Unbound Aggregate Rutting Models
for Stress Rotations and Effects
of Moving Wheel Loads
In Tai Kim and Erol Tutumluer
The latest research findings on stress rotations caused by moving wheel
loads and their effects on permanent deformation or rut accumulation
in pavement granular layers are presented. Realistic pavement stresses
induced by moving wheel loads were examined in the unbound aggregate
base and subbase layers, and the significant effects of rotation of prin-
cipal stress axes were indicated for a proper characterization of the per-
manent deformation behavior. To account for the rutting performances
of especially thick granular layers, a comprehensive set of repeated load
triaxial tests was conducted in the laboratory. Triaxial test data were
obtained and analyzed from testing aggregates under various realistic
in situ stress paths caused by moving wheel loading. Permanent defor-
mation characterization models were then developed on the basis of the
experimental test data to include the static and dynamic stress states and
the slope of stress path loading. The models that also considered the
stress path slope variations predicted the stress path dependency of
permanent deformation accumulation best. In addition, multiple stress
path tests conducted to simulate the extension–compression–extension
type of rotating stress states under a wheel pass gave much higher per-
manent strains than those of the compression-only single path tests. The
findings indicated actual traffic loading simulated by the multiple path
tests could cause greater permanent deformations or rutting damage,
especially in the loose base or subbase, when compared with deformations
measured from a dynamic plate loading or a constant confining pressure
type laboratory test.
Rutting is the repeated load-induced permanent deformation of a
flexible pavement. For pavement geomaterials, typically unbound base
or subbase and subgrade soil, rutting is the only failure mechanism
of relevance because no bound layers are involved. The subgrade soils
in low- to medium-volume roads and thick granular layers in airport
flexible pavements are more prone to rutting. Depending on the large
magnitude and moving nature of wheel loads and the relative strength
of the pavement layers, a significant portion of the total permanent de-
formations can occur in pavement geomaterials. Recent field studies
have indicated that actual traffic loading when applied to pavement
test sections resulted in significantly higher permanent deformations
in the base and subgrade layers compared with rutting that occurred
because of the similar magnitude and amount of loads applied in
repeated plate loading (1, 2). With rutting distress being the main per-
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at
Urbana–Champaign, 205 North Mathews, Urbana, IL 61801.
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
No. 1913, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington,
D.C., 2005, pp. 41–49.
41
formance indicator and cause of failure in pavement geomaterial lay-
ers, it is of utmost importance to consider the effects of moving wheel
loads and stress rotations on the pavement rutting performances.
Because of a lack of proper laboratory equipment and testing capa-
bilities, an important aspect of pavement geomaterial behavior, how-
ever, is not included in the currently used material characterization
and performance models. Specifically, no consideration is given in
testing to the effects of moving wheel loads, which typically place
a pavement element in both extension- and compression-type stress
states and involve a change in applied shear stress direction. As a
result, different loading stress paths and continuous rotation of the
principal stress planes experienced in situ on a representative pave-
ment element cannot be properly simulated to evaluate the unbound
aggregate base or subbase and subgrade rutting performances. It is
very important to properly apply the actual field loading conditions
in the laboratory, including the effects of moving wheel loads. These
important aspects can be studied in the laboratory only by using
advanced triaxial testing devices that have the capability of applying
variable confining pressure (VCP) type of stress path loadings to sim-
ulate the rotation of principal stress direction and the extension and
compression stress states induced by moving wheel loads.
Permanent deformation behavior of airport pavement granular base
and subbase layers is currently being studied at the Federal Aviation
Administration’s Center of Excellence (FAA-COE) for Airport Pave-
ment Technology, established at the University of Illinois. Actual
extension and compression stress states experienced by a pavement
element under a moving aircraft wheel are realistically applied on
laboratory specimens using an advanced triaxial test apparatus named
UI-FastCell (3). The granular specimens tested are FAA-specified
P209 base and P154 subbase materials used in the pavement test sec-
tions of FAA’s National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF). To
investigate the effects of stress path loading (realized in the field under
moving wheel loads) on the permanent deformation behavior, an
extensive laboratory-testing database was established from advanced
UI-FastCell testing of the P154 and P209 NAPTF base and subbase
materials under various constant and VCP test conditions.
This paper focuses on the latest FAA-COE research at the Uni-
versity of Illinois on stress rotations caused by moving wheel loads
and their effects on the permanent deformation or rut accumulation
in pavement granular layers. After establishing a theoretical frame-
work to consider both compression- and extension-type rotating stress
states and shear stress reversals, field evidence is presented on the sig-
nificant impact of actual traffic loading on airport pavement unbound
base and subbase rutting performances. Next, results from various
laboratory research studies are used to develop permanent deforma-
tion prediction models with proper combinations of variables account-
ing for the various static and dynamic stress states and stress path
42 Transportation Research Record 1913

