### Condensed Notes on the Anal Canal, Urinary Bladder, and Prostate

#### Anal Canal

- **Location & Extent**: Terminal part of the large intestine, 3-4 cm long, in
the anal triangle of perineum below the pelvic diaphragm.
- **Boundaries of Perineum**:
- Anterior: Pubic symphysis
- Anterolateral: Ischiopubic rami
- Lateral: Ischial tuberosities
- Posterolateral: Sacrotuberous ligaments
- Posterior: Coccyx
- **Subdivisions of Perineum**:
- Urogenital triangle (anterior): External genitalia, urethra, perineal pouches
- Anal triangle (posterior): Anal canal, ischiorectal fossae
- **Relations**:
- Anterior: Perineal body
- Posterior: Anococcygeal ligament
- Lateral: Ischiorectal fossae
- **Parts**:
- Upper Part: Simple columnar epithelium, anal columns, anal valves, anal
sinuses
- Lower Part: Divided by Hilton’s line into upper (stratified squamous
non-keratinized epithelium) and lower regions (keratinized epithelium)
- **Sphincters**:
- Internal: Smooth muscle, involuntary, upper 2/3 of anal canal
- External: Skeletal muscle, voluntary, surrounds entire anal canal, divided
into deep, superficial, and subcutaneous parts
- **Arterial Supply**:
- Superior rectal artery (above pectinate line)
- Inferior rectal artery (below pectinate line)
- **Venous Drainage**:
 - Above pectinate line: Internal venous plexus to superior rectal vein (portal
circulation)
- Below pectinate line: Inferior rectal vein (systemic circulation)
- **Applied Aspects**:
- Haemorrhoids: Internal (above pectinate line, painless) and external
(below pectinate line, painful)
- Fissure-in-ano: Tear in anal valves, very painful
- Perianal Abscess: Infected cavity, various types based on location
- Anal Fistula: Abnormal tract, classified by sphincter involvement
(intersphincteric, transsphincteric, suprasphincteric, extrasphincteric)

#### Urinary Bladder

- **Location & Shape**:

- Adults: Pelvic cavity when empty, rises to hypogastric region when
distended
- Infants: Abdominal cavity
- Shape: Tetrahedral when empty, ovoid when distended
- **Gross Features**:
- Apex: Connected to umbilicus by median umbilical ligament
- Base/Fundus: Related to vas deferens/seminal vesicle (males) or anterior
vaginal wall (females)
- Neck: Fixed part, related to prostate (males) or pelvic fascia (females)
- Borders: Anterior, posterior, lateral (two)
- Surfaces: Superior, two inferolateral, posterior (base)
- **Supports**:
- True Ligaments: Lateral and medial pubovesical/puboprostatic, lateral true
ligaments, posterior true ligaments
- False Ligaments: Peritoneal folds (median and lateral umbilical folds,
sacrogenital folds)
- **Trigone**:
 - Boundaries: Interureteric ridge (base), internal urethral orifice (apex),
ureteric ridges (sides)
- Features: Firm mucous membrane, no rugae, no submucosa
- Uvula Vesicae: Elevation behind urethral orifice, can obstruct urine flow in
older men
- **Arterial Supply**:
- Branches of internal iliac artery: Superior vesical, obturator, inferior
vesical, inferior gluteal, uterine (females)
- **Venous Drainage**: To internal and external iliac lymph nodes
- **Nerve Supply**:
- Parasympathetic: Pelvic splanchnic nerves (S2-S4)
- Sympathetic: Hypogastric plexus (T11-L2)
- **Applied Aspects**:
- Neurogenic Bladder: Dysfunction due to nervous system injury
- Automatic Reflex Bladder: UMN lesion, reflexive emptying
- Autonomous Bladder: LMN lesion, overfills and overflows

#### Prostate

- **Location, Size & Shape**:

- Pyramidal shaped fibromuscular and glandular organ
- Accessory sex gland in males

These condensed notes cover the essential anatomical features, relations,

subdivisions, blood supply, and applied aspects of the anal canal, urinary
bladder, and prostate.
### Prostate Gland Anatomy - Condensed Notes

#### Location, Size, and Shape

- **Location**: Lower pelvic cavity, below the urinary bladder neck, above
urogenital diaphragm, behind pubic symphysis, in front of rectum.
- **Shape**: Pyramidal (inverted cone), base upwards, apex downwards.
- **Size**: Walnut-sized; 3 cm length, 4 cm breadth, 2 cm thickness, 8 g
weight.

#### Gross Features and Relations

- **Apex**: Downward, between levator ani muscles, on urogenital
diaphragm.
- **Base**: Upward, surrounds bladder neck, pierced by urethra.
- **Surfaces**:
- Anterior: Narrow, convex, separated from pubic symphysis by retropubic
space.
- Posterior: Broad, flat, triangular, divided into median and lateral lobes by
grooves.
- Inferolateral: Related to levator ani muscle.

#### Capsules
- **True Capsule**: Fibrous stroma of the gland.
- **False Capsule**: Condensed pelvic fascia, contains prostatic venous
plexus.

#### Internal Structures

- **Prostatic Urethra**: Widest part, features urethral crest, colliculus
seminalis, prostatic sinuses, ejaculatory ducts, and prostatic utricle.
- **Lobes**:
- **Anterior**: Fibromuscular tissue.
- **Posterior**: Behind urethra, prone to carcinoma.
- **Median**: Above ejaculatory ducts, common site of adenoma.
- **Lateral**: Contain glandular tissue, prone to adenoma.

#### Glandular Zones

- **Peripheral Zone**: Prone to carcinoma.
- **Transitional Zone**: Prone to benign hypertrophy (BPH).
- **Central Zone**: Surrounds ejaculatory ducts, mucosal glands.
- **Anterior Fibromuscular Zone**: Muscular, no glandular components.

#### Blood Supply

- **Arteries**: Inferior vesical artery, internal pudendal artery, middle rectal
artery.

#### Venous Drainage

- **Routes**:
- Prostatic venous plexus -> Internal iliac vein -> Common iliac vein ->
Inferior vena cava.
- Prostatic venous plexus -> Vertebral venous plexus -> Intracranial dural
venous sinus (metastasis to vertebral column and brain).

#### Lymphatic Drainage

- **Lymph Nodes**: Mainly internal iliac, some to sacral and external iliac
nodes.

#### Age-Related Changes

- **Newborn/Childhood**: Rudimentary ducts, fibromuscular stroma.
- **Puberty**: Growth of glandular tissue under testosterone.
- **Third Decade**: Irregular epithelial infoldings.
- **Fourth Decade**: Formation of amyloid concretions.
- **Fifth Decade and Beyond**: Potential for benign hypertrophy or atrophy.

#### Applied Aspects

- **Benign Hypertrophy (BPH)**: Common in the median lobe, obstructs
urinary outflow.
- **Surgical Removal**: Enucleation leaves capsules intact, targets
adenomatous mass.
- **Carcinoma Metastasis**: Often originates in the peripheral zone, spreads
to bones and other local structures.
These notes provide a comprehensive but concise overview of the anatomy,
blood supply, drainage, and age-related changes of the prostate gland, along
with applied clinical aspects such as benign hypertrophy and carcinoma
metastasis.
### Pelvic Diaphragm

- **Structure and Separation**: Forms V-shaped floor of true pelvis,

separating pelvis from perineum.
- **Muscles**:
- **Levator ani**: Broad, flat muscle originating from the inner pelvis,
sweeping downward and backward, uniting at the median plane. Supplied by
ventral rami of S3, S4, and pudendal nerve.
- **Parts**:
- **Pubococcygeus**:
- **Levator prostate (males) / Pubovaginalis (females)**: Originates
from the pubis, forming a U-shaped sling around the prostate or vagina,
inserted into the perineal body.
- **Puborectalis**: Originates from the pubis, forming a U-shaped sling
around the anorectal junction, blending with the external anal sphincter.
- **Pubococcygeus proper**: Originates from the pubis and tendinous
arch of obturator fascia, inserted into anococcygeal raphe.
- **Iliococcygeus**: Originates from the tendinous arch of obturator
fascia and ischial spine, inserted into anococcygeal ligament and coccyx.
- **Coccygeus (Ischiococcygeus)**: Originates from ischial spine, inserted
into coccyx and fifth sacral vertebra, supplied by perineal branch of S4.

