Pmes 701 Methodology

MESP 701:
Principles and Methods

of Teaching
If a child can't learn the way we teach, maybe, we should teach the way they learn.
- Ignacio Estrada
“It is what we think we know already

that often prevents us from learning.”
- Claude Bernard
PMES 701: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
SECTION A
INTRODUCTION
CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS OF
PAUL FREIRE’S
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED
MESP 701: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING
THE PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED

Paulo Freire spoke from and for the “third
world”, and implicitly for all underprivileged
people, he proposes a view of education as
Paulo Freire something positive and also hazardous.
and his
influential
thinking and
Education is a weapon for social change, and
writing on thus, becomes the means by which people can
education perceive, interpret, criticize and finally transform
the world about them.
How can people’s perception, interpretation, criticism , etc. help bring about change?
THE PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED
 A need for a pedagogy of the oppressed becomes

necessary because of the need to explain to the masses
the necessity for them to take their destiny into their
own hands. That is to say, it is the responsibility of the
The need to masses themselves to take up the struggle to liberate
explain to the themselves.
masses their
own action  The necessary condition for the urge to start the
necessitates a liberation effort is a pedagogy that must be with the
pedagogy
people and not for the people.
 This pedagogy must be humanist and not

humanitarian. That is, the revolutionary teacher must
make the pedagogy humanistic and not humanitarian.
What does this mean?
A.THE PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED
The central problem for humans is the problem of
Humanisation humanization. This has become inescapably and urgently
as the central the concern of man because history shows us that both
problem of humanization and dehumanization can be real alternatives.
man But of these two, only humanization can be man's true
vocation.
To achieve humanisation, there is a need for liberation. But
the process of liberation must essentially not be one
Achieving concerned with individuals and persons as such but a social
humanisation process. This is because the dehumanization of man has
been taking place as the product of an unjust and
exploitative social order.
The struggle for this liberation must therefore be carried out
Who leads to by the oppressed to restore the humanity of both the
achieve oppressors and the oppressed. The oppressor class is too
humanisation? dehumanized to lead a liberation struggle as it has thrived on
the dehumanization of the oppressed.
 There are inherent dangers in this liberation struggle that has to be
carried out by the oppressed.
 The oppressed at first tend to see liberation as a way of replacing
Problem with oppressors, that is, to be like the oppressors.
the oppressed  For the oppressor, to be in this world means to have and to have
leading the more. For the oppressed, to be in this world is to be under and to be
struggle like the oppressor – to yearn to have and have more.
 In other words, the oppressed internalize the image of the oppressor
within themselves.
 Therefore the struggle for liberation by the oppressed, together with
those in solidarity with them, becomes a struggle by man in the
process of achieving freedom with no distinction between
oppressed and oppressor.
Struggle for  It becomes thus an act of love as against the lovelessness and false
liberation as a generosity which characterizes the oppressor. Therefore freedom
positive has to be acquired by conquest, that is, by positive action.
action  It has to be pursued constantly and responsibly. This has to be
carried out as the fight against oppression in a situation where the
world and men are in interaction. Hence the need in this fight for
praxis, which itself is a process of interaction between reflection and
action.
 Liberation does not mean merely to eat more but to create
situations that humanise people more.
 The essential task of liberation is to change the situation which

causes oppression and not to change the consciousness of the
oppressed to adapt themselves to the situation which oppresses
and exploits them. Such adaptation is dehumanizing and leads to
control and domination by the oppressor.
Liberation
is a matter  Consciousness constitutes conscientization. Implying that there is
of true no pseudo-participation in the struggle for their liberation, rather,
conscious- a committed involvement.
ness
 Thus the revolutionary leader must practise co-intentional
education, that is, the leadership and the people for the purpose
of jointly unveiling reality (“co-intent on reality”) must have a
critical knowledge of that reality and then proceed to the task of
transforming and re-creating that reality (the desirable change)
The Needs and Requirements for Dialogue
The love, humility and faith/ hope must create a mutual

1. Dialogue  Dialogue has to be based on a profound love for the world and men.
needs love for It demands an act of courage which involves commitment to other
men and the generating of acts of freedom. Therefore, without this
the world and
love for the world, life and men, there can be no dialogue.
men
Children need love, especially when they do not deserve it.
- Harold S. Hulbert
2. Dialogue  Dialogue has to be based on humility. It cannot be conducted
requires with arrogance. At the point of encounter in a dialogue, there
humility, No are neither utter ignoramuses nor perfect sages. There are only
arrogance men attempting together to learn more than they now know.
 Dialogue has to be based on an intense faith in man, his
power to make and remake, to create and recreate, in his
3. Dialogue vocation to be fully human. It requires a faith that this power
needs intense can be reborn even when men are thwarted and suppressed
faith/hope in by alienation, that is, when men are made to feel that their
man and his very handiwork, because of their lack of control over it, is
powers something which is alien, hostile and dehumanizing. Dialogue
must also be based on hope, which is rooted in the awareness
trust
of men's incompletion as human beings. This leads them to a
search for completion in communion with other men.
Is there anyhing in a caterpillar that tells you it's going to be a butterfly?
The Needs and Requirements for Dialogue
True dialogue also demands that those who dialogue
engage in critical thinking. Critical thinking requires
4. Dialogue
Reflection and Action (praxis)
demands Without reflection, there would be only pure verbalism. It is
critical therefore through praxis, or the interaction of these two,
thinking in that the word becomes a true word.
freedom Dialogue cannot occur between those who deny the right
to speak and those who are denied.
Men must come to feel like masters of their thinking by
5. Dialogue discussing the thinking and views of the world through
requires their own suggestions and those of their own comrades.
collective Thus we cannot frame a programme of education to be
decision on imposed from above but we must search for this
communication programme dialogically with the people.
and what to This means that the programme content of education
communicate
cannot be elaborated according to what the educator
thinks best for his students.
The present system of education may be described as the
The issue “banking” system. The teacher is the subject and the
with our student the object of the educational process. A narrative
Education style is very much in vogue. Students record, memorize and
(teaching) repeat. Education has become a process of depositing
today information and pupils are the depositories. In fact, there is
no real communication between the teacher and the
taught.
The teacher for liberation must be a partner of the students