slopes. Finally, the actual extension–compression–extension type of pressure is also cycled in phase with the axial deviator stress and
stress sequence observed in an approaching and departing wheel is (b) the axial specimen deformations are generally larger because
simulated in laboratory testing as applied by an aircraft wheel on an of the lack of a constant all-around confinement on the specimen.
actual airport pavement granular base material. The permanent strains To apply different cyclic stress paths, the VCP tests are currently
obtained from such a loading condition are compared with those of a performed on granular materials in several European laboratories as
compression only loading to better contrast and understand the effects the standard test procedure for determining resilient modulus input
of moving wheel loads on field rutting accumulations at different property needed for mechanistic based pavement design (CEN STD
compaction levels. EN 13286-7).
Figure 2 illustrates that moving wheel loading or actual trafficking
is more damaging to a pavement system than running a repeated plate
FIELD AND LABORATORY STRESS STATES loading test on the same pavement system based on accelerated load-
ing tests carried out at the University of Nottingham in the United
Considering the stress regimes typically induced by a moving wheel
Kingdom since 1974 (1). Brown and Brodrick (1) also indicated that
load, pavement elements experience various combinations of hori-
bidirectional loading causes more severe permanent deformation
zontal (σh), vertical (σv), and shear (τ), stresses as shown in Figure 1
development when shear stress reversals caused by oscillating wheel
and reported by several researchers dealing with full-scale pavement
loads are considered. Similar findings were reported from a recent
test studies (1, 2, 4–6). The reversal of shear stress also takes place
full-scale pavement experiment undertaken in France to study the
when the wheel moves in the opposite direction, as indicated in
behavior and performances of unbound granular materials, such as
Figure 1 with dashed lines for the negative shear (−τ) stress. This is
pavement granular layers (2). The permanent strains accumulated in
often realized in the field under the application of bidirectional traffic.
the granular layers under moving wheel loading were approximately
As a result of continuous change in both magnitudes and directions
three times as large as those under cyclic plate loads.
of applied stresses and rotation of shear stresses, the most critical
An evaluation of permanent deformation in the laboratory should
pavement loading conditions may not occur only when the wheel is
consider varying the number of load repetitions, applied stress states,
directly on top. The best approach would be to consider both the
and applied shear stress ratios as a minimum. In triaxial conditions,
approaching and departing wheel loads both in unidirectional and
the specimen permanent deformations have been adequately obtained
bidirectional traffic for a comprehensive study of the most damaging
from the test data when both the mean pressure p = (σ1 + 2σ3)/3 and
loading conditions that would possibly result in reduced pavement
the deviator (shear) stress q = (σ1 − σ3) are included in the material
layer stiffnesses or increased permanent deformation accumulation
characterization (7, 8). The effects of stress path loading and princi-
under moving wheel loads. In Figure 1 the stress regime stays the
pal stress rotations under moving wheels are important to investigate
same only when the wheel load is always in the same location, for
in the laboratory for a better and more comprehensive understanding
example, directly above the pavement element as in the constant
of the complex permanent deformation behavior.
confining pressure (CCP) test conditions in the laboratory. This type
The concept of stress path loading related to stress path slope (m)
of loading with continuously changing stress fields cannot be ideally
and stress path length (L) is illustrated on a q–p diagram in Figure 3.
simulated in the laboratory by the CCP-type repeated load triaxial
Static overburden stresses correspond to qmin and pmin. Dynamic traf-
tests, which have been commonly used in the United States since late
fic load reaches up to qmax and pmax following a constant stress path
1960s and recognized as the standard procedure (AASHTO T307-99).
slope m. Analyses of test data often require defining geomaterial
The VCP repeated load triaxial tests, conversely, offer much wider
behavior in terms of these principal stresses considering a mean nor-
loading possibilities by better simulating actual field conditions,
mal stress component ( p) influencing volume change and the devi-
because in the pavement structure, the confining stress acting on
ator stress component (q) affecting shear behavior for shape change
the material is cyclic in nature. The inherent differences between the
and distortion.
CCP and VCP tests are such that in the VCP tests (a) the confining
In general, the stress path slope m for the standard CCP tests, such
as the AASHTO T307-99 (5), takes a constant value of 3.0. For VCP
tests, the stress slope varies generally from −1.5 to 3. VCP tests offer
the capability to apply a wide combination of stress paths by puls-
Moving wheel load ing both cell pressure, σ3, and vertical deviator stress, σd. Various
x stress paths cause different loading effects on pavement elements,
Stresses
which are not yet fully studied and understood to explain permanent
σv deformation accumulation.
Vertical stress τ -τ
Extension
Extension
σh MATERIAL TESTING
Horizontal Time
stress Materials