### Pelvic Fascia

- **Superior Fascia**: Covers superior surface of pelvic diaphragm, attached
to pubis, continuous with obturator fascia, and fascia on piriformis.
- **Inferior Fascia**: Covers inferior surface, continuous with obturator
fascia, blending with sphincter ani externus fascia.
### Openings in Pelvic Diaphragm
- **Urethra**
- **Anal canal**
- **Vagina (in females)**

### Functions of Pelvic Diaphragm

- Supports pelvic viscera during increased intra-abdominal pressure.
- Assists in defecation, micturition, and parturition.
- Puborectalis maintains rectal continence, relaxing during defecation.
- Puboprostatic part aids in micturition.
- Guides fetal head during childbirth.

### Applied Aspects

- Torn pelvic diaphragm during childbirth can weaken support, leading to
prolapse or incontinence.

### Arteries of the Pelvis

- **Internal Iliac Artery**:
- **Posterior Division**: Iliolumbar, superior gluteal, lateral sacral.
- **Anterior Division**: Superior vesical, obturator, inferior vesical, middle
rectal, internal pudendal, inferior gluteal, uterine (in females).

### Nerves of the Pelvis

- **Lumbosacral Plexus**:
- **Ventral Divisions**: Tibial component of sciatic nerve, pudendal nerve,
nerve to quadratus femoris, nerve to obturator internus, posterior cutaneous
nerve of thigh, muscular branches to pelvic diaphragm.
- **Dorsal Divisions**: Common peroneal component of sciatic nerve,
superior gluteal nerve, inferior gluteal nerve, perforating cutaneous branch,
posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh, branches to piriformis.

### Hypogastric Plexuses

- **Superior Hypogastric Plexus**: Located at aortic bifurcation, formed by
descending aortic plexus fibers and lumbar splanchnic nerves, and ascending
fibers from inferior hypogastric plexus.
- **Inferior Hypogastric Plexus**: Located around internal iliac artery,
formed by preganglionic sympathetic fibers from superior hypogastric
plexus, parasympathetic fibers from pelvic splanchnic nerves, and sensory
fibers from viscera.

### Functions
- **Sympathetic Fibers**: Control ejaculation, constriction of internal
urethral sphincter.
- **Parasympathetic Fibers**: Control contraction of bladder, urethra, and
rectum, and cause erection.

### Applied Aspects

- **Superior Hypogastric Plexus Block**: Alleviates pain from pelvic
viscera and certain conditions like cancer, pelvic inflammatory disease, and
endometriosis.
### Ovary and Uterine Tube Anatomy Overview

**Location and Features:**

- **Ovaries**: Almond-shaped organs located in the ovarian fossa on the
lateral pelvic wall.
- Boundaries: External iliac vessels (anterior), ureter and internal iliac
vessels (posterior), and uterine tube (inferior).
- Dimensions: 3 cm long, 2 cm wide, 1 cm thick.
- Surfaces: Lateral (convex) and medial.
- Poles: Upper (attached to suspensory ligament) and lower (attached to the
uterus by the ligament of the ovary).
- Borders: Anterior (attached to broad ligament) and posterior (related to
ureter).
**Blood Supply and Innervation:**
- **Arterial Supply**: Ovarian artery (branch of the aorta) and ovarian
branch of the uterine artery.
- **Venous Drainage**: Right ovarian vein drains into the inferior vena cava;
left drains into the left renal vein.
- **Lymphatic Drainage**: Pre-aortic and para-aortic lymph nodes.
- **Nerve Supply**: Autonomic nerves; sympathetic (T10-T11) and
parasympathetic (S2-S4).

**Uterine (Fallopian) Tube:**

- Divided into four parts: Infundibulum (lateral, funnel-shaped), Ampulla
(widest and longest, site of fertilization), Isthmus (narrow, thick-walled), and
Intramural (passes through uterine wall).
- **Blood Supply**: Uterine artery (medial 2/3) and ovarian artery (lateral
1/3).

**Applied Aspects:**
- **Ovarian Pain**: Referred to the umbilical region.
- **Ovarian Cysts**: Form due to developmental arrest of follicles.
- **Ovarian Tumors**: Include primary malignancies and secondary deposits
(e.g., Krukenberg’s tumors).
- **Ectopic Pregnancy**: Can occur in the uterine tube.
- **Ligation**: A birth control method involving the uterine tube.

---

### Prostate Anatomy Overview

**Location and Features:**

- **Prostate**: A pyramidal, fibromuscular, and glandular organ, active from
puberty.
 - **Location**: Below the bladder neck, above the urogenital diaphragm,
behind the pubic symphysis, and in front of the rectum.
- **Size**: Walnut-sized (3 cm length, 4 cm width, 2 cm thickness, 8 cm
weight).
- **Surfaces**: Anterior (narrow, convex), posterior (flat, triangular), and
two inferolateral surfaces (related to levator ani).
- **Capsules**: True (fibrous stroma) and false (pelvic fascia).

**Internal Structures:**
- **Prostatic Urethra**: Pierces the base, passes vertically, and is dilatable.
- **Lobes**: Anterior (fibromuscular), posterior (site for primary
carcinoma), median (site for adenoma), right and left lateral (site for
adenoma).

**Blood Supply and Lymphatic Drainage:**

- **Arterial Supply**: Inferior vesicle, internal pudendal, and middle rectal
arteries.
- **Venous Drainage**: Prostatic venous plexus, which drains into internal
iliac veins and vertebral venous plexus.
- **Lymphatic Drainage**: Internal iliac, sacral, and external iliac lymph
nodes.

**Applied Aspects:**
- **Benign Hypertrophy (BHP)**: Common in the median lobe, causing
urinary obstruction.
- **Prostatectomy**: Involves enucleation of adenomatous mass, leaving
true and false capsules intact.
- **Prostate Cancer**: Common in the peripheral zone; metastasis to bones,
vertebrae, and brain via venous and lymphatic routes.

---
### Urinary Bladder Anatomy Overview

**Location and Features:**

- **Bladder**: Hollow, muscular organ storing urine.
- **Location**: Pelvic cavity (empty); rises above pubic symphysis when
distended.
- **Shape**: Tetrahedral (empty), ovoid (distended).
- **Parts**: Apex (connected to umbilicus), base/fundus (triangular, related
to vas deferens in males and anterior vaginal wall in females), neck (lowest,
fixed part related to prostate in males and pelvic fascia in females).

**Blood Supply and Innervation:**

- **Arterial Supply**: Superior and inferior vesical arteries.
- **Venous Drainage**: Vesical venous plexus drains into internal iliac veins.
- **Lymphatic Drainage**: Internal iliac lymph nodes.

**Applied Aspects:**
- **Infection Spread**: Potential pathway via uterine tube to the peritoneal
cavity, leading to pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).