engaged in stimulating the powers of critical thinking and
Nature of the quest for mutual humanization. There must be a
the profound trust in men and their creative power.
teacher
for Teachers and students must, in fact, become
liberation simultaneously both teachers and students: we must have
teacher-student and student-teacher.
 From the foregoing discussions so far, vis-à-vis your own views;
1. Do we really need to have a pedagogy for the oppressed?
2. What should be the nature of our system of education?
3. What should be the nature of teacher-learner relationship?/How
should the teacher relate to the student?
4. Who should supervise our educational system/ Who should monitor
what goes on in the school?
5. How should the school head behave?/ What should be the attitude of
school heads?
6.How should the teacher teach?
7. How different are your responses from your usual attitude in your
school/workplace?
Learners need to be reoriented to realize that mistakes are GOOD,
mistakes are also means of learning, mistakes are not necessarily
signs of weakness.
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
In discussing the factors contributing to effective
teaching, it is important for you to remember that the
greatest single factor in the teaching -learning process
in the teacher.
No technique, no method no device no gadget can
guarantee success only the teacher can do this. The
greatest classroom motivating device yet discovered is
the highly motivated teacher.
The characteristics of a successful teacher can be
conveniently grouped under two main headings:
1. Personal Characteristics
2. Professional Characteristics.
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
The personal characteristics of a teacher
refer to the way the teacher behaves towards
his/her students.
while
 The professional characteristics are those
characteristics that relate directly to the
teacher’s skill and expertise in carrying out
his/her job of teaching.
On the basis of personal characteristics, the evidence is quite
clear when it comes to sorting out good or effective teachers
from bad or ineffective teachers.
1. Personal Characteristics of Effective Teachers
 You will probably agree that it is quite possible to

have two teachers of equal intelligence, training
and grasp of subject matter who nevertheless
differ considerably in the results they achieve
with students.
 Part of the difference can be attributed to the

effects of a teacher‘s personality on the learners.
From a study based on the opinion of nearly 4,000
American Senior High School students concerning
best liked and least liked teachers;
Over 51% said they like those teachers best who:
are helpful in school work (a)
explain lesson /assignments clearly (b)
use example in teaching (c)
40% responded favourably to the teachers who:
have a sense of humour (d)
Which of the four characteristics is/are personal and
which one(s) are professional?
 Effective teachers appear to be more humane.
They:
1. have a sense of humour
2. are fair and impartial
3. are kind and empathetic
4. are more democratic than autocratic
5. are emotionally stable
6. are enthusiastic
7. have self-control
8. honest
9. relate more naturally to the students on a one-
to-one basis
1b. Personal Characteristics of Ineffective Teachers
 Infective teachers apparently,
 lack a sense of humour.
 grow impatient easily, i.e. bad-tempered, irritable
and sarcastic.
 use cutting, ego-reducing remarks in class
 are inclined to be authoritarian.
 are generally less sensitive to the needs of their
students.
 are partial to the brighter students.
 have superior, aloof, overbearing attitudes.
2. Professional Characteristics of Effective Teachers
A professional teacher:
a. establishes a productive classroom atmosphere from the
start by means of good organization and carefully planned
structures.
b. uses friendly and educative humour and create excellent
teacher-student relationship.
c. uses learners ideas as much as possible.
d. gives praise generously to learners.
e. exercises good class control and discipline.
f. has mastery of the subject to be taught.
g. has a knowledge of methods and techniques
h. explains things to learners very clearly.
i. includes a variety of learner-activities in lessons.
2. Professional Characteristics of Effective Teachers
A professional teacher:
j. deals with problems promptly before they get out of
hands.
k. does not overreact to learners’ misbehavior but uses
appropriate punishment
l. has an understanding of basic principles and of human
development and behaviour
m. adapt his/her teaching to local needs taking into
account, the materials available.
n. create specific kinds of climate settings for different
lessons, e.g. serious and businesslike or relaxed and
enjoyable according to the circumstances of the lesson
The Ideal Teacher in the View of Learners
 In fact, learners could also tell (evaluate) the
nature of the ideal teacher from their own
points of view.
 In a portrait of the ideal teacher drawn by

school children, they clearly indicated what
the ideal teacher should:
1. be.
2. know.
3. be able to do.
 The school children believe that the ideal
teacher should be:
1. friendly and cheerful.
2. kind/sympathetic towards learners who
need help.
3. patient with learners who have difficulty.
4. interested in learners’ interests.
5. strict with misbehaviour.
6. hardworking and enthusiastic.
7. fair and without favourites.
 The school children believe that the