-τ τ The FAA-specified granular base and subbase materials P209 and

z Typical pavement P154, both crushed aggregate, were selected for permanent defor-
element
mation testing using the advanced repeated load triaxial test device
UI-FastCell and for studying the effects of moving wheel load on
FIGURE 1 Stress regimes experienced by pavement element permanent deformation behavior. The material properties of P209 and
under moving wheel load. P154 FAA base and subbase granular materials follow:
Kim and Tutumluer 43

Horizontal distance: mm

100 50 0 50 100
Wheel load
0 Repeated
vertical load
10

20

30

40
(a)
Vertical distance: mm

10

20

30

48
(b)

Wheel load
Type 1 grading
0 Repeated
Optimum grading
vertical load

20

40

60
(c)

FIGURE 2 Comparisons of wheel loading and repeated plate loading for field rutting
performance (1).

AASHTO ASTM
Classification Classification
Deviator Stress, q
P209 (FAA base A-1-a GP-GM (poorly graded
course material) gravel with silt)
q P154 (FAA subbase A-1-b SW-SM (well graded
max
course material) sand with silt)

Figure 4 shows the gradation curves for the P209 and P154 granular
L
materials used in FAA’s NAPTF unbound base and subbase courses.
m
Advanced Laboratory Test Program
1
q
min Four stress path tests were conducted on the crushed aggregate sam-
ples for the selected constant stress path slopes. Figure 5 presents the
CCP and VCP stress path slopes of the stress path–testing program
that the specimens were subjected to at four different confining pres-
p
min p
max sures σ3 = p0. Table 1 lists the stress states applied on the specimens
to evaluate the effects of applied stress states and stress path load-
Me Normal Stress, p
Mean
ings on the permanent deformation accumulation. A total of 52 tests
FIGURE 3 Concept of stress path loading showing slope (m) and were carried out on each of the P154 and P209 aggregates for the
length (L). combined CCP and VCP test program. After the overall static confin-
44 Transportation Research Record 1913

100 q Compression
CCP 1

re
P154 σ3d = 0

ailu
P209

tic f
VCP 1
80 σ5d = σ1d /4

Sta
3
1
3
Percent Passing

2 VCP 2
60 σ3d = σ1d

p0 p
1
40
-1

VCP 3
σ1d = σ3d /4
20

-q Extension

FIGURE 5 Constant slope stress path

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 tests considered.
Sieve Sizes (mm)