These condensed notes cover the essential aspects of ovary, uterine tube,
prostate, and urinary bladder anatomy based on the provided detailed
descriptions.
### Supports of the Urinary Bladder
- **True Ligaments**:
- **Lateral and Medial Pubovesical/Puboprostatic Ligaments**: From
posterior surface of the body of the pubis to the neck of the urinary bladder.
- **Lateral True Ligaments**: From tendinous arch of levator ani muscle to
inferolateral surface of the urinary bladder.
- **Posterior True Ligaments**: Base of the bladder to pelvic wall along the
internal iliac vessels.
 - **Median Umbilical Ligament**: From the apex of the bladder to the
umbilicus (contains urachus, a remnant of the allantois).

- **False Ligaments**:
- **Median Umbilical Fold**: Fold of peritoneum over the median
umbilical ligament.
- **Lateral Umbilical Ligaments**: From bladder to the lateral pelvic walls.
- **Posterior False Ligaments/Sacrogenital Folds**: From base of the
bladder to the sacrum.

### Trigone of the Bladder

- **Boundaries**:
- **Base**: Formed by interureteric ridge (bar of Mercier) between the
openings of the ureters.
- **Apex**: Formed by the internal urethral orifice.
- **Sides**: Formed by uretero-ureteric ridges (Bell’s bars) from the
ureteric orifice to the urethral orifice.
- **Characteristics**:
- Mucous membrane firmly adherent to the musculature.
- Absence of rugae (temporary folds of mucosa).
- Submucosa is absent.

### Uvula Vesicae

- Rounded elevation behind the urethral orifice formed by the median lobe of
the prostate.
- Can obstruct urine flow in elderly men due to prostate enlargement.

### Blood Supply and Lymphatic Drainage

- **Arteries**: Mainly supplied by the superior vesical artery; other
contributors include obturator, inferior vesical, inferior gluteal, and in
females, the uterine artery.
- **Lymph Nodes**: Drains into the internal and external iliac lymph nodes.
### Nerve Supply
- **Parasympathetic Innervation**:
- Efferent fibers from S2-S4 via pelvic splanchnic nerves.
- Motor to detrusor muscle and inhibitory to sphincter urethrae.
- Afferent fibers convey bladder distension sensation.
- **Sympathetic Innervation**:
- Efferent fibers from T11-L2 via hypogastric plexus.
- Motor to sphincter urethrae muscle and inhibitory to detrusor muscle.
- Afferent fibers carry pain sensation.

### Applied Aspects

- **Neurogenic Bladder**: Dysfunction due to CNS or PNS injury affecting
urination control.
- **Automatic Reflex Bladder**: UMN lesion (above T12-L1) causing
reflexive bladder emptying.
- **Autonomous Bladder**: LMN lesion (S2-S4) leading to loss of voluntary
and reflex control, resulting in bladder overfilling and overflow.

These condensed notes provide an overview of the supports, trigone, uvula

vesicae, blood supply, lymphatic drainage, nerve supply, and clinical aspects
of the urinary bladder.
### Boundaries of the Urogenital Region
- **Anteriorly**: Pubic symphysis
- **Posteriorly**: Imaginary line joining anterior ends of ischial tuberosities
- **Laterally**: Ischiopubic rami

### Contents of the Urogenital Region

- External genitalia
- Lower part of urethra (and vagina in females)
- Urogenital diaphragm
- Superficial and deep perineal pouches
### Fascial Layers and Pouches of the Urogenital Triangle
- **Layers from below to above**:
1. Membranous layer of superficial fascia (Colles fascia)
2. Superficial perineal pouch
3. Inferior layer of urogenital diaphragm (Perineal membrane)
4. Deep perineal pouch
5. Superior layer of urogenital diaphragm

### Boundaries of Superficial Perineal Pouch

- **Inferiorly**: Membranous layer of superficial fascia (Colles fascia)
- **Superiorly**: Inferior layer of urogenital diaphragm (Perineal
membrane)
- **Laterally**: Ischiopubic rami
- **Posteriorly**: Fused layers of superficial fascia and inferior layer of
urogenital diaphragm
- **Anteriorly**: Open and continuous with scrotum, penis, and anterior
abdominal wall

### Contents of Superficial Perineal Pouch

- **Males**:
- Root of penis (bulb and crura)
- Bulbar urethra
- Muscles: Bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernosus, superficial transverse
perineal
- Ducts of bulbourethral glands
- Arteries: Perineal artery, posterior scrotal branches
- Nerves: Posterior scrotal branch, perineal branch of posterior cutaneous
nerve of thigh
- **Females**:
- Root of clitoris (bulb of vestibule and crura)
- Urethra
 - Muscles: Bulbospongiosus, ischiocavernosus, superficial transverse
perineal
- Greater vestibular glands
- Arteries: Perineal artery, posterior labial branches
- Nerves: Posterior labial branch, perineal branch of posterior cutaneous
nerve of thigh

### Boundaries of Deep Perineal Pouch

- **Inferiorly**: Inferior layer of urogenital diaphragm (Perineal membrane)
- **Superiorly**: Superior layer of urogenital diaphragm
- **Laterally**: Ischiopubic rami
- **Posteriorly**: Fused superior and inferior layer of urogenital diaphragm
and perineal body
- **Anteriorly**: Fused superior and inferior layer forming transverse
perineal ligament

### Contents of Deep Perineal Pouch

- **Males**:
- Membranous urethra
- Muscles: Deep transverse perineal, sphincter urethrae
- Bulbourethral glands
- Arteries: Deep and dorsal artery of penis, artery to bulb of penis, urethral
artery
- Nerve: Dorsal nerve of penis
- **Females**:
- Urethra and vagina
- Muscles: Deep transverse perineal, sphincter urethrae
- Arteries: Deep and dorsal artery of clitoris, artery to bulb of vestibule,
urethral artery
- Nerve: Dorsal nerve of clitoris

### Structures Piercing Perineal Membrane

- **Males**:
- Urethra
- Ducts of bulbourethral glands
- Blood vessels: Posterior scrotal vessels, artery to bulb of penis, dorsal
artery of penis, deep artery of penis
- Nerves: Nerve to bulb of penis, posterior scrotal nerve, branches of
perineal nerve to superficial perineal muscles
- **Females**:
- Urethra and vagina
- Blood vessels: Posterior labial vessels, artery to bulb of clitoris, dorsal
artery of clitoris, deep artery of clitoris
- Nerves: Nerve to bulb of penis, posterior scrotal nerve, branches of
perineal nerve to superficial perineal muscles

### Perineal Body

- Irregular fibromuscular structure located at the midpoint of the line joining
the ischial tuberosities, posterior to the vestibule and anterior to the anus.
- Provides attachment to perineal muscles and supports the posterior wall of
the vagina.
- Attached muscles: Sphincter ani externus, levator ani, superficial and deep
transverse perineal muscles, bulbospongiosus, sphincter of urethra (male) or
urethrovaginal sphincter (female).