ideal teacher should know:
1. his/her job thoroughly.
2. all his/her learners’ names.
3. the answers to his/her learners’
questions.
4. how to do things that his/her learners’
parents cannot manage.
 The school children believe that the

ideal teacher should be able to:
1. make his lessons interesting
2. involve his learners actively in
learning
3. explain difficult things clearly
4. control his/her learners
Characteristics of Good Teaching
It is not easy to describe good
teaching. WHY?
 However, one could sparingly determine
good teaching from the way a teacher
structures his/her teaching in relation to:
1. learners
2. the syllabus
3. resources
4. teaching methods
1. The good teacher structures his/her

teaching in relation to learners by:
 being sensitive to their abilities,
interests and needs.
 encouraging learners to develop their
own creative abilities.
 helping learners to develop
emotionally and socially by respecting
each others views and feelings.
2. The good teacher structures his/her teaching in
relation to the syllabus by:
 being thoroughly familiar with what he/she is
required to teach.
 relating the content of the syllabus to local issues.
3. The good teacher structures his/her teaching in
relation to resources:
 that are readily available inside and outside the
school.
 that can be handled conveniently.
 by improvising TLMs that may not be readily
available.
4. The good teacher structures his/her teaching
in relation to teaching methods that:
 encourage learners to learn by doing.
 build on learners’ previous
experience/knowledge.
 enable all students to learn through useful
experience and experimentation.
 enable effective use of TLMs.
 stimulate all the three learning domains:
affective, psychomotor and cognitive.
In addition to the foregoing, the teacher

must know how to:
 communicate.
 deal with learners’ questions.
 control learners’ behaviour and use
appropriate motivation.
 plan effective lessons.
SECTION B
CONCEPTIONS OF TEACHING OF TEACHING
MEANING OF TEACHING
Teaching has no definite definition. WHY?

Teaching may be viewed as the impartation of information, ideas,
knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc. from a teacher (more experienced
and knowledgeable person) into a learner (a less experienced and
less knowledgeable person).
In another sense, teaching can be thought of as an interaction

between a teacher and a learner through which knowledge/ideas,
skills, attitudes, etc. are shaped or acquired by the learner.
These two (2) definitions of teaching above, basically, give two
types/conceptions of the Art or Science of Teaching. These are:
1. Banking education
2. Libertarian education/Problem-solving education
1. Banking Education/Teaching
In general, the banking method of teaching is compared to making a
deposit at the bank. In this sense the teacher makes a deposit of
information on the learners.
The teacher is active in this process whereas the learners remain

empty receptacles meant to collect, categorise and memorise
whatever the teacher deems relevant and necessary. In this situation
the students are inactive in the actual process of learning.
Knowledge becomes a gift bestowed on them by their teacher as

opposed to a continual process that should be engaged in by all
individuals throughout life.
In the banking method where knowledge comes from, how it comes
about, and the essence of it, are ignored.
 In the banking classroom, learners have the ability to memorise items, e.g.
phrases in a foreign language, without having a clue as to what the items
mean.
 In the banking classroom, learning involves the monotonous task of
memorising facts or ideas, the input of which is regulated by the teacher.
Thus, creative power is inhibited, thinking is controlled, and the idea of
learning as being a liberating process of self-discovery and discovery of the
world remains disregarded.
 Students mostly taught with this method cannot be expected to deal with
problems they meet efficiently and effectively. They have remained objects
in the classroom, who have always followed the teacher’s path in the
learning process and have hardly ever been stimulated to use their own
thinking and decision-making processes. In this sense, the process of
knowledge-making has come from another source, an outside source,
instead of from within.
The banking type of teaching employs teacher-centred methods of teaching
Teacher-centred Methods of Teaching
MORE US
LESS THEM
 A teacher-centred method of teaching is that method in which teacher controls

everything or takes more active role than the learner.
 In the use of this method, the teacher is placed at the centre of the educational
process and the learner does not engage in active participation and therefore does
not really experience what is learnt.
 A typical example of the teacher-centred method is the lecture method.
Teacher-centred Method of Teaching
In the teacher-centred methods, the main attention

is on what is taught than the child who is being
taught.
ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING TEACHER-CENTRED METHOD

Teachers have all the knowledge
Students have no knowledge (tabula rasa, “empty vessels”)
and therefore are passive.
Knowledge can be transferred passively
Teacher knows what students need to know
All students learn in the same way
All students have the same needs
Characteristics of Teacher-Centred Methods
1. The teacher selects what the students will learn, the method and the pace of
learning
2. The teacher’s role is to communicate knowledge to students
3. The teacher teaches all the time and does not allow learners to learn on their own
4. Students learn when the teacher is present and they are encouraged to think that
they cannot learn on their own
5. Students in the class are regarded as more or less uniform group of learners,
rather than individuals with diverse needs, interests talents and abilities
6. Learning is entirely dependent on the teacher.
7. The classroom furniture is usually arranged into rows of desks or chairs facing a
board with teacher’s desk nearby.
Application of Teacher-Centred Methods
 To cover a large area of knowledge in order to prepare students
for exams. This is especially true in a system where the
curriculum emphasises academic knowledge and examination
as the only means for selecting students for further education
or jobs.
 To introduce new knowledge which is mainly theoretical or