FIGURE 4 Gradation curves for FAA’s P209 and P154 crushed
aggregate materials.
ing pressure σ3 = p0 was applied on the specimen, permanent defor-
mation testing was conducted by (a) pulsing only in the vertical (σ1d )
direction for the CCP1 compression test and (b) pulsing both in the
vertical (σ1d ) and radial (σ3d ) directions for the VCP1, VCP2, and
VCP3 compression and extension tests (see Figure 5).
INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS
Effects of Stress Ratio and Stress Path Slope
The applied stress ratio (σ1/σ3 or total vertical to horizontal stress) at
which the test is performed in the laboratory affects the accumula-
tion of permanent deformation. Considering field conditions, stress
ratios higher than 6 are often encountered in a granular pavement
layer at the centerline loading. To simulate stress states in the field
realistically, a proper test procedure for determining rutting poten-
tial of an aggregate material should consider such high ratios in lab-
oratory testing. Figure 6 illustrates this phenomenon. As the stress
ratio was increased during testing, the rate of accumulation of the axial
permanent strain also increased. A higher stress ratio implies a higher
shear stress state on the specimen thus approaching the material’s
strength or static failure. This often leads to further shakedown
critical to excessive permanent deformation and possible unstable
behavior in the base and subbase layers.
Figures 7a and 7b show the effect of varying stress path slopes on
axial permanent strain accumulation tested at two confining pressures,
σ3 = 20.7 and 55.2 kPa, respectively. As the stress path slope increases
from m = −1 to 3 (a switch from extension to compression loading

TABLE 1 Selected Stress States and Laboratory Testing Program for FAA’s NAPTF Aggregates

Constant Confining
Pressure (CCP) Tests Variable Confining Pressure (VCP) Tests

Stress Path Slope (m) = 3 Stress Path Slope (m) = 1.5 Stress Path Slope (m) = −1
(compression states) (compression states) Stress Path Slope (m) = 0 (extension states)

σ3 (kPa) σ1d (kPa) σ3d (kPa) σ3 (kPa) σ1d (kPa) σ3d (kPa) σ3 (kPa) σ1d (kPa) σ3d (kPa) σ3 (kPa) σ1d (kPa) σ3d (kPa)

20.7 62.1 0 20.7 72.73 18.15 20.7 65.55 65.55 20.7 15.46 61.82
20.7 103.5 0 20.7 120.96 30.22 20.7 109.02 109.02 20.7 25.67 102.81
20.7 114.9 0 20.7 169.19 42.30 20.7 152.49 152.49 20.7 35.95 143.80
20.7 186.3 0 20.7 218.18 54.51 20.7 196.65 196.65 20.7 46.37 185.40
34.5 103.5 0 34.5 120.96 30.22 34.5 109.02 109.02 34.5 25.67 102.81
34.5 172.5 0 34.5 202.10 50.51 34.5 182.16 182.16 34.5 42.92 171.74
34.5 241.5 0 34.5 282.49 70.59 34.5 254.61 254.61 34.5 60.03 240.05
34.5 310.5 0 34.5 362.87 90.74 34.5 327.06 327.06 34.5 77.07 308.36
55.2 165.6 0 55.2 193.68 48.44 55.2 174.57 174.57 55.2 41.12 164.57
55.2 276.0 0 55.2 323.06 80.73 55.2 291.18 291.18 55.2 68.66 274.55
55.2 386.4 0 55.2 451.61 112.88 55.2 407.10 407.10 55.2 95.98 383.85
69.0 207.0 0 69.0 241.91 60.44 69.0 218.04 218.04 69.0 51.41 205.55
69.0 345.0 0 69.0 403.44 100.88 69.0 363.63 363.63 69.0 85.70 342.86
 1.20
Stress Ratio (σ1/σ3 = 4)
Stress Ratio (σ1/σ3 = 6)
1.00
Stress Ratio (σ1/σ3 = 8)

Axial Permanent Strain, %

Stress Ratio (σ1/σ3 = 10)
0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Deviator Stress, kPa

FIGURE 6 Effect of stress ratio (
1 /
3 ) on permanent deformation

accumulation.