### Branches of Pudendal Nerve

- **Inferior rectal nerve**: Supplies sphincter ani externus and skin around
anus
- **Perineal nerve**:
- Posterior scrotal/labial nerves: Supply skin of posterior scrotum/labium
majus
- Muscular branches: Supply muscles of superficial and deep perineal
pouches
- **Dorsal nerve of penis/clitoris**: Supplies penis/clitoris
### Branches of Internal Pudendal Artery
- Inferior rectal artery
- Perineal artery: Gives transverse perineal branch, medial and lateral
scrotal/labial arteries
- Deep artery of penis/clitoris

### Applied Aspects

- **Perineal body tear**: Can lead to weakened support for pelvic viscera,
risking prolapse of uterus, bladder, and rectum.
- **Episiotomy**: Incision made during childbirth to enlarge the vaginal
opening, preventing perineal body tear.
- **Extravasation of urine**: Rupture of bulbar urethra causes urine to enter
the superficial perineal pouch and potentially extravasate to the scrotum and
anterior abdominal wall.
Perineal support
### Structures Piercing the Perineal Membrane

**Males:**
- Urethra
- Ducts of bulbourethral glands
- Blood vessels:
- Posterior scrotal vessels
- Artery to bulb of penis
- Dorsal artery of penis
- Deep artery of penis
- Nerves:
- Nerve to bulb of penis
- Posterior scrotal nerve
- Branches of perineal nerve to superficial perineal muscles

**Females:**
- Urethra
- Vagina
- Blood vessels:
- Posterior labial vessels
- Artery to bulb of clitoris
- Dorsal artery of clitoris
- Deep artery of clitoris
- Nerves:
- Nerve to bulb of clitoris
- Posterior labial nerve
- Branches of perineal nerve to superficial perineal muscles

![Structures Piercing Perineal

Membrane](https://anatomyqa.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/urogenital-tr
iangle.png)

### Perineal Body

The perineal body is an irregularly shaped fibromuscular structure located at
the midpoint of the line joining the ischial tuberosities, posterior to the
vestibule and anterior to the anus. It forms the central point of the perineum
and blends anteriorly with the perineal membrane. It is larger in females and
supports the posterior wall of the vagina. Functions include:
- Providing attachment to perineal muscles
- Supporting pelvic viscera, particularly in females

**Muscles attached to the perineal body:**

- Sphincter ani externus
- Two Levator ani
- Two superficial transverse perineal muscles
- Two deep transverse perineal muscles
- Two bulbospongiosus muscles
- Sphincter of urethra (male) or urethrovaginal sphincter (female)
### Branches of Pudendal Nerve
- **Inferior rectal nerve:** Supplies sphincter ani externus and skin around
the anus.
- **Perineal nerve:** Divides into:
- Posterior scrotal/labial nerves: Supply skin of the posterior scrotum/labium
majus.
- Muscular branches to superficial and deep perineal muscles.
- **Dorsal nerve of the penis/clitoris:** Supplies penis/clitoris.

### Branches of Internal Pudendal Artery

- **Inferior rectal artery**
- **Perineal artery:** Gives the following branches:
- Transverse perineal branch
- Medial and lateral scrotal/labial arteries
- **Deep artery of the penis/clitoris**

### Applied Aspects

- **Perineal body tear:** Important for pelvic diaphragm integrity and pelvic
viscera support. Tears during childbirth can lead to prolapse of uterus,
bladder, and rectum.
- **Episiotomy:** Planned incision in the perineum during childbirth to
prevent perineal body tear.
- **Extravasation of Urine in Bulbar Urethra Rupture:** Urine enters the
superficial perineal pouch and can spread to the scrotum and anterior
abdominal wall, causing swelling.

These notes summarize the structures piercing the perineal membrane, details
of the perineal body, branches of the pudendal nerve and internal pudendal
artery, and applied aspects related to the perineum.
**Nerve Supply of the Lungs:**
- Supplied by the autonomic nervous system.
- Sympathetic fibers (from T2-T5 spinal segments):
- Form anterior and posterior pulmonary plexus at the roots of the lungs.
- Functions: bronchodilation, vasomotor, and inhibition of bronchial gland
secretions.
- Sympathomimetic drugs (e.g., epinephrine) can cause bronchodilation,
relieving bronchial asthma.
- Parasympathetic fibers (from vagus nerves):
- Form anterior and posterior pulmonary plexus at the roots of the lungs.
- Functions: bronchoconstriction and secretomotor activity.
- Carry afferent (sensory) fibers sensitive to stretch, playing a role in reflex
respiratory control.

**Lymphatic Drainage of the Lungs:**

- **Superficial lymph vessels:**
- Drain peripheral lung tissue.
- Form the superficial (subpleural) plexus beneath the pleura.
- Drain into bronchopulmonary lymph nodes at the hilum.
- **Deep lymph vessels:**
- Drain the bronchial tree.
- Start from the submucosa of bronchi.
- Form a deep plexus around the bronchi and drain into pulmonary lymph
nodes within the lungs.
- Pulmonary lymph nodes drain into bronchopulmonary lymph nodes at the
hilum.
### Condensed Notes on the Nerve Supply and Lymphatic Drainage of
Lungs

#### Nerve Supply of Lungs

- **Autonomic Nervous System**: Lungs are supplied by both sympathetic
and parasympathetic fibers.
- **Sympathetic Fibers**:
- Origin: T2 – T5 spinal segments
 - Functions:
- Bronchodilation
- Vasomotor control
- Inhibition of secretions from bronchial glands
- Sympathomimetic drugs (e.g., epinephrine) can cause bronchodilation,
relieving bronchial asthma.
- **Parasympathetic Fibers**:
- Origin: Vagus nerves
- Functions:
- Bronchoconstriction
- Secretomotor activity
- Carry afferent fibers sensitive to stretch, playing a role in reflex control of
respiration.
- **Pulmonary Plexuses**:
- Anterior and posterior pulmonary plexuses are formed at the lung roots
before innervating the lungs.

#### Lymphatic Drainage of Lungs

- **Two Sets of Lymph Vessels**:
- **Superficial Lymph Vessels**:
- Drain peripheral lung tissue.
- Form a superficial (subpleural) plexus beneath the pleura.
- Drain into bronchopulmonary lymph nodes at the hilum.
- **Deep Lymph Vessels**:
- Drain the bronchial tree, starting from the submucosa of bronchi.
- Form a deep plexus around the bronchi.
- Drain into pulmonary lymph nodes within the lungs around the lobar
bronchi.
- Lymph from pulmonary nodes drains into bronchopulmonary lymph
nodes at the hilum.
### Condensed Notes on Fate of Aortic Arches
#### Aortic Arches
- **Definition**: Arteries of pharyngeal arches arising from the aortic sac,
terminating in dorsal aorta.
- **Number**: Initially 6, but the 5th disappears early.

#### Fate of Aortic Arches

1. **1st Arch**: Mostly disappears; remaining part forms the maxillary
artery.
2. **2nd Arch**: Mostly disappears; remaining part forms hyoid and
stapedial arteries.
3. **3rd Arch**:
- Proximal part forms the common carotid artery.
- Distal part forms the internal carotid artery (with the cranial part of the
dorsal aorta).
- External carotid artery sprouts from this arch.
4. **4th Arch**:
- Right side: Forms the proximal part of the right subclavian artery.
- Left side: Forms part of the arch of the aorta.
5. **6th Arch**:
- Right side: Proximal part forms the right pulmonary artery; distal part
degenerates.
- Left side: Proximal part forms the left pulmonary artery; distal part forms
the ductus arteriosus (which becomes ligamentum arteriosum after birth).

#### Structures Labeled 1-10 (Hypothetical Diagram Identification)

1. Maxillary artery
2. Hyoid artery
3. Stapedial artery
4. Common carotid artery
5. Internal carotid artery
6. External carotid artery
7. Right subclavian artery
8. Arch of the aorta
9. Right pulmonary artery
10. Ductus arteriosus/ligamentum arteriosum

#### Diaphragm Openings

- **Aortic Hiatus**: Thoracic aorta, thoracic duct.
- **Esophageal Hiatus**: Esophagus, vagus nerve.
- **Vena Caval Foramen**: Inferior vena cava, branches of the right phrenic
nerve.