requires the teacher first to tell students what to do.
 To present knowledge when students lack text books and

other instructional materials.
 Apart from the above, what other circumstances will make you use teacher-
centred methods of teaching?
Advantages of Teacher-centred methods of teaching
1. It saves time as all learners are exposed to new ideas which they learn at the same
time
2. It allows faster coverage of the syllabus
3. The teacher has control over the teaching–learning situation which maintains class
control
4. Students are exposed to new knowledge in a uniform manner, which they learn
indiscriminately.
Disadvantages of Teacher-centred methods of teaching
1. Learners play a more passive role in learning as listeners
2. Learner’s interests and abilities are not given adequate attention and
consideration. This is because lessons are planned according to the teacher’s
wishes, interests and abilities.
3. Weak learners may be behind bright ones. The bright ones are slowed down
because of the need to have the whole class follow. This may lead to
boredom/indiscipline in the class.
Teacher-centred Methods of Teaching
THE LECTURE METHOD
• The lecture method is an activity in which a teacher teaches a group
of students using mainly verbal exposition, and teaching the class as a
unit of equal learning ability.
• There is no consideration for individual differences of the learners.
• The main task of the teacher is to talk or give information while the
learner/listener listens with little participation during the lesson.
• Occasionally, however, the teacher may ask the learners a question,
or the learners may ask a question. The lecture method is therefore a
teacher–centred method.
• One variation of the method is where the teacher talks and writes
main points and illustrations on the board while the learners listen,
read what is written, and answers questions asked.
• This mode of interaction goes on from the beginning of the
interaction to the end of the lesson. This variation is often called
chalk–and –talk.
Reasons For Lecturing
1. To provide information otherwise unavailable to students
2. To condense or summarise material available to students only
as widely scattered bits within a large amount of printed
material.
3. To present a theme or framework within which to organise
independent information gathering
4. To provide a common background of shared information on
which to base group work or discussion
5. To make the teacher’s experience and other personal
resources available to the students through the teacher’s
interpretation and/or explanation of concepts
6. To adjust information to the level of ability of the students, for
example to simplify difficult material or to specify application
or implications of the content.
Advantages of the Lecture Method
1. The method ensures that knowledge is presented in a systematic
way.
2. It covers a large amount of material in short time.
3. It provides students with an organised perspective of the content to
be considered.
4. It provides practice for children in learning to develop note-taking
skill.
5. It enables the teacher to teach a large class with no particular
attention to individual differences.
6. It provides the teacher with a sense of security since no surprising

information will be introduced into the session
7. It is most helpful in presenting certain background materials that
students need for preparation for further study.
Disadvantages of lecture Method
1. Since the teacher must go at the same pace with the whole
class the slower learners may find the pace too fast while the
brighter ones will find it too slow. In either case one group
will be neglected.
2. There is no feedback on whether understanding has taken

place. Unless the teacher frequently asks relevant questions,
he doesn’t know if anyone is learning. Remember that telling
is not teaching. If the lesson wasn’t learnt, the teacher did
not teach.
3. The absence of feedback may lead to miscommunication
4. Learners are largely passive. There is little participation and

involvement.
Disadvantages of lecture Method
5. It is difficult to maintain the interest of the class
for a long time. This can easily lead to boredom
and some learners may doze off.
6. There is no social interaction in the class for long

periods.
7. Higher level cognitive learning is seldom achieved

by students since they do not actively work with
the information being considered.
8. Affective and psychomotor learning seldom occur

as a result of the lecture
Guidelines for Effective Use of the Lecture Method
This guideline has been organised to cover the

four (4) main stages of the lecturer’s lecture.
• Preparation (pre-lesson planning)

• Lesson introduction
• Lesson delivery
• Summary or closure
Preparation (pre-lesson planning) for lecture
• Outline the main points and organise them in
an orderly way.
• Plan examples and illustrations.
• List key questions or other ways to involve

students
• Prepare hand-outs that assist students in

listening or note taking
Preparation (pre-lesson planning) for lecture
• Prepare any audio-visual aids
• Plan timing to allow for questions and

discussion
• Keep presentations as brief as possible
• Prepare notes for reference, but not to be read

Introducing a lesson that employs the
lecture method
• Outline main points if students are to

take notes
• Generate interest from the beginning:

use an attention gather or thought-
provoker e.g. picture, question, story,
simple puzzle exercise.
Lesson Delivery – Platform Behaviour
• Maintain eye contact with different student
• Vary your voice, facial expressions, gestures and
positions
• Use humour and surprise
• Illustrate main points with concrete examples,
analogies and stories
• Use non-verbal stimuli and illustrations; pictures
models, symbols and gestures
• Involve students by soliciting questions, examples
and responses
Delivery – Platform Behaviour
• Weave in provocative questions and rhetoric
• Check on students comprehension at intervals
during the talk
• Repeat and reinforce key words and main points
• Use silence and pauses for emphasis and to
stimulate thought
• Use the learner’s knowledge and experience as a
base on which to build
• Use model summaries to strengthen your lecture
• Avoid destructive mannerism, e.g. nose pulling, eye
glass adjusting, etc.
Closure
• End before the students attention is lost
• Repeat the main points
• Guide the students to summarise the main