1.50
Stress Path Slope = 3.0
1.30
Stress Path Slope = 1.5
1.10 Stress Path Slope = 0.0
Axial Permanent Strain, %

Stress Path Slope = -1.0

0.90

0.70

0.50

0.30

0.10

-0.10
1 10 100 1000 10000
-0.30
No. of Load Repetitions
(a)

1.50
Stress Path Slope = 3.0
1.30 Stress Path Slope = 1.5
Stress Path Slope = 0.0
1.10
Stress Path Slope = -1.0
Axial Permanent Strain, %

0.90

0.70

0.50

0.30

0.10

-0.10
1 50 100 1000 10000
-0.30
No. of Load Repetitions
(b)

FIGURE 7 Variation of plastic strain with number of load repetitions:

(a) 20.7 kPa and (b) 55.2 kPa confining pressure.
46 Transportation Research Record 1913

conditions simulating an approaching wheel load to a pavement ele- TABLE 3 Correlation Coefficients (R 2 Values) Indicating
ment of interest), it is clearly observed that the accumulation of per- Permanent Strain Model Performances
manent strain increases. This result may indicate that the loading from
R2 Values for Stress Path Slope (m)
directly under the wheel, simulated by a stress path slope m = 3, will
R2 Values
cause the greatest accumulation of vertical permanent deformations, Model No. for All Data m = −1 m=0 m = 1.5 m=3
although one should also analyze effects of a complete wheel pass
and related continuously changing (rotating) stress states. P209 FAA base material
1 0.02 0.17 0.11 0.16 0.12
2 0.56 0.24 0.70 0.47 0.86
Permanent Deformation Model Development 3 0.41 0.42 0.72 0.32 —
4 0.80 0.38 0.78 0.53 —
On the basis of the experimental data obtained from the laboratory test
5 0.05 0.41 0.71 0.50 0.84
program, seven different models—accounting for static confining
6 0.73 — — — —
pressure (σs), dynamic stresses in both axial (σ1d ), and radial (σ3d )
directions; stress path length (L); stress path slope (m); and number 7 0.86 — — — —
of load applications (N), shown in Table 2—were studied, and the P154 FAA subbase material
model performances were compared to predict the axial permanent 1 0.02 0.05 0.35 0.03 0.04
strain (
p) behavior of the P209 and P154 base and subbase materials. 2 0.46 0.62 0.53 0.32 0.78
Because of the complex loading regimes followed especially in VCP 3 0.16 0.44 0.52 0.34 —
testing, models had to be analyzed simultaneously with the static and 4 0.60 0.62 0.53 0.35 —
dynamic components of the applied stresses. Although Models 1 to 5 5 0.02 0.42 0.53 0.32 0.79
(see Table 2) can be applied only to individual test data to predict 6 0.60 — — — —
permanent strain accumulation with number of load applications, 7 0.65 — — — —
Models 6 and 7 can use the complete database from all the CCP and
VCP tests with the stress path slope m included as an additional vari-
able with values ranging from −1 to 3. Even for the cases of not con-
sidered horizontal pulsing only (m = −1.5) and pure shear loading and 1.5. Nevertheless, Models 6 and 7, which properly account for
(∆p = 0) with a vertical slope (m = ∞), Models 6 and 7 can predict per- the various static and dynamic stress states and stress path loading
manent strain accumulation with the term in the parentheses varying conditions, gave relatively high R2 on all data. This result is indeed a
from 32.6 to 1 for m = −1.5 to ∞. promising finding in that such models can predict granular material
All models were applied to five different testing data sets. Four permanent deformation accumulation with satisfactory performance
of them had stress path slopes, −1, 0, 1.5, and 3, respectively, and the using approximate stress states applied in the granular layer and
fifth data set contained all four data sets combined. Table 3 lists whether or not these stresses are because of a stationary loading or
the regression correlation coefficients (R2) achieved from using moving wheel loading with stress rotations.
these five data sets. The R2 values for m = −1 were in general the The use of the permanent strain models, given in Tables 2 and 3,
lowest possible because of the high noise and fluctuations in the developed from the laboratory test results require validation and cal-
recorded triaxial data. The best model performances were obtained ibration with actual field rut measurements. Such field data on the
for the m = 3 CCP tests resulting in the highest R2 values. In general, performances of the P209/P154 granular layers are currently available
Model 4, accounting for both static and dynamic stresses in both from FAA’s NAPTF flexible pavement test sections. Ongoing research
axial and radial directions, showed better correlations than those efforts are focused on the validation and calibration activities using
achieved from other models using only single dynamic stress (either the NAPTF field data (6 ).
axial or radial dynamic stress) or no dynamic stress for both P209 and
P154 materials. Rather low regression correlation values (R2), around
Effects of Actual Wheel Pass and Different
0.5, were obtained for the intermediate stress path slopes, m = −1
Layer Compactive Efforts

