double salt.
Na2HPO4, CH3COOK, Mg(NO3)2, FeCl3, Zn(OH)Cl, KAl(SO4)2.12H2O, Ca(HCO3)2.
4. Why is H2SO4 able to produce two types of salts, unlike HNO3 .

Preparations of Salts
Several general methods are available for preparing salts. The method chosen for preparing a particular
salt depends largely on: (i) its solubility in water, (ii) its stability to heat.

Preparation of Soluble Salts

1. Dilute acid and metal: A salt may be prepared by direct displacement of the hydrogen ion in an acid
by a metal more reactive than hydrogen e.g. Ca, Mg, Zn, and Fe.
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

2. Alkali and acid: By titrating an alkali against an appropriate acid using a suitable indicator to
determine when the neutralization reaction is complete.
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → KNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)

3. Dilute acid and insoluble base: The dilute acid is heated and the base is added a little at a time, until
no more base can dissolve. The excess base is then filtered off, leaving the salt formed in the solution.
H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

4. Dilute acid and trioxocarbonate(IV) : An acid will act on a trioxocarbonate (IV) to produce a salt,
water and CO2.
H2SO4 (aq) + CuCO3 (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

Recovering Soluble Salts from solution

(a) Heating to dryness: This method is used only when the soluble salt can withstand dry heating. Most
chlorides, except zinc and iron (III) chlorides are recovered from solution by this method.

(b) Crystallization: This method is used when a salt can be destroyed or decomposed by dry heating.
Trioxonitrate (V) and tetraoxosulphate (VI) salts are usually recovered by crystallization. The salt
solution is first boiled to drive away some of the water. on cooling the concentrated solution, crystals of
the salt will begin to appear in the solution. The crystals of the salt obtained can be washed with distilled
water and then dried between filter papers

Preparation of Insoluble Salts

1. Double decomposition: In this method, usually two soluble compounds, one containing the metallic
 radical and the other, the acidic radical of the required insoluble salts are mixed together. During
double decomposition, there is an exchange of ionic radicals resulting in the precipitation of the
required salts, which is then obtained by filtration.
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Soluble soluble insoluble soluble

White ppt

BaCl2 (s) + K2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (aq) + 2KCl (s)

Soluble soluble insoluble soluble

White ppt

Other salts prepared by this method include PbCl2, PbI2, and CaCO3.

2. Combination of constituent elements: Some metallic salts, such as chlorides and sulphides, may be
prepared by the direct combination of the elements which make up the salt.
Fe (s) + S (s) → FeS (s)
2Fe (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2FeCl3 (s)

Activity
1. List two types of chemical reactions suitable for the preparation of soluble salts.
2a. Outline a suitable procedure for the preparation of ZnCl2 crystals from zinc granules.
b. Write a balanced equation for the reaction in 2a.
3. Outline also, how you would prepare pure dry crystals of KNO3.
3. State a method of preparing each of the following salts:
(i) PbCO3 (ii) FeCl3 (iii) NaCl

Uses of Salts
1. Salts are used in the manufacture of fertilizers.
2. They are used as food preservatives.
3. They are used as drying agents, and
4. As antifreeze.

Assignment
1. In what ways can you prepare soluble salts?
2. Mention two methods of recovering soluble salts from solution.
3. Give three examples of insoluble salts.
4. Describe a suitable laboratory procedure for preparing pure sample of ZnSO4 from ZnO.
5. Solutions of H2SO4 and NaOH of equal concentrations were prepared separately. Write a balanced
equation for the formation of the following salts from their reactions: (a) acid salt (b) normal salt.
WEEK 9
TOPIC: Salts: Important terms: Efflorescence, deliquescence, hygroscopy
Drying agents
Rules of solubility of salts in water
Hydrolysis of salts
Learning Goals: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Define the terms: Efflorescence, deliquescence, hygroscopy;
2. Mention gases and their drying;
3. Explain the rules of solubility of salts in water;
4. Define hydrolysis;
5. Identify whether the aqueous solutions of some given salts would be acidic, basic or neutral.

NOTE
Important Terms
Efflorescence
Some crystalline salts will lose part or all their water of crystallization when they are exposed to the
atmosphere to form a lower dehydrate or the anhydrous salts. This is known as efflorescence and the
salt is said to be efflorescent.
Na2CO3 .10H 2O → Na2CO3 .10H 2O + 9H2O
Other efflorescent substances are MgSO4.7H2O, Na2SO4.10H2O, CuSO4 .5H 2O

Deliquescence
Some compounds tend to absorb a large amount of water on exposure to air so that they eventually
turn into solutions. E.g. NaOH, FeCl3, KOH, CaCl2, MgCl2, P2O5.