#### Esophagus Overview

- **Extent**: C6 (cricoid cartilage) to T11 (cardiac end of the stomach).
- **Parts**: Cervical (4 cm), Thoracic (20 cm), Abdominal (1-2 cm).
- **Course**:
- **Cervical**: Behind trachea, in front of cervical vertebrae.
- **Thoracic**: Superior and posterior mediastinum, behind trachea, right
pulmonary artery, left bronchus, left atrium.
- **Abdominal**: Through diaphragm at T10, opens into stomach at T11.

#### Esophagus Constrictions

1. C6 vertebra (15 cm from incisors)
2. T3 vertebra (22.5 cm from incisors)
3. T6 vertebra (27.5 cm from incisors)
4. T10 vertebra (40 cm from incisors)

#### Blood Supply and Drainage

- **Arteries**:
- Cervical: Inferior thyroid artery branches.
- Thoracic: Thoracic aorta and bronchial arteries branches.
- Abdominal: Left gastric and left inferior phrenic arteries branches.
- **Veins**:
- Cervical: Inferior thyroid veins.
 - Thoracic: Azygos and hemiazygos veins.
- Abdominal: Hemiazygos vein (IVC) & left gastric vein (portal vein).

#### Lymphatic Drainage

- **Cervical**: Deep cervical nodes.
- **Thoracic**: Posterior mediastinal nodes.
- **Abdominal**: Left gastric nodes.

#### Applied Aspects of the Esophagus

- **Esophageal Varices**: Due to portal hypertension, causing hematemesis.
- **Achalasia Cardia**: Spasm/inability to relax lower esophageal sphincter.

#### Thoracic Duct

- **Origin**: Upper end of cisterna chyli (T12).
- **Course**:
- Posterior mediastinum, ascends on right side, crosses behind esophagus
(T5), moves to left, ascends in superior mediastinum, enters neck, curves
laterally.
- **Termination**: Junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian veins.
- **Tributaries**: Cysterna chyli, left bronchomediastinal, left jugular, left
subclavian lymph trunks.

#### Mediastinum Overview

- **Boundaries**: Sternum, vertebral column, thoracic inlet, diaphragm.
- **Subdivisions**:
- **Superior Mediastinum**: Above sternal angle (T4/T5).
- **Inferior Mediastinum**: Below sternal angle, subdivided into anterior,
middle, and posterior.
- **Contents**:
- **Superior**: Aortic arch, brachiocephalic veins, SVC, trachea,
esophagus, thoracic duct, thymus, phrenic/vagus nerves, left recurrent
laryngeal nerve, sympathetic trunks.
 - **Middle**: Heart, pericardium, ascending aorta, pulmonary trunk, SVC,
pulmonary veins, azygos vein, main bronchi.
- **Posterior**: Descending aorta, azygos/hemiazygos veins, esophagus,
thoracic duct, sympathetic trunk, splanchnic nerves, vagus nerves,
mediastinal lymph nodes.
### Condensed Notes

#### Pleurisy/Pleuritis
- **Definition**: Inflammation of the pleural membranes.
- **Symptoms**: Intense pain during deep breaths.
- **Pathophysiology**: Inflammation causes rough pleural surfaces, leading
to friction and pain during respiratory movements. A pleural rub can be heard
via stethoscope.

#### Pleural Tap (Thoracentesis)

- **Procedure**: Aspiration of pleural effusion.
- **Site**: 9th intercostal space in the midaxillary line.
- **Technique**: Insert needle just above the upper border of the rib to avoid
intercostal nerves and vessels.

#### Pneumothorax
- **Definition**: Presence of air in the pleural cavity.
- **Causes**: Thoracic wounds, spontaneous rupture of pulmonary bulla, rib
fractures, medical procedures.
- **Complication**: Lung collapse due to increased air pressure.
- **Tension Pneumothorax**: Air enters but cannot escape, increasing
intrathoracic pressure and pushing mediastinal structures to the opposite side.

#### Pleural Effusions

- **Definition**: Excess fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity.
- **Causes**: Inflammation of the pleura.
- **Effects**: Lung retraction towards the hilum and mediastinal
displacement.
- **Types of Effusions**:
- **Haemothorax**: Blood
- **Pyothorax/Empyema**: Pus
- **Chylothorax**: Lymph

#### Referred Pain in Pleural Inflammation

- **Mediastinal and Central Diaphragmatic Pleura**: Pain referred to the
neck and shoulder (phrenic nerve C3, C4, C5).
- **Lower Costal or Peripheral Diaphragmatic Pleura**: Pain referred to the
anterolateral abdominal wall (lower intercostal nerves).

#### Heart Anatomy

- **Location**: Middle mediastinum, opposite T5-T8 (supine) and T6-T9
(erect) vertebrae.
- **Dimensions**: Base to apex: 12 cm; Transversely: 8-9 cm;
Anteroposteriorly: 6 cm.
- **Weight**: Males: 280-340 gm; Females: 230-280 gm.

#### External Features of the Heart

- **Apex**: Formed by the left ventricle, located in the 5th intercostal space.
- **Surfaces**:
- **Sternocostal**: Right atrium, right ventricle, left auricle, left ventricle.
- **Left**: Left auricle, left ventricle.
- **Diaphragmatic**: 2/3 left ventricle, 1/3 right ventricle.
- **Posterior/Base**: 2/3 left atrium, 1/3 right atrium.
- **Borders**:
- **Superior**: Atria
- **Right**: Right atrium
- **Inferior**: Right ventricle and near apex by left ventricle
- **Left**: Left auricle, left ventricle
- **Sulci**:
- **Atrioventricular (coronary) sulcus**
- **Anterior interventricular sulcus**
- **Posterior interventricular sulcus**
- **Interatrial sulcus**
- **Sulcus terminalis**

#### Conducting System of the Heart

- **SA Node**: Initiates cardiac impulse.
- **AV Node**: Located in the right atrium, transmits impulse to the Bundle
of His.
- **Bundle of His**: Divides into right and left branches, ends as Purkinje
fibers.

#### Nerve Supply of the Heart

- **Autonomic Nervous System**:
- **Sympathetic Fibers**: Cardiac branches of cervical ganglia (T2-T5).
- **Parasympathetic Fibers**: Cardiac branches of vagus nerves.
- **Cardiac Plexuses**:
- **Superficial**: Below the aortic arch.
- **Deep**: Behind the aortic arch, in front of the tracheal bifurcation.

### Applied Aspects

- **Thoracic Duct**: Largest lymphatic vessel, draining lymph from the
body (except right upper quadrant) into the left subclavian vein. Potential
injury can lead to chylothorax.

These notes summarize the key aspects of pleurisy, pleural procedures, heart
anatomy, and related applied aspects for clinical understanding.
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"Can Seagulls Lift Snacks

Coronal Suture
Sagittal Suture
Lambdoid Suture
Squamous Suture

Pes anserinus
A mnemonic to remember the muscles that contribute tendons to the pes anserinus and the innervations of these muscles is SGT FOT (sergeant FOT)

S- Sartorius
G- Gracilis
T- semiTendinosus (from anterior to posterior).
F- femoral nerve
O- obturator nerve
T- tibial division of the sciatic nerve.
Notice the order of the muscles (S, G, T) follows the order of the innervating nerves which correspond to those muscles (F, O, T)

Another anterior to posterior is “Say Grace before Tea” Sartorius, Gracilis, semiTendinosus.