points
• Leave some unanswered questions for the

students to ponder or discuss
DEMONSTRATION METHOD OF TEACHING
pp. 78-84
Mensah, S. K. E., & Atta-Boison, G. K. (n.d). General methods, techniques

and skills of teaching. Winneba: IEDE,University of Education
2. Libertarian Education/teaching (problem-solving education)
 Libertarian education seeks to involve the learners actively in the process
of acquiring knowledge. The learners are not mere objects in the
classroom, but instead active subjects in the process of enquiry along with
the teacher. They are active in the formation of ideas through constant
inquiry.
 In the libertarian classroom, the subject of study is reflected upon by both

the teacher and the learners. A dialogue continually goes on between the
leader and the learners. This ensures a successful learning process in which
all grow by listening, contemplating and inquiring into the thoughts and
ideas of each other.
 In the libertarian classroom, the teacher remains at an equal level with the
learners, continually reflecting with them, these reflections in turn being
reflected upon. New ideas are unveiled by both teacher and learners,
simulating the creative powers of thought.
2. Libertarian Education/teaching (problem-solving education) ……Cont’d
 The major concern is not on the teacher but instead the learner and what s/he
does. The teacher may present material to the learners. The material may then be
examined by the teacher and learners together, often resulting in teacher re-
examining his earlier material and accepting valuable modifications from the class.
The learners are then able to realise that they themselves, through the process of
thought, inquiry and dialogue are knowledge makers.
 In a libertarian classroom, students are continually faced with problems which they
must solve. They are then continually challenged and each challenge evokes
another challenge and lesson in critical thinking.
 It is the responsibility of the libertarian educator to direct their lessons to the
problem-solving technique. It is only in the way that students as active participants
are able to utilise their invaluable resource of mind and express the products of this
resource as well as re-evaluate these products in response to the input and view of
others. The fact that they are now knowledge makers as opposed to knowledge
“storers” leaves them with an uplifting yet critical consciousness and an increasing
awareness of the environment around them in which they are now active
participants.
The libertarian type of education employs learner-centred methods of teaching
Learner-centred methods of teaching
The best teachers are those that show you where to look but don't tell you what to see.
- Alexandra K. Trenfor
 A learner-centred method of teaching is that method in which learners are more
active in the teaching-learning process than the teacher.
 In the use of this method, the learner is placed at the centre of the educational
process and engages in active participation and experiential learning.
 Examples of learner-centred methods are: small groups, brainstorming, role play,
games/simulations, field trips, individualised learning, student presentation,
dramatic activities, among others.
Learner-centred method of teaching
 Assumptions under learner-centred method
 Students are active subjects who have individual experiences,

knowledge, opinions, feelings, needs, interest and learning styles.
These notable characteristics that distinguish children of different
ages have to be considered while teaching.
 The teacher is a guide or facilitator who structures activities and

experience that provide for student learning.
 Teaching is about focus on student activity: not what the teacher

does.
 Principles of learner-centred method
 Children should learn skills which are within the capabilities of their
stage of mental, physical and emotional development.
 There should be the use of strong incentives and rewards which

stimulate students natural learning
 Selection of content and methods of teaching and learning should be

based on understanding the nature, needs and interest of the learner.
 Effective teaching and learning should recognise, identify and cater for
students’ needs at different age levels.
 There should be sufficient TLMs

 Aims of learner-centred method

The learner-centred teaching aims at helping the students to;
 be happy and interested in his or her work

 develop from day to day with a feeling of achievement.
 be involved in his or her learning

 feel that other people understand and appreciate his or her effort
 feel his or her worth

 get the opportunity for creative work and self-expression
 develop sense of responsibility
 use his or her leisure time profitably
 Characteristics of learner-centred method
 The learning atmosphere is relaxed and pleasant. The teacher for example should
not use commands; Statements like: “Baby Yaa, would you like to do this number?”
should be more common than “Baby Yaa, do this number.” The learner’s interest
should also be aroused and sustained.
 It is activity oriented, i.e. students actively participate in their own learning.
 It involves more group works that cater for exchange of views, individual
differences and needs.
 The teacher perceives his or her students as individuals with difficulties and talents.
 Plenty of teaching aids are used during the teaching and learning process.
 Children display in the class
 There are more positive and encouraging rewards than corporal punishment.
 The teacher acts as a guide and facilitator of learning by creating suitable learning
conditions
 There is no meaningless memorization of facts.
Advantages of learner-centred method

 Learner-centred implies that the atmosphere is relaxed and friendly.
Teachers use flexible methods which take into consideration
individual differences among students and therefore adapt teaching
programs that suit the learner.
 Teachers recognise that out of school learning by their students
constitute an important part of their education and so encourage
students to make fuller use in school of what they learn outside.
 Students are encouraged to think for themselves and by themselves
because teachers recognize that knowing how to learn is more
important for students than learning to know
 The informal methods used (as against the authoritarian methods
used in teacher-centred classrooms) create relaxed conditions in
which talents are nourished and individually encouraged.
Disadvantages of learner-centred method
 Learner-centred education attributes to the child a position that is

bad for discipline.
 Learner-centred education may lack commitment to serious learning.
 Methods employed in learner-centred education may lead to chaos in

the classroom
 Learner-centred method may pave way for some teachers to be too

relaxed and lazy.
 Learner-centred method is relatively demanding in terms of finances,
time, energy, experience, etc.
EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING
STATEMENT AND INDICATE THE
METHOD OF TEACHING THAT IS
APPROPRIATE FOR EACH CASE
“WE CAN TEACH FROM EXPERIENCE,