According to the FAA NAPTF full-scale test data obtained and ana-
TABLE 2 Permanent Strain Models Studied lyzed at FAA-COE, the pavement element experiences both exten-
for FAA’s NAPTF Base and Subbase Aggregates sion and compression loadings caused by one pass of the slow moving
wheels. This is illustrated in Figure 8 on a q–p stress plot showing
Model 1
p = a
σ bs
Nc
the changes in the horizontal (σh) and vertical (σv) subgrade stresses.
Model 2
p = a
σ bs
σ1d
c

Nd
The loading was applied with a dual-wheel gear, and the subgrade
Model 3
p = a
σ s
σ3d
Nd
b c
stresses were measured from pressure cells either directly under a
Model 4
p = a
σ bs
σ1d
c

σ d3d
Ne wheel or in the middle of the dual wheels. Stress path loading cycles
Model 5
p = a
σ s
L
Nd
b c
similar to those shown in Figure 8 were reported to exist under
1 d

p = a
σbs
Nc
1 + m 
moving wheels in an earlier U.S. Army Corps of Engineers study by
Model 6
10 Ledbetter (5). Therefore, to properly simulate the dynamic nature of
1 e such aircraft gear loading induced by actual rolling of the wheels, a
Model 7
p = a
σ bs
Lc
Nd
1 + m 
10 stress path loading with extension–compression–extension stress states
needs to be applied on granular specimens. To accomplish this, the
a, b, c, d, and e: regression parameters extension and compression loading regimes for each of the approach-
 Kim and Tutumluer 47

Dual Gear TO#1–Traffic Path North pavement element as the wheel approaches. During Stage A, the
Dual Gear TO#1–Traffic Path South magnitude of horizontal wheel load stresses is higher than that of
Dual Gear TO#2–Traffic Path North the vertical ones corresponding to extension states, whereas the mag-
Dual Gear TO#2–Traffic Path South
nitude of vertical wheel load stresses becomes higher than that of
70 the horizontal ones during Stage B corresponding to compression
Compression
Compression states. In what follows, the unloading Stages C and D indicate a
q* = (σv – σh ), kPa

decrease in stresses experienced by the pavement element as the

0 a single wheel pass are indicated in Figure 9 in tabular arrange-
70
Extension
Extension
-14
P* = (2 x σh + σv) / 3, kPa
FIGURE 8 Actual rolling wheel stress paths from FAA’s NAPTF.
ing and departing moving load combinations must be controlled by
switching stresses on the specimen.
Figure 9 properly depicts the representation of a single pass,
approaching and departing, moving wheel causing an extension–
compression–extension multiple stress path loading felt by a pave-
ment element. Four distinct loading regimes for this single pass mov-
ing wheel can be identified as Stages A, B, C, and D. The loading
Stages A and B indicate an increase in stresses experienced by the
wheel departs. Likewise, during Stage C, the magnitude of vertical
wheel load stresses are higher than the horizontal ones corresponding
to compression states, whereas the magnitude of horizontal wheel
load stresses becomes higher than that of the vertical ones during
Stage D, corresponding to extension states.
The typical stress states felt by a pavement element because of
ments. The dynamic stresses, denoted with a subscript “d,” are in
general caused by the moving wheel load effects, whereas the ver-
tical (direction 1) and horizontal (direction 3) stresses denoted with
a subscript “s” correspond to the static overburden stresses that do
not change because of the wheel loading. These static stresses simply
become the initial stress conditions when the dynamic stresses are
applied in repeated loading in the multiple stress path tests for any
one of the parts from A to D. According to the location of the moving
wheel relative to the pavement element analyzed, each part is supposed
to have different stress states and stress path slopes (∆q/∆p = −1
for parts A and D and −3 for parts B and C) as shown in the tabular
arrangements in Figure 9.
The extension–compression–extension combinations tested at
four different stress states were repeated in some cases for up to
40,000 load cycles, and the results were compared with those main-