Vessels

Celiac trunk(Coeliac trunk): branches

Left Hand Side (LHS):

Left gastric artery

Hepatic artery
Splenic artery

Tributaries of the Inferior vena cava

"I Like To Rise So High"

Iliac vein (common)

Lumbar vein
Testicular (gonadal) vein (direct tributary on right side; empties into left renal vein -> IVC on left side)
Renal vein
Suprarenal vein (same drainage as gonadal vein)
Hepatic vein[3]

Subclavian artery
The branches of the subclavian artery can be remembered using VITamin C and D.

Vertebral Artery
Internal Thoracic Artery
Thyrocervical Trunk
Costocervical Artery
Dorsal Scapular Artery

Internal iliac artery: branches

I Like Going Places Using My Very Own Unmanned Vehicle
Posterior division:

Iliolumbar artery
Lateral sacral artery
Superior gluteal artery
Anterior division:

Inferior gluteal artery

Internal pudendal artery
Umbilical artery
Middle rectal artery
Superior and inferior vesical artery
Obturator artery
Uterine artery (female)

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Vaginal artery (female)

Contents of canal & foramen

Mediastinum

Superior mediastinum
The contents of superior mediastinum can be remembered using the mnemonic, "TT ET AV N LO"

or

"Try To Eat Toast And Vitamins Now Little Oliver"[4]

Thymus
Trachea
Esophagus
Thoracic duct
Aortic arch
Veins (Superior vena cava, brachiocephalic vein, left superior intercostal vein)
Nerves (Vagus nerve, phrenic nerve, left recurrent laryngeal nerve)
Lymphatics
Other small arteries and veins

Inferior mediastinum

Anterior inferior mediastinum

The contents of anterior inferior mediastinum can be remembered using the mnemonic, "RT LN"

or

"ReTweet Light Novels!"[4]

Remnants of the Thymus (inferior portion of thymus)

Lymph Nodes

Middle inferior mediastinum

The contents of middle inferior mediastinum can be remembered using the mnemonic, "PHP P ASP" or "PHP plus ASP"

or

"'Personal Home Page' plus 'Active Server Pages'"[4]

Phrenic nerve
Heart
Pericardium
Pericardiacophrenic artery
Ascending aorta
Superior vena cava
Pulmonary trunk

Posterior inferior mediastinum

The contents of posterior inferior mediastinum can be remembered using the mnemonic, "DATE VSL"

or

"on the DATE Vivian Slapped Larry"[4]

Descending thoracic aorta

Azygos veins (hemiazygos veins, accessory hemiazygos veins)
Thoracic duct (Cisterna chyli)
Esophagus (Esophageal plexus)
Vagus nerve
Splanchnic nerve (greater splanchnic nerve, lesser splanchnic nerve, least splanchnic nerve)
Lymphatics

The contents of posterior mediastinum can be remembered using the mnemonic, "DATES"

Descending aorta
Azygous vein and hemiazygos vein
Thoracic duct
Esophagus

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Sympathetic trunk/ganglia.[5]

Foramen magnum
Contents of the foramen magnum: VAMPS-AT-SD

or

VAMPires Sing AT SD card[6]

Vertebral arteries
Anterior spinal artery
Meninges associated with the spinal cord
Posterior spinal arteries
Spinal roots of the accessory nerve (CN XI)
Apical ligament of the dens
Tectorial membrane
Spinal cord
Dural veins (Dural venous sinuses)

Contents of the foramen magnum: VAMPS-ATM

or

VAMPires Sing AT Midnight

Vertebral arteries
Anterior spinal artery
Meningeal branches of the cervical nerves
Posterior spinal arteries
Spinal part of the accessory nerve
Alar and apical ligaments of the dens
Tectorial membrane
Medulla oblongata

Greater sciatic foramen

Structures passing through greater sciatic foramen below piriformis (S.N.I.P. N.I.P.)

sciatic nerve
nerve to obturator internus
internal pudendal vessel
pudendal nerve
nerve to quadratus femoris
inferior gluteal vessels
posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh

Lesser sciatic foramen

Structures passing through lesser sciatic foramen: (P.I.N.T.)

pudendal nerve
internal pudendal vessels
nerve to obturator internus
tendon of obturator internus

Tarsal tunnel
a mnemonic to remember the contents of the Tarsal tunnel from anterior to posterior is "Tom, Dick and Harry".[7][8][9] or alternatively "Tom, Dick
(and very nervous) Harry" if the artery, vein, and nerve are included.

Femoral triangle
The femoral triangle is shaped like the sail of a sailing ship and hence its boundaries can be remembered using the mnemonic, "SAIL":

Sartorius
Adductor longus
Inguinal Ligament.[10]
The order of structures in the femoral triangle is important in the embalming of bodies, as the femoral artery is often exposed and used to pump
embalming fluids into the body. The order of this neurovascular bundle can be remembered using the mnemonic, "NAVY":

Nerve
Artery
Vein

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Y -fronts (the British term of a style of men's underwear with a Y-shaped front that acts as a fly). The "Y" is midline (corresponding with the penis)
and the mnemonic always reads from lateral to medial (in other words, the Femoral Nerve is always lateral).
An alternate to this mnemonic is "NAVEL" for Nerve, Artery, Vein, Empty Space and Lymph, to include the deep inguinal lymph nodes located
medial to the Femoral vein.

Popliteal fossa
A useful mnemonic to remember popliteal fossa anatomy (medial-to-lateral arrangement) is: Serve And Volley Next Ball.

S: semimembranosus and semitendinosus (superior medial border)

A: artery (popliteal artery)
V: vein (popliteal vein)
N: nerve (tibial nerve)
B: biceps femoris (superior lateral border). The lateral and medial heads of gastrocnemius form the inferior border.[11]

Carotid sheath contents

I See 10 CC's in the IV:[2]p. 1

I See (I.C.) = Internal Carotid artery

10 = CN 10 (Vagus nerve)
CC = Common Carotid artery
IV = Internal Jugular Vein

Cavernous sinus contents

O TOM CAT:[2]p. 1

O TOM are lateral wall components, in order from superior to inferior.

CA are the components within the sinus, from medial to lateral. CA ends at the level of T from O TOM.

Occulomotor nerve (III)

Trochlear nerve (IV)
Ophthalmic nerve (V1)
Maxillary nerve (V2)
Carotid artery
Abducent nerve (VI)
T: When written, connects to the T of OTOM

Vertebral level

Diaphragm apertures: spinal levels

Many mnemonics are used for diaphragm apertures including:

(V)oice (O)f (A)merica

number of letters = vertebral level

V - vena cava - T8
O - oesophagus - T10
A - aortic hiatus - T12

Vena cava = 8 letters = T8[2]p. 1

Oesophagus = 10 letters = T10
Aortic hiatus = 12 letters = T12

Openings of the diaphragm and structures passing through

"I Read, Very Old, And Torn Articles." - (IVC, Right phrenic nerve), (Vagus nerve, Oesophagus), (Aorta, Thoracic duct, Azygos vein).

Openings of the diaphragm and structures passing through[12]

Caval opening (vena caval foramen) (2: IR): Inferior vena cava, (branches of the) Right phrenic nerve
Esophageal hiatus (2: VO): (anterior and posterior) Vagal trunks, Oesophagus
Aortic hiatus (3: ATA): (descending) Aorta, Thoracic duct, Azygos vein

I ate 10 eggs at 12
I = IVC
ate = T8
10 = T10

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Eggs = Esophagus
At = Aorta
12 = T12

Sternal angle
The sternal angle marks the approximate level of the 2nd pair of costal cartilages, which attach to the second ribs, and the level of the intervertebral
disc between T4 and T5.[13] In clinical applications, the sternal angle can be palpated at the T4 vertebral level.

The sternal angle is used in the definition of the thoracic plane. This marks the level of a number of other anatomical structures.