BUT
WE CAN’T TEACH EXPERIENCE”
QUESTIONS
a. (i) “Teaching” is said to have no definite definition. What in your view

should be the contemporary description of teaching?
(ii) Distinguish between libertarian teaching and banking teaching

(iii) What 5 factors would make you recommend banking education over
libertarian education?
b. Explain 6 reasons why you think libertarian education is the better, yet it
is not properly implemented at the second cycle institutions in Ghana?
c. Suggest solution(s) to each of your arguments in (b) above

Types of Learner-centred Methods
I. Discussion
o Small Group Discussion
Types of small groups Group work activities
1. Random groups
2. Friendship groups
 Circus
3. Achievement or ability groups  Buzz sessions
4. Deliberate mix  Snowball
5. Proximity groups  Debate
6. Peer teaching group  Forum
7. Buddy grouping or co-operative learning groups  Panel
8. Pairs or triads
 Fishbowl
9. Interest groups
 Peer-tutoring
o Whole-class Discussion  Brainstorming
II. Field trips
III. Question and answer method
IV. Role play and Mind Mapping
V. Individualised learning
Project method
Dalton plan
Programmed learning
Keller Plan
Open School
Montessori System
Froebel Method
TYPES OF LEARNER-CENTRED METHODS
1. DISCUSSION METHOD OF TEACHING

I. Small Group Discussion
 The size of the groups may depend on the activity. It is however

useful to note the following:
a) The Larger the Group:
 …the greater the confidence the group may have in its findings and the
more likely it will challenge the teacher’s opinion.
 …the more likely it is that the group will interpret the task correctly.
 …the more experienced the group will have to draw on.
 …the less time it will take the teacher to visit all the groups.
 …the slower the decision making process and the greater the
difficulty in achieving consensus.
b) The Smaller the Group:
 The more activity there will be and therefore;

 the fewer passengers there will be;
 the faster decisions would be made.
• Groups of between two (2) and five (5) are very common.
• Groups greater than about four (4) tend to require or develop leaders.
• Groups larger than about 8 (eight) tend to become increasingly
unwieldy, and passengers become common unless very specific roles
are allotted to each of them.
• If the group members are six (6), the effect is that many hands make
light work
• If the group members are eight (8), the effect is that too many cooks
spoil the broth.
Purpose of Small Group Discussions
 In addition to encouraging higher degrees of students’ participation
in learning tasks, the frequent use of small-group organization in the
classroom have other important implications for student growth.
This is because:
1. Even “poor” students find that they can contribute to a group projects thus they build
positive self-image.
2. Peer interaction encourages classification and reinforcement of common goals.
3. Relative autonomy of the groups builds planning, organizing and problems solving skills
improves communication skills and increases self-concept of adequacy.
4. By structuring learning activities for small group work, you can communicate a high degree
of respect to the student, is like saying that: “I think you can do it without my constant
supervision”
5. Small-group work increases the possibilities of satisfying individual goals thus it increases the
level of success promotion in the classroom.
6. Although a group has be established under your guidance or initiation, for it to be
considered an instructional group, not all the activities of the group must be carried out in
the classroom nor under your supervision. As a result of their types and purposes, some
groups will function better when given some amount of autonomy.
 Organizing small groups for discussion
In forming small groups, the following suggestions should be considered:
1. The same task is assigned to all groups or a different but related task is assigned to each
group. The aim of giving all groups the same task is to see who can do it best, or fastest, or
simply to compare the different approaches. After the work is completed, it can be judged
by you or by the class; or less competitively, each group can simply present its work.
Competition needs to be handled with care. Ideally, efforts should be rewarded, at least, as
much as achievement.
2. State the purpose of the task clearly to avoid doubt write the task on the board and allocate
your students time for the discussion.
3. Explain clearly how the groups work is to be presented. Irrespective of mode of presentation
however the groups work should be recorded on the paper during the group work.
4. Position the groups in such a way that there is no interference from another group.
5. Ask each group to appoint a leader and a secretary. Group leaders are an important feature
of group work. They provide an essential link between the teacher and the rest of the pupils
and give opportunity to them to exercise authority and learn leadership. Thus, although it is
good that the opportunities for leadership should be shared, there is much to be said for
keeping the groups fairly permanent; for much time can be saved if, in a particular subject,
all you have to say to the class is, “Go to your groups now and get on with your group
assignments.”
6. Let each group discuss as the secretary records the points that are reached by the consensus
of the group.
7. Organize a plenary section to discuss each group finding. The secretary from each group
report back their findings and these are written on the board by you the teacher.
Types of Small Groups
1. Random groups
2. Friendship groups
3. Achievement or ability groups
4. Deliberate mix
5. Proximity groups
6. Interest groups
7. Pairs or triads
a. Buddy grouping or co-operative
learning groups
b. Peer teaching group
Benefits of Working in Small Groups
1. Human beings by nature play in groups, and there is usually the
need for them to work in groups too. By working together, students
get to know and understand one another. It can also arouse group
loyalty especially if there is an element of competition; this can
produce strong motivation.
2. Groups enable students of equal abilities to learn at their own rate