A B C D

σ1d σ1d σ1d σ1d

σ3d σ3d σ3d σ3d

σ1d < σ3d σ3d << σ1d Unload Unload

Stress States for Multiple Path Test p-q States for Multiple Path Test
(kPa) (kPa)
Part σ1s σ3s σ1d σ5d Slope Part pmin qmin pmax qmax
A 34.5 34.5 17.6 70.6 -1
Vertical stress A 34.5 0.0 87.4 -52.9
B 52.1 105.0 264.4 0.0 3 (σ1s + σ1d) B 87.4 -52.9 175.5 211.5
C 316.5 105.0 -264.4 0.0 3 C 175.5 211.5 87.4 -52.9
D 52.1 105.0 -17.6 -70.6 -1 D 87.4 -52.9 34.5 0.0

Horizontal stress
(σ3s + σ3d)
Shear stress
q q
z

Single path test

B
C
p p
A
Multiple path
D
test

FIGURE 9 Concept map of multiple stress path tests compared with single path tests.
48 Transportation Research Record 1913

taining only one compression type single stress path (with a slope of
∆q/∆p = −1.5) until the end of test, as illustrated in Figure 9. The
resulting specimen deformations were then compared as obtained
from a multiple path loading cycle and the compression only type
single path loading.
This test program (Figure 9), which simulates field stresses under
a moving wheel, was performed with the P154 FAA subbase spec-
imens compacted at different efforts (100%, 95%, 90%, and 85%)
to account for the effect of compaction levels and moving wheel
loads on permanent deformation behavior at the same time. The level
of compaction achieved during construction directly and critically
affects the response and performance of these granular layers. Hav-
ing a soft subgrade soil underneath the constructed aggregate layer,
for example, often presents difficulties in achieving the sufficient
degree of compaction.
Figures 10a, 10b, and 10c illustrate the effects of various com-
pactive efforts (85%, 90%, 95%, and 100% of the modified Proctor)
on the measured P154 permanent strains as obtained from the single
and multiple path test procedures for up to 40,000 load cycles. The
stress states applied are tabulated in Figure 9. The axial (
1), volu-
metric (
v =
1 + 2
3), and shear or deviatoric [
q = 2⁄3(
1 −
3)] strains
measured from both the single and multiple stress path tests are
plotted individually in Figures 10a, 10b, and 10c for comparison pur-
poses. As expected, the permanent strains grow rapidly as the com-
paction effort decreases.
The multiple stress path tests, in general, gave much higher per-
manent strains than the single path tests. The highest axial and vol-
umetric strains were measured at the 85% compaction for up to a
fourfold increase in permanent strains from the 100% compaction level
(see Figures 10a and 10b). For the deviatoric strains, this increase
in going from 85% to 100% compaction is even more dramatic and
in fact, quite substantial (Figure 10c). The rather low axial (
1) strains
measured did not adequately reveal any clear distinguishable trends in
the applied test procedure and the degree of compaction (Figure 10a).
However, the radial strains (
3), and therefore the volumetric (or
deviatoric) strains, much larger in magnitude than the axial strains,
rapidly increased with a decrease in the degree of compaction fol-
lowing the multiple path test procedure. These large volumetric and
deviatoric strains can be typically linked to the increased amounts
of shearing and continuous horizontal movement or heave of the
pavement materials in the transverse directions, which was typically
observed during trafficking of FAA’s NAPTF pavement test sections
when the aircraft gear loading was applied with a wander pattern (6).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Recent pavement studies have shown that actual traffic loading of
field pavement test sections indicated increased amounts of permanent
deformation or rutting in pavement granular base and subbase layers