For structures lying at the level of the sternal angle, the following mnemonic can be used:

RAT PLLANT
Rib 2
Aortic arch
Tracheal bifurcation
Pulmonary trunk
Ligamentum arteriosum
Left recurrent laryngeal
Azygos Vein
Nerves (Cardiac and Pulmonary plexuses)
Thoracic duct

PLOT of EARTH PLLANTS

is a more detailed mnemonic including:

Phrenic and Vagus Nerve

Lymph Nodes
Oblique fissure of lungs (top of it)
Thymus
Esophagus (trending right to left)
Aortic Arch (bottom of the arch)
Rib 2, Manubrium-sternal angle, T4(more specifically T4-5 disc)
Tracheal Bifurcation (Carina: Latin –like keel of boat)
Heart
Pulmonary trunk bifurcation
L2 : Left Recurrent Laryngeal (Looping under Aorta); Ligamentum Arteriosum: Connects Aortic Arch to Pulmonary. Bifurcation
Azygous vein arches over the root of the Rt. Lung and opens in SVC.
Nerve plexi: Cardiac and Pulmonary Plexus
Thoracic duct (on its way to drain into the Left Subclavian)
SVC going down

Neuroanatomy

Afferent vs efferent
Afferent connection arrives and an efferent connection exits.

Brachial plexus
Remember To Drink Cold Beer - Roots, Trunks, Divisions, Cords, Branches

5 main nerves of brachial plexus.

"My Aunty Rocks My Uncle" - Musculocutaneous, Axillary, Radial, Median, Ulnar. (in order laterally to medially)
"My Uncle Rocks My Aunt" - Musculocutaneous (L), Ulnar (M), Radial (P), Median (LM), Axillary (P). (L: lateral cord, M: medial cord, P:
posterior cord. LM: both lateral and medial cords. Memorize "LMP LMP".)

Lateral cord branches

LLM "Lucy Loves Me" - Lateral pectoral, Lateral root of the median nerve, Musculocutaneous.
Love Me Lucy (LML) - Lateral pectoral nerve, Musculocutaneous nerve, Lateral root of Median nerve.
Look My Lancer - Lateral pectoral nerve, Musculocutaneous nerve, Lateral root of Median nerve.
Medial cord branches
MMMUM "Most Medical Men Use Morphine" - Medial pectoral, Medial cutaneous nerve of arm, Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm, Ulnar,
Medial root of the Median nerve.
"Money Makes Many Men Unhappy" - Medial pectoral nerve, Medial cutaneous nerve of arm, Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm, Medial root
of median nerve, Ulnar nerve.
"M4U" - Medial pectoral nerve, Medial cutaneous nerve of arm, Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm, Medial root of median nerve, Ulnar nerve.

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Union of 4 Medials - Ulnar nerve, Medial cutaneous nerve of arm, Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm, Medial pectoral nerve, Medial root of
Median nerve.
Posterior cord branches
STAR - Subscapular (upper and lower), Thoracodorsal, Axillary, Radial.
RATS- Radial nerve, Axillary nerve, Thoracodorsal nerve, Subscapular (Upper & Lower) nerve.
ULTRA - Upper subscapular, Lower subscapular, Thoracodorsal, Radial, Axillary.
ULNAR- Upper subscapular nerve, Lower subscapular nerve, Nerve to latissimus dorsi, Axillary nerve, Radial nerve.

Cerebellum
Deep cerebellar nuclei and their positions relative to the midline: "Fat Guys Eat Donuts," where each letter indicates the medial to lateral location in
the cerebellar white matter.

Or inversely, "Don't Eat Greasy Food", where each letter indicates the lateral to medial location in the cerebellar white matter.

fastigial nucleus
globose nucleus
emboliform nucleus
dentate nucleus

Cranial nerves

12 Cranial Nerves
On Occasion Of Parties, The Attractive Faces Are Girl Visitors. Say Hello!

CN I Olfactory nerve
CN II Optic nerve
CN III Oculomotor nerve
CN IV Trochlear nerve (Pathetic nerve)
CN V Trigeminal nerve (Dentist's nerve)
CN VI Abducens nerve
CN VII Facial nerve
CN VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve (Auditory nerve)
CN IX Glossopharyngeal nerve
CN X Vagus nerve
CN XI Accessory nerve (Spinal accessory nerve)
CN XII Hypoglossal nerve

List of mnemonics for the cranial nerves, their respective type and foramen

Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal nerve Abducens Facial Vestibulocochlear Glossoph
NERVE:
nerve nerve nerve nerve nerve nerve nerve ner
Ophthalmic Maxillary Mandibular

Mnemonic:
(for OLd OPen OCeans TROuble TRIbesmen ABout Fish VEnom Giv
nerve)[14]

TYPE: Sensory Sensory Motor Motor Both (sensory + motor) Motor Both Sensory Bo

Mnemonic:
Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says B
(for type)[15]

Superior Superior Superior Superior Internal

Cribriform Optic Foramen Foramen Internal Acoustic
FORAMINA: Orbital Orbital Orbital Orbital Acoustic Jugular F
plate canal Rotundum Ovale Meatus
Fissure Fissure Fissure Fissure Meatus

Mnemonics: Cleaners Only Spray Smelly Stuff Right On Smelly Izods In Jum
(for
foramina) Carl Only Swims South. Silly Roger Only Swims In Infiniti Jacu

OOOh the 2 Traceys Are From Virginia Good cause Virginians Are Hilarious

On, On, On, They Traveled And Found Voldemort Guarding Very Ancient Horcruxes

There are many mnemonics for the names of the cranial nerves, e.g.

"OOOTTAFAGVSH" is "OLd OPen OCeans TROuble TRIbesmen ABout Fish VEnom Giving VArious ACute/SPlitting Headaches" (a mnemonic
that gives enough letters to distinguish between nerves that start with the same letter), or "On old Olympus's towering tops, a Finn and German
viewed some hops,"[16] and for the initial letters "OOOTTAFVGVAH" is "Oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet ... ah, heaven."[17] The
differences between these depend on "vestibulocochlear nerve" versus "acoustic nerve" and "accessory nerve" versus "spinal accessory nerve".

Old Ollie Oson Teaches Teenagers About Fashion Very Gladly Very Adequately Hilarious

Only Our Old Trusty Vodka And Friends Validate Great Victories, So Harmonious.

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One Orange Orangutan Tries To Avoid Fragile Vines & Gracefully Vacates All Hazards

Ongoing Optimism Only Teaches True Amazing Fundamentals Varying Globally Versatile And Honesty

Only Old Otters Take Time And Find Very Good Values At Hand

Only One Ounce To Take Another Farmer's Very Great Vest And Hat

Functions of the Cranial Nerves

motor (M), sensory (S), or both (B)

Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says Big Business Makes Money.

A common example mnemonic for remembering which nerves are motor (M), sensory (S), or both (B), "Some Say Marry Money But My Brother
Says Benevolent Bride Matters More". There are a very large number of additional mnemonics.[18]

Summertime Seems More Majestic Because Multiple Bystanders Sing Brilliant Ballads Making Masterpieces

Silly Sally Makes Many Big Muffins But Sally Bakes Big Macarons Moreover

Some Sundays Make Me Bored, My Brother Stays Busy Building Miniature Models

Some Say Moms Make Boys Magnificent Because She Babies Boys Much More

Sometimes She May Muster Big Motors Because She Believes Both Men Matter

Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More

Some Say Marry Money, But My Buddy Says Brilliant Brains Make Money

3 branches of the trigeminal nerve (CN V)

Standing room only can be used to remember that:

V1 (ophthalmic nerve) passes through the superior orbital fissure

V2 (maxillary nerve) through the foramen rotundum
V3 (mandibular nerve) through the foramen ovale.[19]

5 branches of the facial nerve (CN VII)

For the five branches of the facial nerve there are: "Two Zebras Bit My Cookie" or "To Zanzibar By MotorCar" or "To Zoo By My Car"

Temporal branch
Zygomatic branch
Buccal branch
Marginal mandibular branch
Cervical branch

Lateral geniculate nucleus (thalamus)

In neuroanatomy, the lateral geniculate nucleus is a structure in the thalamus and a key component of the mammalian visual pathway.