and remove the possibility of overfeeding or underfeeding others.
They enable the teacher to transfer some responsibilities to the
students, which is a good training for citizenship.
Benefits of Working in Small Groups…cont’d
3. The social training that results from group learning is one of its most
valuable features. By working in groups, students learn how to deal
with disagreements, to accept others who hold different views, to
co-operate in order to achieve a bigger output, and to work as a
team. They learn the sense of belonging that membership of a group
gives, and they learn how to accept in a mature fashion the elation
of success in competitive tasks and also the pain of defeat.
4. Group work gives more students an opportunity to participate
actively in the lesson. It gives students a chance to use the methods,
principles and vocabulary that they are being taught. Shy students
who will not contribute to the full class can usually coaxed into
contributing to a group. What is more there is a built-in self-checking
and peer tutoring aspect to most group work, where errors in
understanding are ironed out in a relatively supportive atmosphere.
Benefits of Working in Small Groups…cont’d
5. Group work involves learners in task-centred talking. As well as
being an enjoyable activity in itself. This provides huge opportunities
for learning. It requires that learners process the new materials and
make personal sense of it. Group work tends to handover the
responsibility of learning to the student.
6. Students get a chance to practice high-order mental skills such as

creativity, evaluation, analysis and synthesis. They also practice
common skills such as ability to communicate, ability to work with
others, etc.
Limitation of Working in Small Groups
1. Some things are best done alone. For example, creativity is an

essential personal process, requiring uninterrupted private thought.
Perhaps, the same could be said of learning.
2. Groups can go off in the wrong direction and they can be hijacked by
a determined individual
3. Some group members may become passengers, letting others take

the lead all the time.
Group Work Activities
 Circus
 Buzz sessions/buzz groups
 Snowball or pyramiding
 Debate
 Forum
 Panel
 Fishbowl
 Peer-tutoring
 Brainstorming
WHOLE-CLASS DISCUSSION
pp. 72-77

FIELD TRIPS
• Nature of field trips – a field trip is a trip arranged by the school and undertaken for
educational purpose in which students go to places where the materials of
instruction may be observed and studied directly in their functional settings.
• Field trips are organised to broaden students general knowledge but it should be
useful, and not just a waste of time on energy or simply an excuse to get out of
regular class.
• If the students are sufficiently mature, they can be involved in planning activities
for the field trip. A list of members of the class can be drawn up. Actual field trips
can be undertaken with a little expense: they may be as simple as taking a walk to
study the trees on rocks on the school grounds, such as investigate and share direct
personal experiences with others.
• Generally, field trips are made to points of instructional interests such as factories,
mines, public utilities, museums, scientific trips to steams, ponds, and rocky
beaches, immediate or future studies.
Steps in Planning and Organising a Field Trip
Planning and organising the trip depends on 2 factors:
1. Making comprehensive administrative arrangements

in connection with the trip - writing letters to
appropriate officials at the places to be visited
2. Preparing the students adequately for the trip
Thus the planning should cover 3 stages of the trip

I. Before the trip
II. During the trip
III. After the trip
Before The Trip
• Make sure that there is a clear learning objective to the visit and that it
is worthwhile. Literally ask yourself: is this trip really necessary?
• Discuss the trip with the head of the school only when approval has
been given by the school head to proceed can you discuss the trip with
the students.
• Prepare the class by arousing their interest in the field trip to the
chosen site. You can do this by telling them some of the things they
will see, how these will relate to what they have been studying and of
what use the knowledge they gain will be to them in the future.
• Visit the site well in advance and to with the people who will be
receiving the students. During this visit, plan what the students will
see.
• Explain to the students the purpose of the visit and what they will be
expected to do.
Before The Trip
• Make transportation arrangements
• If the students will stay overnight, arrange for their

accommodation and food.
• Indicate whether the work will be done in pairs or in small

groups: guide the students to form their groups.
• Establish safety and behaviour standards by giving the

students strict instructions that prohibits running across
busy roads, operating machinery unsupervised or
tempering with equipment at the site. They should also be
advised on how they should be dressed.
Before The Trip
• Indicate what kind of follow-up activities students
will engage in upon return to class.
• Schedule enough time for the processing of data

form the field trip.
• Just before the appointed date, contact those who

will receive the students to remind them of the visit,
check that the transport, accommodation and food
arrangements are in order.
During The Trip
• At the site provide adequate supervision
• Be sure all students are at where they are

supposed to be
• Every time students move from one part to

another within the site you should bring the rear so
that you can have your eyes on all students
• Handle small incidents as they occur. Do not let

unsafe behaviour continue
• Do not compete for room with students

After The Trip
Follow-up activities: Students should be made to
carry out follow-up activities to ensure retention
of the knowledge gained. These activities may
include
• a report, written or oral,
• discussions,
• writing short essays,
• drawing pictures,
• preparing an exhibiting of materials collected at
the site and
• displaying pictures.
Evaluation Of The Trip
• Secure feedback from the student on whether

the trip was successful and in what ways. This
enables you to strengthen your programming
for future trips.
• Show gratitude: Have the class send a “thank

you” message to the hosts of the field trip.
Advantages Of Field Trips
• Field trips provide the student with first-hand
experience
• A common experience is provided for students which