Hygroscopy
Hygroscopic substances absorb moisture on exposure to air, but they only become moist or sticky. E.g
NaNO3, H2SO4, CuO, CaO (quicklime)

Drying Agents
Drying agents are substances that have a strong affinity for moisture. They may be either hygroscopic or
deliquescent. They are usually used to dry gases in the laboratory.

Common Drying Agents

Drying agents Gases
Conc. H2SO4 All gases except NH3 and H2S
CaCl2 All gases except NH3
 CaO (quicklime) Suitable for NH3 in particular
P2O5 All gases except NH3
Silica gel All gases

A drying agent cannot be used if it reacts with the substance to be dried. E.g conc. H 2SO4 cannot be used
to dry NH3 since they react to form (NH4)2SO4
2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) → (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

Activity
1. What term is used to describe a substance that on exposure to air
(a) decrease in mass? (b) increase in mass?
2. State why fused calcium chloride is often used as a drying agent?
3. A drying agent in a desiccator is called_____ .

Rules of solubility of salts in water

Salts are electrovalent or ionic compounds that dissolve in water to produce ions, hence they are
electrolytes. However, some salts are only slightly soluble or insoluble in water.
1. All salts of sodium (Na), potassium (K), and ammonium (NH4) are soluble in water.
2. All salts of trioxonitrate(V), NO3- are soluble in water.
3. All chloride salts are soluble except those of lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and silver (Ag) are insoluble in
water. The one of lead can be soluble in hot water.
4. Salts of tetraoxosulphate(VI), SO42- are soluble except those of lead (Pb) and barium (Ba), while that
of calcium (Ca) is slightly soluble in water.
5. All trioxocarbonate(IV) salts are insoluble except those of group 1 metals.
6. All trioxosulphate(Iv), SO32-, sulphite salts are insoluble except Na2SO3, K2SO3, (NH4)2SO3.
7. All sulphides salts are insoluble in water except Na2S, K2S, (NH4)2S, MgS, CaS, BeS,
8. All acids salts are soluble in water.

Activity
1. Which of the following salts is/are insoluble in water: AgCl, BaCl2, (NH4)2S, CuCO3, BaSO4, and PbCl2?

Hydrolysis of salts
Hydrolysis is a term used to describe the chemical reactions between water and certain salts. It is the
reverse of neutralization.

Classes of Normal Salts: On the basis of hydrolysis, there are four classes of normal salts:

1. Salt of a strong acid and a strong base: It dissolves in water to give a neutral solution, i.e. pH = 7.
Since the concentration of H+ balances that of OH-, the resulting solution will be neutral. Examples
include NaCl, KNO3, Na2SO4.
NaCl (s) + H2O (l) → NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)
Strong strong

2. Salt of a strong acid and a weak base: It dissolves in water to give acidic solution, i.e. pH ¿ 7. The
resulting solution will contain more H+ than OH-. E.g. NH4Cl, AlCl3, Pb(NO3)2, and ZnSO4.
 NH4Cl (s) + H2O (l) → NH4OH (aq) + HCl (aq)
weak strong

3. Salt of a weak acid and a strong base: It dissolves in water to form alkaline solutions, i.e. pH ¿ 7.
The resulting solution contains more OH- than H+ E.g. Na2CO3, CH3COOK and Na2SO3 .
Na2CO3 (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2CO3 (aq)
Strong weak

4. Salts of a weak acid and a weak base: It dissolves in water to form a solution that is either weakly
acidic or weakly alkaline. The exact pH can be determined by the use of a pH meter only.
CH3COONH4 (s) + H2O (l) → NH4OH (aq) + CH3COOH (aq)
weak weak

other examples are (NH4)2CO3 and (NH4)2S

Activity
1. Which of the following salts when dissolved in water give a solution of pH of7, pH less than 7 and pH
greater than 7: NH4Cl, AlCl3, KNO3, CH3COONa and Na2SO4?
2. Describe how you would distinguish between solutions of NH4Cl and NaCl using litmus paper.

Evaluation
1. Define the following terms: (i) Efflorescence (ii) Deliquescence
2. Consider the following solutions: Na2SO4 (aq) , CH3COOK (aq) , Pb(NO3)2 (aq) , MgCl2 (aq)
Which of them has/have a pH (a) greater than 7 (b) equal to 7 (c) less than 7.

WEEK 10
TOPIC: Revision

Reference
1. New School Chemistry for Secondary Schools (6th edition), by Osei Yaw Ababio. Africana First
Publishers PLC. 2011.
2. Understanding Chemistry for Schools and Colleges (revised edition), by Godwin Ojokuku. Press-on
ChemResources, 2012.
3. Calculations in Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools, by E.U. Akusoba and G.O. Ewelukwa. Africana
First Publishers PLC. 2011.