A simple mnemonic for remembering which layers of lateral geniculate body are synapsed with the ganglion cells of the ipsilateral or contralateral
optic nerve is "See I? I see, I see," with "see" representing the C in "contralateral," and "I" representing the I in "ipsilateral." (CIICIC)

Another is "Emily and Pete meet eye to eye" as in "M and P meet I to I," or again, "Magno and Parvo meet Ipsi to Ipsi." (MMPPPP)

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Another way of remembering which layers of lateral geniculate body are synapsed with the ganglion cells of the ipsilateral or contralateral optic nerve
is 2+3=5 (layers II, III and V), which is correct, so it is from the same (ipsilateral) side as the ganglion cells from the side of question, while at the
same time 1+4 doesn't equal 6, so the remaining layers (I, IV, and VI) are synapsing with ganglion cells of the other (contralateral) optic nerve.

Coronal section of brain (structures)

"In Extremis, Cannibals Eat People's Globus Pallidi Instead of Their Hearts":

From insula to midline:

Insula
Extream capsule
Claustrum
External capsule
Putamen
Globus pallidus
Internal capsule
Thalamus
Hypothalamus

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

FLAG TOP

FSH
LH
ACTH
GH
TSH
MelanOcyte Stimulating Hormone
Prolactin

Etc.

Bowel components
"Dow Jones Industrial Average Closing Stock Report"[2]

From proximal to distal:

Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Appendix
Colon
Sigmoid
Rectum

Duodenum: lengths of parts

"Counting 1 to 4 but staggered":[2]p. 1

1st part: 2 inches

2nd part: 3 inches
3rd part: 4 inches
4th part: 1 inch

Endocrine glands
The major glands of the endocrine system, excluding ovaries and testes: "T-A-P." (T2, A3, P4)

Thymus
Thyroid
Anterior pituitary
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
Posterior pituitary
Parathyroid gland
Pancreas
Pineal[20]

G.I. tract layers (simplified)

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M.S.M.S.

Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis propria (or muscularis externa)
Serosa[21] (or adventitia)

Kidney functions
A WET BED

A – maintaining ACID-base balance

W – maintaining WATER balance
E – ELECTROLYTE balance
T – TOXIN removal
B – BLOOD Pressure control
E – making ERYTHROPOIETIN
D – Vitamin D metabolism

Placenta-crossing substances
WANT My Hot Dog[22]

Wastes
Antibodies
Nutrients
Teratogens
Microorganisms
Hormones, HIV
Drugs

Layers of the retina

A mnemonic to remember the layers of the retina:

My Membrane (internal limiting)

Nerves Nerve fibers

Get Ganglions
In Inner plexiform

Knots Inner nuclear

Outside Outer plexiform

Our Outer nuclear

Easy External limiting membrane

Practice Photoreceptors
Review Retinal pigment epithelium

Sperm: path through male reproductive system

"My boyfriend's name is STEVE":[2]

Seminiferous Tubules
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct

Connective Tissue and Fascicles

Every -Endomysium
Person- Perimysium
Eats- Epimysium
Food - Fascia

Intraperitoneal and Retroperitoneal Organs

Retroperitoneal organs in abdominal cavity (secondarily retroperitoneal organs are starred)[23]

SAD PUCKER[24] (includes esophagus, excludes inferior vena cava):

Suprarenal (adrenal) glands
Aorta
Duodenum (distal 1st part - 4th part)*
Pancreas*

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Ureter
Colon (ascending and descending)*
Kidney
Esophagus
Rectum
KID CARPUS (includes inferior vena cava, excludes esophagus)
Kidney
Inferior vena cava
Duodenum (distal 1st part - 4th part)*
Colon (ascending and descending)*
Aorta
Rectum
Pancreas (head and body)*
Ureter
Suprarenal (adrenal) glands
Intraperitoneal Organs[23]
DJ CLASS PIG
Duodenum (proximal 1st part)
Jejunum
Colon (cecum, transverse, sigmoid)
Liver
Appendix
Stomach
Spleen
Pancreas (tail)
Ileum
Gallbladder

See also
Brachial plexus
Cranial nerve
List of medical mnemonics

References
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2. "Anatomy" (http://www.medicalmnemonics.com/pdf/2002_09_full_abr
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2015.
3. "Inferior vena cava: tributaries" (http://www.lifehugger.com/moc/902/In
ferior_vena_cava_tributaries). LifeHugger. 27 September 2009.
4. "Mediastinum" (https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/mediastin
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r.medscape.com/viewarticle/413587) on December 1, 2008.
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gle-boundaries). LifeHugger. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
11. Niknejad, Mohammad Taghi. "Popliteal fossa anatomy (mnemonic) |
Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org" (https://radiopaedia.or
g/articles/popliteal-fossa-anatomy-mnemonic). radiopaedia.org.
Retrieved 2017-07-18.
12. "Diaphragm" (https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/diaphrag
m).
13. Wilson, Herbert H. Srebnik ; illustrations by Genevieve M. (2002).
Concepts in anatomy. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 70.
ISBN 0792375394.
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Jennifer Dorsey (For Dummies, 2008) p327
15. Caroline Bunker Rosdahl and Mary T. Kowalski, Textbook of Basic
Nursing (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007) p194
16. Dennis Long (2006). Vive Les Verbes Français!: 6,000 Verbs to Add
Savoir-Flair to Your French (https://books.google.com/books?id=fE0Q
3mwZBeEC&pg=PR8). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-
07-147875-5.
17. Kevin C. Wang; Rita A. Mukhtar; Rodrigo E Saenz (2005). Hardcore
Neuroscience (https://books.google.com/books?id=KEOmCHmHRpg
C&pg=PA23). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-4051-
0471-5.
18. Saladin, Kenneth S. (2008). Human anatomy (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill
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19. MedicalMnemonics.com: 38 (http://www.medicalmnemonics.com/cgi-
bin/lookup.cfm?id1=38&id2=&id3=&id4=)
20. Ziser. "The Endocrine System (Major Endocrine Glands)" (http://www.
austincc.edu/sziser/Biol%202404/2404%20handouts/The%20Endocri
ne%20System.pdf) (PDF). p. 1. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
21. "Four layers of the Gastointestinal Tract" (http://www.histology.leeds.a
c.uk/oral/GI_layers.php). University of Leeds. Retrieved 12 May 2015.
22. Mega List of Mnemonics for Nurses & Nursing Students. Examville
Study Guides. 2010.
23. Standring, Susan (21 October 2020). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical
basis of clinical practice (http://worldcat.org/oclc/1202943188).
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rg/oclc/1202943188).
24. Le, Tao (22 December 2014). First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2015 (ht
tp://worldcat.org/oclc/1059034925). ISBN 978-0-07-184007-1.
OCLC 1059034925 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1059034925).

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19. ScienceMnemonic (https://sciencemnemonic.com/) - An Easy Way To Memorize Your Science Knowledge Using Mnemonics, Pictures, Visuals,
Acronyms, Usage, Examples, Or Word Games.

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