1.8 14
1.6
12
1.4
Volumetric Strain, %
Vertical Strain, %

10
1.2
1 8
0.8 6
0.6
4
0.4
0.2 2

0 0
0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
No. of Load Repetitions No. of Load Repetitions
(a) (b)

1
0.5
0
Deviatoric Strain, %

-0.5
100% multi path 100% single path
-1 95% multi path 95% single path
90% multi path 90% single path
-1.5 85% multi path 85% single path
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
0 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
No. of Load Repetitions
(c)

FIGURE 10 FAA P154 aggregate permanent strains obtained from single and multiple stress path tests at various
compaction levels: (a) permanent axial strain accumulation, (b) permanent volumetric strain accumulation, and (c)
permanent deviatoric strain accumulation.
Kim and Tutumluer
when compared with those from repeated plate loadings. Considering
that the pavement in the field is typically loaded by moving wheel
loads, varying magnitudes of vertical, horizontal, and shear stresses
are imposed at any time on the pavement accompanied by rotation
of the principal stresses. This type of loading can be simulated only
in the laboratory by the VCP-type advanced stress path tests, which
are often not conducted as part of the standard tests for pavement
materials characterization. To account for the most damaging field
loading condition that would cause the highest permanent deforma-
tions or rut accumulations, it is therefore important to accurately
apply the dynamic nature of field stress states on laboratory specimens.
Permanent deformation characterization models were developed
from triaxial test data generated from VCP-type stress path tests. The
tests were conducted by combining various initial static and wheel
loading dynamic stress states applied at different stress path slopes.
Because of the complex loading regimes followed in the laboratory
tests, characterization models that simultaneously analyzed the static
and dynamic components of the applied mean and deviator stresses
and included the stress path slope term produced a high degree of
accuracy. This implied that geomaterial characterization models that
can account for stress path slopes also could describe the variations
of the permanent deformation accumulations under various stress
path loadings with high accuracy.
In accordance with the findings of recent field studies, the
extension–compression–extension rotating stress states measured in
the field under an approaching and departing wheel were adequately
applied on laboratory specimens in the so-called multiple stress path
tests. Two different test procedures—single compression path and
multiple stress path—were followed for comparison purposes to sim-
ulate the repeated plate loading stationary and moving wheel load
conditions, respectively. Both the volumetric and deviatoric or shear
strains obtained from the multiple stress path tests were consistently
higher than those from the single path tests. This finding was in accor-
dance with the previous field results that indicated up to three times
higher permanent deformations observed under moving wheel load
conditions when compared with those obtained from plate loading (2).
The effects of various compactive efforts—85%, 90%, 95%, and
100% of the modified Proctor maximum density—on the measured
granular material permanent strains were also more significant in the
multiple path tests. The permanent strains typically grew rapidly as
the compaction effort decreased. The rates at which the volumetric
and shear strains accumulated in the multiple path tests were so much
higher than those in the single path tests, indicating that the multiple
stress path (or actual field moving wheel) loading can in fact cause
significantly higher permanent deformations or damage especially
in the somewhat loose base and subbase layers. In accordance with
the findings of this ongoing research study, the multiple stress path
49
tests should be conducted more often in the laboratory for a more
accurate evaluation of the rutting potentials of these granular layers
in the field.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper was prepared from a study conducted at the Center of
Excellence for Airport Technology. Funding for the center is pro-
vided in part by FAA. The center is maintained at the University of
Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in partnership with Northwestern
University and FAA.
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The contents of this paper reflect the views of the authors who are responsible for
the facts and accuracy of the data presented here. The contents do not necessarily
reflect the official views and policies of the Federal Aviation Administration.
This paper does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.
The Mineral Aggregates Committee sponsored publication of this paper.