can serve as a basis for other learning experience
• Students become more aware of their environment
• Field studies can add greatly to school-community

relationships
• What is learnt should have great impact due to the

multi-sensory nature of the experience
Advantages Of Field Trips
• This procedure can be utilised by teachers for
any and all subjects areas in the curriculum
• Field trips extend classroom learning through

reality
• Field trips are a change of place from constant

classroom activities
Disadvantages Of Field Trips
• The legal responsibilities accompanying a field trip are serious
• Discipline can easily become a problem
• Administrative procedures to organise field trips are often so

complicated that they discourage taking them
• Transport arrangements are often difficult or costly
• It is difficult to make arrangement which do not create conflicts

with other class
• Field trip require additional chairpersons and this may be

difficult to secure
QUESTION AND ANSWER METHOD OF TEACHING
pp. 60-70

Why should you be concerned about different methods of Teaching?
“There is nothing that is a more sure

sign of insanity than to do the same
thing over and over and expect the
results to be different.” -Einstein
1. Different methods could lead to the achievement of different

learning objectives: methods of teaching facts are different from
methods of teaching problem-solving, practical skills or even the skill
of self-control (values).
2. Different methods cater for different types of students in class:
fast, average, and slow learners.
3. Different levels of education requires different methods of
teaching, e.g. the level where the Montessori Method is used is
different from where the Project Method is employed.
SECTION C
TEACHING A LARGE CLASS

pp. 204-207
SECTION D
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES (TLRs)

pp. 172-176
SECTION E
LESSON INTRODUCTION AND LESSON CLOSURE

pp. 144-147
INTRODUCING A LESSON
The introduction to the lesson should do one or more
of the following things
• Create a desire in the learners to participate in the

lesson.
• Create an atmosphere conducive to the attainment

of the aim of the lesson. This would be particularly
relevant in lessons with an emotional or aesthetic
aim
• Recall previous knowledge to provide a link

between arouse interests
INTRODUCING A LESSON
• Produce a smooth transition. Here the introduction might
have involve a change of direction from the in which the
student have been previously engaged. There may be a
change of emotions e.g. a transition from games lesson to a
singing lesson.
• State a purpose
• Present a problem for which a solution is sought
You can see from the list that the introduction to lesson is vital
for the success of the lesson. It should therefore be well
planned and be make precise. It should also be relevant to the
new material to be studied.
STEPS IN INTRODUCING A LESSON
Examples are
• Testing learners previous knowledge through
question on the previous topic to link up with
the new topic
• Using an audio material, e.g. picture
• Narrating a story
• Demonstrating an important part of a previous
lesson
• Taking learners out to observe some scenery
CLOSURE
Experience teachers close their lessons in some of the
following ways;
• Revising the salient points
• Applying the present knowledge in various new situations
• Linking the present knowledge with future learning in the

form of questions, finding solutions to learner’s problems,
preparing charts etc.
• Tidying up and getting the room in good condition for the

next lesson.
THANK YOU

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MESP 701:

Principles and Methods

“It is what we think we know already

THE PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED

 A need for a pedagogy of the oppressed becomes

 This pedagogy must be humanist and not

 The essential task of liberation is to change the situation which

The love, humility and faith/ hope must create a mutual

The teacher for liberation must be a partner of the students

 You will probably agree that it is quite possible to

 Part of the difference can be attributed to the

 In a portrait of the ideal teacher drawn by

 The school children believe that the

 The school children believe that the

1. The good teacher structures his/her

In addition to the foregoing, the teacher

Teaching has no definite definition. WHY?

In another sense, teaching can be thought of as an interaction

The teacher is active in this process whereas the learners remain

Knowledge becomes a gift bestowed on them by their teacher as

 A teacher-centred method of teaching is that method in which teacher controls

In the teacher-centred methods, the main attention

ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING TEACHER-CENTRED METHOD

2. The teacher’s role is to communicate knowledge to students

6. Learning is entirely dependent on the teacher.

 To introduce new knowledge which is mainly theoretical or

 To present knowledge when students lack text books and

2. It allows faster coverage of the syllabus

6. It provides the teacher with a sense of security since no surprising

2. There is no feedback on whether understanding has taken

3. The absence of feedback may lead to miscommunication

4. Learners are largely passive. There is little participation and

6. There is no social interaction in the class for long

7. Higher level cognitive learning is seldom achieved

8. Affective and psychomotor learning seldom occur

This guideline has been organised to cover the

• Preparation (pre-lesson planning)

• Plan examples and illustrations.

• List key questions or other ways to involve

• Prepare hand-outs that assist students in

• Prepare any audio-visual aids

• Plan timing to allow for questions and

• Keep presentations as brief as possible

• Prepare notes for reference, but not to be read

• Outline main points if students are to

• Generate interest from the beginning:

• Repeat the main points

• Guide the students to summarise the main

• Leave some unanswered questions for the

Mensah, S. K. E., & Atta-Boison, G. K. (n.d). General methods, techniques

 In the libertarian classroom, the subject of study is reflected upon by both

 Assumptions under learner-centred method

 Students are active subjects who have individual experiences,

 The teacher is a guide or facilitator who structures activities and

 Teaching is about focus on student activity: not what the teacher

 There should be the use of strong incentives and rewards which

 Selection of content and methods of teaching and learning should be

 There should be sufficient TLMs

 Aims of learner-centred method